1

THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN AFRICAN CONFLICTS: THE CASES OF NIGERIA AND SUDAN CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION

Religion is a controversial issue in world affairs. Especially in Africa, religion has been at the heart of much of the contemporary conflicts. Religion is often depicted as a trigger factor in many conflicts. Religion is also often being blamed as a tool to mobilise people during conflicts. world !eople are sensitive about religion because religion forms part of an individuals" identity. Religion is not only an integrated part of individual identities, but it is also important for group identity Religion and nationalism goes hand in hand. 1 The #cottish, Russians, $ews, %ormons and Afri&aners all at some time argued that they are '(ods people). * Religion is at the heart of a community"s value system in most parts of the world, so people who practice a different religion are easily labelled as worthless. + A threat to one"s beliefs is also a threat to one"s very being and that is why people are willing to fight for their religious beliefs. Religion is a glue that can bind and unify a nation or a group of people, or it can lead to the destruction of nations as well as lead to intra,state conflicts. The relationship between religion and conflict is a complex one, and one need to ta&e into consideration many factors before one can argue that religion is the main cause of conflict. -aith ma&e people feel safe, because they can predict what is going to happen in the future .especially in the afterlife/. %ost religions teach that war is wrong and that violence must only be used as a last resort. The religious scripts give guidelines on when it is 0ust to use violence, but people can interpret these scripts in different ways. 1ne can as& the 2uestion3 #o why is religion a factor in war at all when all the main faiths have little time for violence and advocate peace In many parts of the world people from different religions live in peace and coexist without any conflict. Then why is religion such a great cause of conflict in other parts of the

1
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4ellas, (.4. 1556. The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity, (2nd edition). 7ondon3 %acmillan !ress 7td. p. 81. Ibid, p. ++. 3 (oldstein, $.#. 1559. International Relations. :ew ;or&33 <arper=ollins =ollege !ublishers. p. 1>5.

* 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research problem stems from the idea that fault lines in religion may lead to conflict. In this case religion,based fault lines may create conflict generating conditions. <owever is religious difference a cause of conflicts, or merely a character of the conflict an instrument used to mobilise the population for conflict 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION The research The research 1r is religion

The research 2uestion is a deduction from the research problem above. 2uestion is3 ?hat role does religion play in the conflicts in #udan and :igeria

2uestion will be answered by examining the conflicts in the selected case studies. 1.4 THE PURPOSE AND SIGNFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

The African continent has been plagued by conflict for many years and a large proportion of the conflict is claimed to be the result of fault lines in religion. The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between religion and conflict in the case of #udan and :igeria. The significance of this research is that the role of religion in conflict has been studied widely, but not enough is written about the religious conflicts in Africa. This research will focus on the cases of #udan and :igeria as examples of religious conflicts. This research will contribute to the understanding of religious,based African conflicts and as a result can aid in conflict resolution on the continent. =onflict is impeding the economic growth of both #udan and :igeria, so if the conflict can be resolved the countries may see an improvement in their economies. 1.5 OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE

The topic of religious conflict has been studied for many years, so there are an abundance of sources available on the topic. @nfortunately, not so much has been written on African religious conflicts. 7iterature regarding theories on religious conflicts includes <untington .1558/, #tewart .*AA5/, <offman .155+/ and Appleby .*AAA/. <ic&s .*AA1/, 4riesberg .*AA+/ and Turner .156*, 156>/ all contributed to literature on identity and identity theories. (ellner .1568/ provided literature on nations and nationalism which plays an important role in identity building. <orowitB .156>/ and :oel .1586/ wrote articles on ethnicity and how it contributes to religious conflicts.

1n the topic of :igeria and the culture of the :igerian people, Toyin -alola .1555, *AA>, *AAC/ is regarded as one of the leading experts. %artin %eridith .*AA>/ is also considered to be an expert on African issues and he has included interesting wor& on :igeria in some of his boo&s. There are also research centres li&e the =entre for Research and Ine2uality <uman #ecurity and Ethnicity with authors such as 1saghae, E.E. D R. T. #uberu .*AA>/ and the Institute for Eemocracy and Electoral Assistance IEEA who did studies on :igeria and the conflicts pertaining to :igeria. #ome of the academic 0ournals that have published articles on :igeria"s conflicts include the Journal of Modern Studies .@&iwo, *AA+/, !nthro"olo#y .Aguwa, 155C/ and !frican Issue .Eauda, *AA1/. ?ith regards to literature on the #udanese conflicts there are number of :on (overnmental 1rganisations .:(1s/ li&e the =rimes of ?ar !ro0ect, #tifftung ?issenschaft und !oliti& (erman Institute for International and #ecurity Affairs .#ullivan, *AA8/, The African #tudies =entre at the @niversity of 7eiden .%ax, 15C5/ and the !eace and =onflict %onitor .4atende&o, *AA+/ that has done research on the conflicts in #udan. A number of academic 0ournals such as the Journal of Reli#ion, $onflict and !eace .?adlow, *AA6/, Journal of International !ffairs .Eeng, 1559/ and the Journal of Reli#ion in !frica .?ills, *AA+/ has published articles on wars in #udan. Ealy .*AAC/ can be regarded as an authoritative source on the Earfur conflict. The above mentioned sources together with others will be used during the research. @nfortunately some of the sources that could have contributed to the study are written in Arabic or other African languages, so they are inaccessible to the author. As a result only English sources will be used to conduct the research. 1.6 METHODOLOGY ialetical

The study is 2ualitative and mainly descriptive. It will be based on a literature study and available factual data. The study investigates the role that religion played in two African conflicts as selected case studies. A state,centric approach will be followed and the units of analysis will be :igeria and #udan. Religion will serve as the variable to be studied. ?here applicable comparative insights gleaned from the case studies will be shared with the reader. #pecific 2ualitative measures such as scheduled interviews, 2uestionnaires and field research will not be used during the research. 1nly secondary sources will be used during the research. Interviews and surveys cannot be used during the research, because the

9 researcher does not have any understanding of the Arabic language and lac& the financial resources to operationalise such a methodology. 1. STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER

The first chapter of the paper will deal with the introduction of the research. It will contain the research problem and the research 2uestion. The purpose and significance of the study will also be explained in this chapter. The methodology to be used during the research will be further clarified to the reader. The first chapter will end with a brief conclusion. =hapter two of the paper will explore selected theories on the topic of religious warfare. -irstly the theory on identity will be explored, because religion is an integral part of a person"s identity. The theory will also contain information on identity wars, because religious wars are also identity wars. Theory on ethnicity will also be discussed seeing that religion and ethnicity is intertwined. The last part of this chapter will explore fault lines and the emphasis will be on <untington"s $lash of $i%ili&ations. The third chapter will investigate historical instances of religious conflict in order to get a bac&ground understanding of the topic. The historical era"s that will be investigated are the =rusades, the Arab,Israeli conflict and the 5F11 attac& on America. These cases will also show how religious warfare has persisted throughout the past and present. This chapter will also deal with trends in religious conflict by describing some of the causes and characteristics of religious wars. =hapter four is the main part of the paper and will deal with the selected case studies. In this chapter it will be determined what role religion played in the conflicts. The paper only focuses on the era after independence of both the countries. #ome of the issues that will be discussed in this chapter are the arrival of Islam and =hristianity to the selected countries, as well as the geographic locations of the two religious factions in the countries. The paper will also explore the various conflicts and whether they were really religious conflicts, or whether religion was 0ust one element of the conflict. The last chapter of the paper will give a brief summary of each chapter. The paper will end with a conclusion on the research done.

> 1.! CONCLUSION

Religion provides an encompassing world view to its followers and serves as a rationale for their activities. Every religion want the rest of the world to have the same beliefs as they have, so religion is about changing people"s minds to believe the same as what the religion belief. Religious conflict brea&s out when preaching to the 'non),believers failed and some members of the religion ta&e it in their hands to force the non believers to follow their religion. Religion can also be used to mobilise ethnic groups or racial identities and to ta&e control over scarce resources. This phenomenon had ta&en place all over the world for ages and will probably still continue for ages. 1ne will also find that in much of the conflict that too& place in the name of religion, religion was 0ust a disguise. #ometimes the reasons for the conflict were economical or territorial, but religion was used to ma&e it a '0ust) war. The findings in this research paper will explore what role religion has played in the #udanese and :igerian conflicts. CHAPTER 2: THEORY ON RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 2.1 INTRODUCTION

#ince the beginning of time, man&ind had been caught up in countless conflicts. #ome conflicts arise as a result of scarcity of resources or over territory. 1ther conflicts are a result of differences between people, groups or nations. African conflicts are caused by a variety of factors, such ethnicity, race, resources and religion. -or the purpose of this paper, most of the focus will be on religion as a factor in conflict on the African continent. =onflict develops from ob0ective factors, sub0ective factors and trigger factors. 1b0ective factors are factors such as fighting for control over territory or resources. #ub0ective factors can be factors li&e religion, race, ethnicity or language. Trigger factors Gmay be instantaneous or act as a trigger .but in themselves they do not explain the causes of conflict/. These events may include political assassination, new enforced discriminatory policies, electoral fraud, or manifested in longstanding political and socio,economic structure of society."9

%panyane, T. *AA5. $onflict in !frica' enterin# the !#e of (o"e http3FFwww.africagoodnews.comFpluginsFsystemF0ceutilitiesF0sFmediaob0ect.0sH typeItextF0avascriptJKF#=RI!TJ .accessed 19 $anuary *A1A/.

Institute for #ecurity #tudies,

8 Religious conflict is a type of identity based conflict. Identity based conflict is conflict that arise as a result of differences in identity. Religion is also regarded as a subset of ethnicityL therefore some theory on ethnicity will also be discussed in this chapter. To classify a conflict as a religious conflict is a complex tas&. Academics li&e <offman and (urr is of the opinion that many conflicts which are classified as religious conflicts are not actually religious conflicts. They base their argument on the fact that in many cases, the root causes of conflict is either political or economical factors. > They argue that religion is 0ust a way of mobilising the people to participate in the conflict. 8 #tewart ta&es a different approach. #tewart"s approach is that

Gwhile all conflicts have several motives with political andFor economic ones
generally central, mobilisation fre2uently occurs on the basis of particular identities, and conflicts can then be classified as Gethnic" or Greligious", or class or ideological, on the basis of ho) "eo"le are mo*ilised rather than with respect to the political or economic motives for such mobiliBation" C

Therefore #tewart and #eul6 agrees that a conflict can be classified as religious conflict if the main mobilising or organising identity is religion, irrespective if there are other real or Gunderlying motives and ob0ectives."5 2.2 IDENTITY

It is in the human nature to ma&e distinctions between the self and others. That is why humans have to establish their own identity. According to <ic&s, Gindividuals construct independent and different pictures of reality .whether the individuals be people or other entities that develop identity and formulate shared realities, such as families, wor&ing groups and teams, organisations, ethnic groups, nations, and cultures/."1A Almost everything that

<offman, M. 155+ NH<oly terrorH3 the implications of terrorism motivated by a religious imperativeN +orld)ide e"artment of efense $om*atin# Terrorism $onference, Oirginia Meach, OA and (urr, T. R. 155+ Minorities at ris,' a #lo*al %ie) of ethno"olitical conflicts, ?ashington E=3 Institute of !eace !ress. 6 #tewart, -., *AA5. Religion versus Ethnicity as a #ource of %obilisation3 Are There Eifferences , %I=R1=1: Research ?or&ing !aper 16, p. >. 7 #tewart, op cit, p. >. 8 #eul, $. R. 1555 NN1urs is the way of (odN3 religion, identity and intergroup conflictN, Journal of Peace Research +8.>/3 p>>+,>85. 9 #tewart, op cit, p. >. 10 <ic&s, T. Another 7oo& at Identity,Mased =onflict3 The Roots of =onflict in the !sychology of =onsciousness, Ne#otiation Journal, $anuary *AA1, p. +8.

C humans do helps to establish and maintain their sense of identity. <ic&s argued that without identity, humans would be unable to survive psychologically and socially. 11 :o person wants to thin& that everything they believe in is wrong and untrue. It is natural for a person to believe that their view of the world is accurate and true. That is why humans are comfortable around others who have the same views and identity as them. ?hen humans disagree with each other, they are directly 2uestioning each other"s identity. =hallenging someone else"s identity could lead to a violent reaction which could lead to identity based conflict.1* Religion is one of the cornerstones of a person"s identity. That is why people are so sensitive when someone challenges their religious beliefs. 2.2.1 I"#$%&%' ()*#" +,$-.&+%

<ic&s defined identity based conflicts as Gsocial conflicts .at both the national or group and the interpersonal levels/ that are based on ethnic, cultural, religious, or national,identity differences."1+ 1ne of the characteristics of identity based conflicts is that the participants in the conflict are very passionate about what they are fighting for. As a result, identity based conflicts had been some of the most fierce and violent conflicts that ever too& place. Another characteristic of identity based conflicts is that this type of conflicts is usually protracted. The reason for the protracted nature of identity based conflicts was mentioned earlier when the paper explained that no person would want to admit that their view of the world is wrong and false. In order for an inter,group .e.g., religions/ conflict to transpire, there must be at least two opponents with a difference sense of collective identity. 2.2.2 T/# $)%01# ,- &"#$%&%'

It is important for every individual human being to develop a sense of self. Every person"s self is a combination of different identifications such as race, gender, ethnicity and religion. These identifications are all necessary to create individual identity, but for the purpose of this paper, collective identity is more important. A collective identity can be defined as people who share a similar collective identity and they thin& of themselves as having a common interest and a common fate. 19 =ollective identities include the identities of countries, ethnic groups, language groups and religious groups.
11 12 13 14

Ibid. <ic&s, op cit, p. +C. Ibid, p. +6. 4riesberg, 7. '@s) vs 'Them), http3FFwww.beyondintractability.orgFessayFidentityPissues, .accessed $uly *AA+/.

6 According to 4riesberg, people who belong to collective identities, Gfeel in0ured when other persons sharing their identity are in0ured or &illed."1> In some instances, individuals are willing to sacrifice their lives in order to protect their collective identity. 2.2.3 S,01+#* ,- &"#$%&%'

There are many traits and experiences that can influence the development of identity. #ome of the traits are fixed at birth, which means that the traits will influence the development of the self from the birth of the individual. The individual is still too young to ma&e decisions, so the traits will automatically influence the development of the identity of the individual. #ome of the fixed traits include ethnicity, religion, gender, language and s&in colour.18 As people mature, they can ma&e decisions. Therefore other traits can be attained or the existing traits could be modified. #ome of the traits that can be changed as the individual mature are religion, language, or the food that the individual eat. As a result, the identity of the individual will change together with the new traits.1C 2.3 2.3.1 THEORIES OF IDENTITY T/# *,+&). &"#$%&%' %/#,1'

The #ocial Identity Theory was developed in 15C5 by Ta0fel and Turner. The theory was developed to understand the psychological basis of intergroup discrimination. 16 The #ocial Identity Theory proposes that membership to social groups forms an important part of an individual"s identity. Ta0fel and Turner argued that Gpeople tend to classify themselves and others into various social categories, such as organiBational membership, religious affiliation, gender, and age cohort."15 The #ocial Identity Theory asserts that a person has not one, 'personal self), but rather several selves that correspond to widening circles of group membership. Eifferent social

15 16

7. 4riesberg, op cit.

Mrewer, %. M. *AA1. The many faces of #ocial Identity3 Implications for !olitical !sychology. International Society of Political Psycholo#y. Ool **, :o1. p. 1**.
17 18

7. 4riesberg, op cit. Anon, #ocial Identity Theory, http3FFwww.tcw.utwente.nlFtheorieenoverBichtFTheoryQ*AclustersFIn .accessed 11 Eecember *AA5/. 19 Ta0fel, <., D Turner, $. =. .156>/ The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour, in #. ?orchel D ?. (. Austin .Eds.), Psycholo#y of inter#rou" relations .*nd ed./. =hicago3 :elson,<all. pp. C,*9.

5 contexts may trigger an individual to thin&, feel and act on basis of his personal, family or national 'level of self).*A Accordingly, an individual also has a number of social identities. According to the #ocial Identity Theory, members of a group create a sense of ingroup feelingL therefore they will favour their own group at the expense of other groups. =onse2uently the theory asserts that when an individual is interacting with someone else, they will not act as a single individual but they rather act as a representative of a whole group or category of people. Even during a single conversation an individual may interact with another person both on a personal level and as a member of a particular group.*1 In summary, the social identity theory purports that firstly Gsocial identification is a perception of oneness with a group of persons" **#econdly social identification involves the forming of ingroups and outgroups. Thirdly, Gsocial identification leads to activities that are congruent with the identity, support for institutions that embody the identity, stereotypical perceptions of self and others, and outcomes that traditionally are associated with group formation, and it reinforces the antecedents of identification."*+ 2.4 ETHNICITY AS A BUILDING BLOC2 OF IDENTITY

It is difficult to attach a specific definition to ethnicity or an ethnic group, because the word is used in many different contexts. Ethnicity is especially difficult to define in the African context. Ealey argued that literature on ethnicities in Africa has changed in recent years by becoming more diverse, as scholars, historians in particular, challenged the popular understanding of their primordial origins and shifted the debate to reveal the social construction of many groups under colonialism.*9 <orowitB defined ethnic groups as groups Gwhich are defined by ascriptive differences, whether the indicum is colour, appearance, language, religion, some other indicator of common origin, or some combination thereof"*> There are three main views on ethnicity as identity. The first view is ethnicity as a primordial identity. According to the primordial view,
20

Turner, $. =., 156*. Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In <. Ta0fel .ed./, Social Identity and Inter#rou" Relations. =ambridge3 =ambridge @niversity !ress. 21 <olah, %., #ocial Identity Theory, http3FFwww.psychexchange.co.u&FglossaryFsocial,identity,theory,9*1F .accessed 11 Eecember *AA5/. 22 Ashforth, M. E. and -. %ael, 1565. #ocial Identity Theory and the 1rganisation. Academy of %anagement Review, Ool 19, :o1, pp. *A,+5. 23 Ibid, p. *A. 24 Ealey, !. *AA8. Ethnicity and political violence in Africa3 The challenge to the Murundi state, Political -eo#ra"hy,Ool *> .*AA8/, pp. 8>C,8C5. 25 <orowitB, E. 156> Ethnic #rou"s in conflict. Mer&eley3 @niversity of =alifornia !ress. p.1C.

1A ethnicity is one of the earliest forms of group identity and that ethnic differences are unchangeable. The second view is that of ethnicity as an instrumental identity. This view holds that that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals. *8 The third view of ethnicity is ethnicity as a constructed identity. This view purports that ethnic identities are constructed through social interactions and that an individual"s ethnicity can be changed.*C 2.5 RELIGION AS A BUILDING BLOC2 OF IDENTITY

Religion is treated by many conflict analysts as a detachment of ethnicity. #tewart argued that religious organisations are usually stronger than ethnic organisations. Religious groups also receive more external support than ethnic organisations.
*6

As religion plays such an

important role in a person"s identity, it is important to understand the definition of religion. Appleby defined religion as Gthe human response to a reality perceived as sacred." *5 Religion may also refer to a Gformally organised community of faith", but can also refer to G"the beliefs and spirituality of individual members, subgroups, or movements operating at various psychological and social distances from the institution and the official custodians of the tradition."+A All religions have their established doctrine and principles, which followers of the religion must accept and obey without 2uestion. %any religions have almost similar doctrines, but then there are also religions which are exactly the opposite of each other. The fact that religions differ from each other leads to conflict, because the followers of every religion is convinced that their religion is the 'right) and the only true religion. 1ne of the problems with religion is that the scriptures are sometimes vague and people can interpret it differently depending on the time and context. Therefore different interpretations of religious scripture can also lead to conflict.+1 2.5.1 R#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+% %/#,1'

26 27

:oel, E. 7. .1586/. HA Theory of the 1rigin of Ethnic #tratificationH. Social Pro*lems 18 .*/3 pp.1>CR1C*. #tewart, op cit, p. C. 28 #tewart, op cit, p.1. 29 Appleby, R.#., *AAA, The !m*i%alence of the Sacred' Reli#ion, .iolence and Reconciliation. :ew ;or&3 Rowman D 7ittlefield !ublishers Inc, p. 6. 30 Ibid. 31 Mrahm, E., *AA>. Religion and =onflict, http3FFwww.beyondintractablility.orgFessayFreligionPand PconflictF nidI8C*> .accessed 11 Eecember *AA5/.

11 Religious conflict has been studied by scholars for many years. There are 9 types of

theories on religious conflict. The first type of theory usually loo&s at the nature of the religions and the ideologies around them. These types of theories argue that certain types of religions are more li&ely to cause conflicts than others. +* The second types of theories focus on the political, social and economical environment in which the religious conflicts occur. An example of such a theory is <untington"s =lash of =ivilisations theory. The third type of theories on religious conflict ta&es a structural approach to the relationship between religion and conflict. 4owalews&i and (reil are of the opinion that the structure of the relationship between religious and political elites determines the church"s involvement in conflict. ++ The fourth type is the Glaundry list" approach. This approach lists a number ways in which 'religion affects conflict but does not put them into a coherent conceptual framewor&.)+9 7ewy use the laundry list approach and list a number of ways in which religion can be used politically to start or maintain conflict.+> There are a variety of ways in which a religion can view war. 1ne of the views is the pacifist view. A religion that adopts the pacifist view beliefs that all violence and &illing is wrong and immoral. Another view that can be adopted by a religion is the belief in '0ust) wars. This means that it is believed that some wars are acceptable because they are in the interest of 0ustice. ?hen this view is adopted, the religion believes that the war must be conducted according to 0ust and morally accepted rules. A third view that a religion can adopt, is the belief in a <oly ?ar. In the Islam religion it is called a 0ihad. If a religion assume this view then they belief that their god command of them to ma&e war on the people who do not believe in their religion. They must also &ill everyone who poses a threat to their religion. +8 2.6 FAULTLINE WARS

1ne of <untington"s arguments on fault line wars is that during the course of the war, Gmultiple identities fade and the identity most meaningful in relation to the conflict comes to dominate. That identity is almost always is defined by religion." +C Therefore, religious wars can be classified as fault line wars. <untington described fault line wars as Gcommunal conflicts between states or groups from different civilisations." +6 -ault line wars can be between Gstates, between non,governmental groups, and between states and non,
32

-ox, -. 1555. Towards a dynamic theory of ethno,religious conflict. Nations and Nationalism, Ool >, :o 9. p. 9**. 33 4owalews&i, E. and A. 7. (reil. 155A. Religion as opiate3 religion as opiate in comparative perspective. Journal of $hurch and State, Ool +*, :o +. pp. >11,*8. 34 -ox, op cit, p. 9**. 35 7ewy, (. 15C9. Reli#ion and Re%olution. :ew ;or&3 1xford, cited in -ox, op cit, p. 9++. 36 Mrahm, op cit. 37 <untington, #.!. 1558. The $lash of $i%ili&ations and the Rema,in# of the +orld /rder . 7ondon3 Touchstone Moo&s, p. *>*. 38 Ibid, p. *8C.

1* governmental groups."+5 <untington further argued that fault line conflicts may involve groups that are located in geographically distinct areas or groups that are geographically intermixed. In some cases, fault line wars erupt as a result to obtain power over people. In other cases, the source of fault line wars is for control over territory. ?ars between religious entities have been prevalent in every era and in every civilisation because they are rooted in the identities of people. 9A As a result, these types of wars tend to be extremely bloody and prolonged. A military victory, by one side in an identity war could li&ely evolve to genocide. It is also difficult to negotiate peace in fault line wars, because fundamental issues of group identity are involved. In some cases of fault line wars, once peace agreements have been reached, violence could erupt at any time again, because not everyone who are affected by the conflict were satisfied by the peace agreements ta&en. Therefore, religious wars are rarely resolved. According to <untington, most identity wars will only be completely over once one of the groups have been completely removed from the face of the earth.91 CHAPTER THREE: HISTORICAL CASES OF RELIGIOUS WARFARE 3.1 INTRODUCTION

#urprisingly, violence and destruction had been part and parcel of religions from the biblical times. #ome of the 2uestions as&ed by scholars are GSwThy does religion seem to need violence, and violence religion, and why is a divine mandate for destruction accepted with such certainty by some believers "9* It started with the wars of Islamic expansion beginning in the Cth =entury, and then came the =rusades starting in the 11th =entury and the Reformation wars beginning in the 18th =entury/. 9+ %c Mride says that Roman =hristians have through the centuries murdered and massacred $ews and %uslims and pagans and !rotestants of all hues)99. These victims of the Roman =hristians retaliated and this led to centuries of religious conflict. #ome people also view the $ewish genocide in Europe during the #econd ?orld ?ar as a religious conflict. They base their argument on the fact that the :aBi"s was motivated to &ill the $ews, because of their religious beliefs. 9> In more recent times the %uslim faith also came under the spotlight because of renewed religious conflict.
39 40

Ibid, p. *>* Ibid. 41 <untington, op cit, p. *>+. 42 Appleby, op cit, p. C. 43 ?ooldridge, %. *AA9. =an religion be blamed for war , 00$ Ne)s, 21 2e*ruary 2331, http3FFnews.bbc.co.u&F*FhiFprogrammesFwtwtgodF+>1+CA5.stm .accessed 1* $anuary *A1A/. 44 %c Mride, $. *AA*. Religion in =onflict. http3FFwww.abcog.orgFnhFconflict.htm .accessed 1* $anuary *A1A/. 45 Ibid.

1+ #ome scholars will argue that the Ira2i invasion by the @nited #tates of America was also a religious war.98 3.1.1 THE CRUSADES

Arguably the most prominent conflict between religions is between the =hristian and Islamic faiths. This conflict already started with the =rusades of the middle Ages. The =rusades was a holy war conducted by =hristians under authority of the pope against the enemies of =hristianity. At first, only the expeditions to $erusalem and the area &nown as the <oly land .see figure 1/ were classified as crusades, but modern historians dubbed the campaigns against heretics, pagans and %uslims in Europe as =rusades as well. 9C The =rusades The began as a result of mistreatment of =hristians by the %uslims in the <oly land.

%uslims also threatened the MyBantine Empire, so Emperor Alexius as&ed !ope @rban II to help him to ward of the %uslim onslaught on =hristianity. !ope @rban II made a speech in which he urged =hristians to ta&e bac& the <oly land from the %uslims. The result was thousands of =hristians getting together to start the first =rusade to the <oly land.96

.-igure13%ap of the =rusades. http3FFwww.0esuschristsavior.netF=rusades.html .accessed 1* $anuary *A1A/. ?hat followed was almost two hundred years .1A5>AE , 1*51AE/ of fighting between the =hristians and %uslims in order for the =hristians to win bac& the <oly land. After that, more
46 47 48

?ooldridge, op cit. #nell, %. *AA5. =rusades Masics http3FFhistorymedren.about.com .accessed 1* $anuary *A1A/. Ibid.

19 =rusades followed into the late 1>AA"s. Eifferent historians have different opinions on how many =rusades there actually were. #ome historians argue that there were eight =rusades, whereas other historians say that the seventh and eight =rusades should be seen as one =rusade. <istorians might disagree on how many =rusades there were and the time span of the =rusades, but they agree that the =rusades were a time in history where many people were &illed in the name of religion. A more recent religious war is the Arab Israeli conflict. 3.1.2 T/# A1)(4I*1)#.& +,$-.&+%

According to the Israeli #cience and Technology Eirectory, the Arab :ations fre2uently present the Arab,Israeli conflict as a religious conflict of the %uslims against the so called infidel $ews.95 This website also argues that the Arab nations use religion as a tool to mobilise %uslims and non,%uslims against Israel. The conflict started in 159C and is still continuing until this day. The partitioning of the territory of !alestine ?est of the River $ordan by the @nited :ations (eneral Assembly on *5 :ovember 159C was the precipitating cause of the conflict. The $ews were ecstatic about the decision, but the Arabs felt that they have been wronged. The Arabs refused to accept the resolution and announced that they will fight the implementation of the partitioning.">A 1n the +Ath of :ovember 159C a bus carrying $ewish passengers were attac&ed and there were five $ewish casualties. This caused the $ewish population to ta&e up arms against Arab,!alestinians. <ence the Arab,Israeli conflict began. %ost of the fighting is based around religion and the possession of historically religious territory. %any Arabs believes that the creation of Israel is the main reason for the fighting in the %iddle East. The terrorist attac& on the Twin Towers in America can be seen as an extension of the Arab, Israeli conflict. The argument can be based on the fact that America is Israel"s most prominent supporter, so by attac&ing a building on American soil, the %uslim extremist sent a clear message to America and the world that they are willing to &ill many people in the name of Islam.

49

Anon. *A1A. Arab,Israeli =onflict3 Role of Religion. http3FFwww.science.co.ilFIsrael,info.asp .accessed 8 -ebruary *A1A/. 50 <erBog, =. *AA9. The !ra*4Israeli +ars' +ar and Peace in the Middle East. :ew ;or&' Ointage Moo&s. p. 11.

1> 3.1.3 5611 )$" 1#.&3&,0* %#11,1&*7

The terrorist attac& on the twin tower buildings or better &nown as the 5F11 attac& is still fresh in the memory of the world even though it happened almost ten years ago. This attac& can be seen as an eye opener. #ince the 5F11 attac& the world is much more aware of the war that is constantly ta&ing place between =hristianity and Islam worldwide. >1 In many cases religion had provided groups of people with the ideology, motivation and structure to act as terrorists. The aim of terrorism is to terrify people. Terrorism is derived from the 7atin word, terrere, which means Gto cause to tremble" >* Therefore, religious terrorism is terrorism that is 0ustified by religion. The word religious terrorism is a paradox, because people expect religion to provide peace and order, and not destruction. #ometimes religious conflict is not carried out by a state, but by a group of people who do not have the same military capacity of a government. Therefore, terrorism provides the perpetrators with a cheap and effective tool to install fear and terror amongst the enemy and the local population. The fear created by the terrorist acts could cause the local population to support the terrorist"s views, 0ust to stop the &illing and destruction. The common perception is that religious terrorism increased in the last decades of the twentieth century.>+ $uergensmeyer found that in 156A, the @# #tate Eepartment roster of international terrorist groups listed only one religious terrorist group. Eighteen years later, around fifteen of the world"s most dangerous terrorist groups, were religious groups. GThey were $ewish, %uslim and Muddhist.">9 $uergensmeyer also argued that if other violent religious groups li&e some of the =hristian militias found in America were included, the number of religious terrorist groups on the list would increase significantly. 3.2 3.2.1 TRENDS IN RELIGOUS CONFLICTS C)0*#* ,- 1#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+%*

The research done for the paper brought to light that a number of factors can start a religious war. 1ne of the factors that can lead to a religious conflict is when one religion tries to
51 52

Mar&er, $. *AA+. The No4nonsense #uide to Terrorism. 1xford3 :ew Internationalist !ublications. pp.1+,18. Appleby, op cit, p.>. 53 $uergensmeyer, %. *AAA. Terror in the Name of -od' The -lo*al Rise of Reli#ious .iolence. Mer&eley3 @niversity of =alifornia !ress. p.8. 54 Ibid.

18 impose its religion or religious practices on others. This was how the =rusades started when the %uslims attempted to force their religion onto the =hristians in the <oly land. Another factor that can lead to religious conflict is when elites use religion as a smo&e screen to mobilise the people of a country in order for the elites to enrich themselves by ta&ing over resources or territory from another religious group. An example of such a case is the war in #udan, where the real reason for war is ownership over oil and oil,rich territory. >> Religious conflicts have also bro&en out in the past as a result of Gmisinterpretation or perceived misinterpretation and misrepresentation of a religion or text of it.">8 #ome scholars will argue that the extremist attac&s from Al,Uaeda and other %uslim extremist groups are results of the misinterpretation of a religious text. 3.2.2 C/)1)+%#1&*%&+* ,- 1#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+%*

Euring religious conflict one or both of the sides will claim that (od is on their side. An example of this was during the American invasion of Ira2. Euring a prayer meeting before the invasion of Ira2, (eorge Mush said3 'Mehind all of life and all of history, thereNs a dedication and purpose, set by the hand of a 0ust and faithful (odH.>C Mut at the same time #addam <ussein was saying to his Islamic troops3 H-ight as (od ordered you to do)>6 Another characteristic of religious conflicts is that these conflicts are usually prolonged. >5 This could be a result of the fact that religion is deeply rooted in the culture and identity of people. This in turn motivates people to fight to the bitter end to defend their religious beliefs and to defend their fellow believers. !olitical socialisation through religious actors also provides over time a large fresh reservoir of young foot soldiers that prolongs the conflict. As a result of the longevity of religious conflicts, it is common to find that many people, combatants and non,combatants, will die during a religious conflict.

55

Mlair, M. *AA5. #outh #udan faces new war over oil. Tele#ra"h /nline. http3FFwww.telegraph.co.u&FnewsFworldnewsFafricaandindianoceanFsudanF8A+985AF#outh,#udan,faces,new,war, over,oil.html .accessed 1* #eptember *A1A/. 56 Mogoro, #.E. *AA6. %anagement of Religious =onflicts from a !ractitioners Oiewpoint. Meing a #pecial !ractitioner"s !resentation during the 1st Annual :ational =onference of #ociety for !eace #tudies and !ractice .#!#!/, 1>th R 16th $une, *AA6 V #heraton <otel and Institute for !eace and =onflict Resolution .I!=R/, Abu0a, :igeria. 57 ?ooldridge, op cit. 58 ?ooldridge, op cit. 59 %etcalfe, A. *AA+. Religious conflict. http3FFregentsprep.orgFregentsFglobalFthemesFconflictFreligious.cfm .accessed A6 -ebruary *A1A/.

1C CHAPTER FOUR: CASE STUDIES 4.1 I$%1,"0+%&,$ In some conflicts, religion is used as a disguise to hide the real reasons for ma&ing war, because some people 0ustify conflict by saying that they are fighting in the name of their religion. #ometimes the real cause of conflict can be territory, because a certain religious group argues that they occupied the territory first. #ome will even go so far as to argue that (od gave the territory to them. Thus the people are actually fighting over territory, but they use religion to 0ustify their cause. In other cases, the real intentions for fighting could be over scarce resources or political motives. Therefore religion can cause conflict, sustain conflict and also end conflict. This paper will focus on two case studies namely :igeria and the #udan to determine the role of religion in these two countries. 4.2 NIGERIA

:igeria is renowned to be a country that has been plagued by conflict for a very long time. @sually the violence in :igeria is reported to be religious conflict between =hristians and %uslims. The issues of bad governance and corruption in :igeria are also prominent in world news. 1saghae and #uberu argued that by Gvirtue of its complex web of politically salient identities and history of chronic and seemingly intractable conflicts and instability, :igeria can be rightly described as one of the most deeply divided states in Africa." 8A This paper will ta&e a loo& at the history of Islam and =hristianity in order to provide the reader with the necessary bac&ground for the rest of the content of the chapter. 4.2.1 T/# /&*%,1' ,- I*.)7 )$" C/1&*%&)$&%' &$ N&3#1&).

The introduction of Islam to the people of :igeria started in 16A9 with an Islamic revolution that too& place in :orthern :igeria according to -alola. 81 Another researcher, !rof Eoi argues that Islam already reached :igeria in the early 19 th century when 9A ?angarawa traders brought Islam with them from the :orthern parts of Africa. 8* In 169* =hristianity reached :igeria when #amuel A0ayi =rowther, who was part of the abolitionist movement of the 16AA"s, introduced =hristianity to the 1&wagbe people who belong to the @rhobo ethnic
60

1saghae, E.E. D R. T. #uberu. *AA>. A <istory of Identies, Oiolence and #tability in :igeria. $entre for Research and Ine5uality (uman Security and Ethnicity +or,in# "a"er , :o 8. p. 9. 61 -alola, T. 1555. The (istory of Ni#eria. ?estport3 (reenwood !ress. p. 1. 62 Eoi, A.R.I. *AA8. #pread of Islam in ?est Africa .part + of +/3 The Empires of 4anem,Mornu and <ausa, -ulani 7and. The Reli#ion of Islam. www.islamreligion.comFarticlesF+A* .accessed *> $une *A1A/.

16 group.8+ =hristianity spread successfully in the region and 0oined Islam as being the two dominant religions in :igeria.89 %uslims comprise of about >AQ of the :igerian population. They are mostly found in the northern and south,western parts of the country. =hristians constitute about 9AQ of the :igerian population. The =hristians are mostly situated in the southern part of the country and around the part &nown as the %iddle belt. The 1AQ of the population that are neither %uslims nor =hristians are practicing Gone form of indigenous religion or another." 8> :ow that the reader has a bac&ground of where the =hristians and %uslims are situated in :igeria, the paper will explore how the religions affected the history of :igeria from independence to *A1A. 4.2.2 T/# &78,1%)$+# ,- 1#.&3&,$ &$ N&3#1&)

:igeria"s religiously diversified people ma&e the process of nation,building very complicated and difficult. According to %cUuire, nation,building Grefers to developing a country"s sense of solidarity and identity as people." 88 In the second chapter of the paper it was discussed what important role religion and ethnicity play in nation,building. In :igeria, ethnic boundaries and religion mostly overlapL the exception to this is the ;oruba ethnic group.8C The political sphere of :igeria is highly influenced by religion. !olitical leaders use religion as a means to mobilise the people behind them. They also use religious organisations to bring in resources for the political party.86 The leaders of =hristian groups are in constant rivalry with the leaders of Islamic groups for political power. In some instances, religious organisations have ta&en on the identity of political parties. 1ne of the big debates that arose as a result of religious differences is whether :igeria should adopt the Islam law of #haria. According to Aguwa, the nature of Islam is to always intertwine politics and religion. 85 In :igeria, where >AQ of the population is not %uslim, this creates a problem. The %uslims
63

Erivwo, #.@. 15C5. The <istory of =hristianity in :igeria3 The @rhobo, the Iso&o and the Itse&iri. 6rho*o (istorical Society. www.waado.orgF@rhobo=ultureFReligionFErvivoF<istoryof =hristianityF=hapterTwo.htm. .accessed *> $une *A1A/. 64 -alola, op cit, p. 1. 65 Ibid, p. C. 66 %cUuire, %. M. 156C. Reli#ion' The Social $onte7t. Melmont =A3 ?adsworth !ublishing. p. 189. 67 @&iwo, @. *AA+. !olitics, ethno,religious conflict and democratic consolidation in :igeria. Journal of Modern Studies, Ool 91, :o1, p. 1*A. 68 Aguwa, $. =. 155C. Religious =onflict in :igeria3 Impact on nation building. ialetical !nthro"olo#y, .ol 22. p. ++8. 69 Ibid, p. ++5.

15 want to create an Islamic state with Allah as the head of the state and a state where #haria is the official 0udicial system. The founder of the #o&oto =aliphate, dan -odio, prescribed that =hristians would be allowed to live in the Islamic state of :igeria, but they would have to be sub0ected to the Islamic rule of law.CA :on,%uslims, especially the =hristians of :igeria realise that once :igeria becomes an Islamic state, they will have to adopt Islam as their religion otherwise they will be alienated or even &illed if they refuse. Therefore the =hristians have been determined for many years, through protests and violence, to refuse the government to declare :igeria an Islamic state and to implement #haria as the ultimate law.

-igure 13 %ap of :igeria.C1

70 71

Ibid. #ource3 http3FFen.wi&ipedia.orgFwi&iF-ile3:igeriaPpolitical.png

*A 4.3 4.3.1 CONFLICT AS A RESULT OF RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES IN NIGERIA R#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+% "01&$3 %/# 1559:*; 69:* )$" 9:*

In the :orth where most of the %uslims live, =hristians were seen as infidels and they were treated as such in earlier years. ?hen =hristian people from the #outh immigrated to the :orth during the 15>A"s and 8A"s, they were forced to place their children in separate schools and they were compelled to live in segregated areas. :ortherners were forbidden to have any relationships with the =hristian #outherners. C* According to %eredith, some non,%uslim minorities who lived in the :orth had long been trying to overthrow the %uslim leaders of the region.C+ This led to the Tiv resistance that exploded in the 158A"s. #ince then thousands of :igerians have Glost their lives buildings and properties were destroyed, and the country was pushed to the brin& of a religious war between %uslims and =hristians."C9 !oliticians have used the religious differences of :igerians as a source of manipulation. The politicians used religion as method to mobilise the people behind them. %uslims and =hristians recruited as many people as possible to fight their adversaries in the name of their religious gods. 4.3.2 R#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+% "01&$3 %/# 15!9:*

According to -alola, Greligious violence became one of the most serious crises of the 156A"s and beyond."C> -alola argues that the religious violence during the 156A"s in :igeria was a result of internal economic and political decay. C8 <e further argues that religious tension was building up from the 15CA"s as a result of the role that religion played in politics. Religion was used by political parties as a method to rally supporters behind them. !olitical parties were in competition to get the support of religious leaders. %any religious organisations felt that the society and its political leaders have decayed, so they re0ected the constitution and called for a theocratic state whose leaders would have better moral values.CC As the religious crisis of 156A"s unfolded, %uhammad %arwa, also &nown as %aitatsine, became the leading figure of Islam"s struggle in :igeria. C6 <e combined Islam with sorcery
72 73

%eredith, %, *AA>. The State of !frica' ! (istory of -ifty ;ears. 7ondon3 -ree !ress. p. C8. Ibid. p. CC. 74 -alola, T, op cit, p. 16C. 75 Ibid, p. 186. 76 Ibid. 77 Ibid, p. 185. 78 Aguwa, op cit, p. ++C.

*1 and his preaching attracted large crowds. <e believed that a leader must be spiritual, and that symbols of materialism, the ?est and technology should be re0ected by true %uslims. C5 The worsening economic conditions at the time pushed more and more :igerians to follow radical Islamist such as %arwa. The followers of %arwa were willing to die for their beliefs. Resultantly, there was no shortage of %uslims to fight against the Ginfidel" =hristians. Another %uslim that promoted Islamic radicalism during the 156A"s was #hei& Abuba&a %ahmoud (umi.6A <e was &nown as the most distinguished Islamic scholar in :igeria during the 6A"s. <e once openly said that Gonce you are a %uslim, you cannot accept to choose a non,%uslim as a leaderW"61 Islamic state.6* Islamists. The burning of eight prominent churches in 4ano by %uslims in 1ctober 156* signalled the beginning of a national religious war. 6+ A government tribunal who investigated the violence concluded that the violence was a result of two things. -irstly was the fact that 4ano .see figure 1/ was an Islamic city where the growing influence of =hristianity worried %uslims. That is why they burned the churches. #econdly the tribunal argued that radical Islamic literature imported from Iran motivated the %uslims to start the fighting. The attac&s on the churches gave the =hristians an opportunity to lift out their grievances The =hristians had a number of issues that they wanted to complain about. They <e further promoted that #haria courts should also be implemented in the southern parts of :igeria. <e also argued that :igeria should become an <is speeches and ideas influenced many %uslims to become radical

complained about discrimination in 0obs, land allocation, and access to radio broadcasting, and the ta&eover of their schools. 69 -alola argue that one of the most ma0or concerns of =hristians at that time was that they feared that the %uslims were trying to turn Abu0a .the capital of :igeria/ into an Islamic city. Their fears were 0ustified by the building of a :ational %os2ue close to the presidential mansion and the building of other mos2ues around the city.6> The #upreme =ouncil for Islamic Affairs and the $ama"atu :asril Islam .$:I/ were the main defenders of Islam in :igeria during the 156A"s. 1ne of their ob0ectives was to replace
79 80 81 82 83 84 85

-alola, op cit, p. 185. Aguwa, op cit, p. ++6. Ibid. Aguwa, op cit, p. ++5. -alola, op cit, p.185. Ibid. Ibid.

** #unday with -riday as part of the wee&end. Another of their demands was that all $udeo, =hristian symbols should be removed from schools and courts. The organisation that fought for the defence of =hristianity in :igeria during the 156A"s was the =hristian Association of :igeria .=A:/. This organisation wanted the government to distance itself from Islam.68 The act of Mabangida to register :igeria as a member of the 1I= in 156> created a lot of religious tension in :igeria, because =hristians saw this as an attempt to turn :igeria into an Islamic state.6C The :igerian =hristians were willing to put their lives on the line in order to stop :igeria from becoming an Islamic state. 4.3.3 R#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+% "01&$3 %/# 1559:* &$ N&3#1&)

In April 1551, religious rioting bro&e out in :igeria after a magaBine, the -un Times .which was a subsidiary of the Eaily Times/, published a cartoon of the !rophet %ohammed and $esus =hrist. A number of %uslims ransac&ed the offices of the Eaily Times and burnt it to the floor.66 Also during April 1551, religious violence bro&e out in the mainly %uslim state of Mauchi .see figure 1/. The violence started as a dispute between %uslims and =hristians over the use of a municipal abattoir. The =hristians wanted to use the abattoir to slaughter pigs, but the Islamic religion forbids its followers from any contact with pigs. -orty eight people were &illed in the violence that followed the dispute over the abattoir.65 The introduction of 1basan0o as president in 1555 caused an upsurge in religious violence. This was because 1basan0o was a =hristian from the #outh. The :ortherners who helped to get 1basan0o to be elected was disgruntled when they realised that he was not going to dance to their tune. 1ne of the factors that contributed to the renewed religious violence was the fact that 1basan0o removed a number of senior army officers .most of them :ortherners/. The :ortherners saw this as a Ghidden agenda" from the =hristians to suppress the %uslims. The %uslims Gused #haria as a weapon to reassert northern solidarity."5A In 1ctober of 1555, the governor of Xamfara .see figure 1/, Ahmed #ani announced that the state will adopt #haria law as its only legal system with effect from $anuary *AAA. #ani argued that #haria will bring bac& morals and values to an immoral state. <e maintained that only %uslims would be affected by #haria law, but he proposed bans on alcohol and
86 87

Ibid, p. 16C. Ibid, p. 166. 88 Immigration and Refugee Moard of =anada. 155+. Religion and =onflict. http3FFwww.unhcr.orgFrefworldFdocidF+ae8a6A>1A.html .accessed 1> 1ctober *A1A/. 89 Ibid. 90 %eredith, op cit, p. >6C.

*+ prostitution for the entire state. Twelve other northern states decided to follow the example of Xamfara and also adopt #haria as its 0udicial system. The =hristians who lived in the :orth started to feel threatened. As a result they protested against the government.51 4.3.4 R#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+% &$ %/# $#< M&..#$$&07

In $anuary *AAA the government of the Xamfara state accomplished to implement #haria as its official 0udicial system. 5* This was the spar& that was needed for religious and ethnic violence to flare up again in :igeria. Even though the governors of the twelve states who adopted the #haria law, reassured =hristians that #haria will only implicate %uslims, the =hristians did not believe the governors. #haria will revert to the penal code."5+ The G=hristians point to the duplicity of the governors of the north during the :ational =ouncil of #tates meeting, which agreed that The =hristian"s fears were confirmed when the governor of Xamfara stated that #haria will also apply to non,%uslims.59 %eredith reports that during a protest in the city of 4aduna in -ebruary *AAA, hundreds of people were &illed as a result of %uslim versus =hristian fighting. At the same time whole neighbourhoods were religiously cleansed by the %uslims. 5> %ost of the people that were &illed in these religious attac&s were Igbos. As a result, Igbo groups in the southern parts of :igeria started to &ill <ausa"s who immigrated from the north. The fleeing of =hristians from the north in turn caused religious tension in other parts of :igeria as well. 1&iwu confirms the previous statement when he argues that the $os riots of #eptember *AA1 was caused by the movement of southerners from the northern states such as 4aduna and 4ano. 58 %ore than 1AAA people died in the $os riots. $os is the capital of the !lateau state. The $os riots were further complicated by the fact that the =hristians argued that the %uslim commissioner of police only sent police to protect mos2ues in the area, while the churches got no protection from the government.5C %eredith reports that around +AAA people died in the !lateau state during *AA1.56

91 92

Ibid, p. >6C. @&iwo, op cit, p. 1*9. 93 @&iwo, op cit, p. 1*9. 94 International IEEA. *AAA. Eemocracy in :igeria3 =ontinuing dialogues for nation,building. #toc&holm3 International IEEA. 95 %eredith, op cit, p. >6C. 96 @&iwo, op cit, p. 1*>. 97 Ibid, p. 1*5. 98 %eredith, op cit, p. >6C. The number of people who died could be less or even more, because different sources provide significantly different numbers. #ee 1stien, !. *AA5. $ohah $ang and the $asawa3 Ethno, religious conflict in :igeria.

*9 The $os crisis of *AA1 was the beginning of a serious of religious clashes. The fighting spread through the rest of the !lateau state and continued until *AA9. The International =risis (roup reported that in -ebruary and %ay of *AA9, more than *>A AAA people were displaced as a result of religious violence in the !lateau state. 55 The fighting only subsided in *AA9 when !resident 1basan0o declared a state of emergency and suspended the government.1AA The southern =hristians felt so strongly opposed against the implementation of #haria, that groups situated in the :iger Eelta told the federal government that #haria states should not be allowed to receive oil revenues from the federal government. 1A1 This re2uest created even more tension between %uslims and =hristians in the country. This is an indication that the conflict was not only about religion anymore, but the actual fighting was over the oil resources of the :iger Eelta. The *AA6 elections in the !lateau state brought with it another surge of widespread religious clashes. Two days of fighting left between 9AA and 8AA people dead in the city of $os. 1A* According to 1stien, the fighting in $os is not primarily as a result of religious differences. <e argues that religion is 0ust a fuel to &eep the fire going. #eemingly the real cause of the fighting in $os is Gthe alleged rights of indigenes, meaning roughly 'earliest extant occupiers), to control particular locations, as opposed to the rights of 'settlers) or 'strangers) or more generally 'non,indigenes), defined as everybody who came later."1A+ Thus the conflict is actually the result of 2uarrels over territory and therefore a resource driven conflict. Mut because the <ausa from the north are %uslims and the indigenous people of the !lateau state are ma0ority =hristians, religion is also dragged into the conflict. In *AA5 religious clashes bro&e out in :igeria as a result of the implementation of #haria in some states. %uslim fundamentalist &illed about 6A people, because they demanded that more states should implement #haria in their 0udicial systems. The radical group Mo&o <aram .who has ties with Al,Uaeda/ claimed recognition for the &illings.1A9

99

International =risis (roup. *AA8. Ni#eria8s falterin# federal e7"eriment. Africa Report :o115. http3FFwww.crisisgroup.orgFhomeFindex.cfm idY9989D1I1, .accessed A1 %arch *A1A/. 100 1stien, !. *AA5. $ohah $ang and the $asawa3 Ethno,religious conflict in :igeria. www. #haria,in, Africa.netFpagesFpublications.php, .accessed A1 %arch *A1A/. p19. 101 Eauda, E. *AA1. Ethnic identity, democratiBation and the future of the African state3 lessons from :igeria. !frican Issue 29. p. +9. 102 1stien, op cit, p. *. 103 Ibid, p. +. 104 Euronews. *AA5. :igeria3 #cores dead in religious violence. http3FFwww.euronews.netF*AA5FACF*6Fnigeria, scores,dead,in,religious,violence .accessed A5 %arch *A1A/.

*> Religious clashes have also been paramount in *A1A. In the month of $anuary between *AA and 9AA people were &illed and some 1C AAA were displaced as a result of clashes in 4uru 4arama, a village near $os. In this attac&, it was mostly %uslim men who were the targets of the four day long assault. 1ne of the witnesses said that it was not =hristians from their village who launched the attac&L it was =hristians from one of the surrounding villages. 1A> %uslim women and children were also not spared in the attac&. The reason for the attac& is thought to be as the result of the coming *A11 national elections and there was at the time no certainty of who was in charge, because the president was hospitalised in #audi Arabia due to illness. The most recent religious violence too& place on the night of C %arch *A1A where it is reported that more than >AA people were &illed. The targets in this attac& were mainly =hristian women and children. -ish nets were used to catch the people that tried to escape and then they were hac&ed to death with machetes. The Mail and -uardian reported that most of the violence too& place around the village of Eogo :ahawa. 1A8 The attac&s were carried out mainly by %uslim -ulani"s. The cause of the attac& is thought to be Gthe result of a spiralling feud between the -ulani and the rival Merom clan, which had been first ignited by a theft of cattle and then further fuelled by a deadly revenge attac&." 1AC Thus it was once again a resource driven conflict that was blamed on religion. 4.4 SUDAN

#ince #udan"s independence in 15>8, only ten out of the >9 years have been peaceful. The rest was filled with the violence and bloodshed of two civil wars and the war in Earfur. 1A6 The conflict in #udan is usually described as conflict between :orth versus #outh, Arab versus African or %uslims versus =hristians. 1A5 $ohnson support the previous statement when he writes that the 'W#udan conflict is fre2uently presented as either the continuation of an age, old confrontation between Gcultures" defined by blood,lines .GArabs" vs GAfricans"/, or the conse2uence of an artificial division imposed by colonial powers.) 11A Religion served as a mar&er of national identity in both the civil wars, but religion was never exclusively the root

105

%ohammed, #. *A1A. Modies pulled from wells after :igeria clashes. Mail and -uardian online, *> $anuary *A1A. 106 Abu Ma&r, A. *A1A. :igeria sends in troops after massacre &ills >AA. Mail and -uardian online, 3: March 23;3. 107 Abu Ma&r, A, op cit. 108 Mrown, #. *AA5. =onflict in #udan3 Root =auses. E7aminer.com. http3FFwww.examiner.comFffPexaminer.xml .accessed *> %arch *A1A/. 109 Eom&e, %. 155C. =ivil ?ar in the #udan3 Resources or Religion I=E =ase studies. http3FFwww.american.eduFtedFiceFsudan.htm .accessed *> %arch *A1A/. 110 $ohnson, E. <. *AA+. The Root $auses of Sudan8s $i%il +ars. Indiana3 Indiana @niversity !ress. p. xii.

*8 cause of the conflicts.111 #ince the discovery of large oil reserves in #udan, the war in #udan has changed to mainly an economic or resource war. ?henever scarce resources are une2ually divided amongst different cultural, religious or political groups within a country, civil war is inevitable.11* This can be clearly seen in the case of #udan. The conflict in #udan is often more complex than 0ust :orth versus #outh, Arab versus African or %uslim versus =hristian. Ryle argues that the conflict in #udan is better understood as a number of interloc&ing civil wars, where southerners fight against southerners and northerners are pitched against northerners as well as northerner against southerner.11+ This chapter of the paper will therefore explore the history of the conflict in #udan after independence in order to determine what the role of religion was in the conflicts. 4.5 4.5.1 THE HISTORY OF CONFLICT IN SUDAN AFTER INDEPENDENCE T/# F&1*% C&=&. W)1 >1555415 2?

In 15>>, the year before independence, a civil war bro&e out in #udan. This particular civil war continued until 15C*. The conflict was between :orth and #outh #udan. The conflict flared up as a result of the southerner"s fear that the :ortherners will overpower them once #udan gained independence. The :orth sought to impose Islam and the Arabic lifestyle onto the #outherners and they refused to be Islamicised. The #outherners wanted an autonomous state after independence, but they realised that the :ortherners will not allow that to happen.119 As a result some #outherner officers mutinied and started the Anya :ya guerrilla army. The :ortherners reacted militarily to the mutiny. The government viewed all #outherners as potential allies of the Anya :ya, so they adopted a strategy similar to the scorched earth strategy. The government troops burned down villagesL they &illed prisoners and displaced as many #outherners as possible in order to avoid the population to support the Anya :ya. The :orthern government always tried to play on the two fault lines of the #outh namely3 ethnicity and religion. 11> This means that the government pointed out to the :ortherners that almost all of the officers from the #outh were
111

Anon. *AA5. #udan3 Race and Religion in =ivil ?ar. 0er,eley $entre for Reli#ion, Peace and +orld !ffairs . ?ashington3 (eorgetown @niversity. p. 1. 112 %ohamed, A.A. *AA*. Intergroup =onflict and =ustomary %ediation3 Experience from #udan. www.sabinet.co.BaFabstractsFaccordrFaccordrPv*Pn*Pa>.xml (accessed 2< March 23;3). 113 Ryle, $. *AA*. The Murden of <istory. The $rimes of +ar Pro=ect. www. crimesof)ar.or#>sudan4ma#>sudan4 o%er%ie).html (accessed 3< !"ril 23;3). 114 Anon, *AA5, op cit, pp. 1,*. 115 ?adlow, R. *AA6. #udan3 Race, Religion and Oiolence. Journal of Reli#ion, $onflict and Peace, Oolume 1, Issue *, #pring *AA6. p. *.

*C =hristians, whereas most of the :ortherners were %uslim. That is why the conflict is often described as a religious war, but in fact it was 0ust war against the oppression on the #outherners. #udan gained independence on 1 $anuary 15>8 with a myriad of its issues on nationhood still uncertain.118 ?hen the Mritish withdrew from #udan, they drafted a temporary constitution for the #udanese. At that time, there were two issues that delayed the drafting of a permanent constitution. The first issue was whether 'the #udan should be a federal or unitary state.)11C The second issue was whether the country should have a secular or an Islamic constitution. My the late 158A"s more than >AA AAA people had died and much more were displaced as a result of the civil war.116 The Anya :ya was able to militarily stand up against the government by receiving aid from foreign countries. Israel helped to train Anya :ya recruits and also provided them with weapons. The Anya :ya was also able to buy weapons from =ongolese rebels and international arms dealers from money that they collected from #udanese exile communities.115 $oseph 7agu, a former army lieutenant, formed the #outhern #udan 7iberation %ovement .##7%/ in 15C1. The ##7% was composed of a number of different southerner guerrilla groups. It was the first time in the history of the civil war that the separatist movement had a unified command structure.1*A This for once allowed the #outherners to negotiate with the 4hartoum government as one voice. The first civil war ended in 15C*, when the :orth and #outh agreed on the same terms of the Addis Ababa Agreement. =ouncil of =hurches. The tal&s between the two sides were bac&ed by the ?orld The #outherners were allowed to have a single southern

administrative region with explicitly defined powers. 1*1 The agreement also entailed that Arabic would be the official language of #udan, but English would be the principal language of the #outh. This meant that the administrative language of the #outh would be English. 1** The seventeen year long war too& the lives of more than five hundred thousand people. It is

116 117 118

119 120 121 122

$ohnson, op cit, p. *5. Anon, op cit, p. +A. (lobal #ecurity. *AA>. #udan -irst =ivil ?ar. -lo*al http3FFwww.globalsecurity.orgFmilitaryFworldFwarFsudan,civil,war1.htm .accessed A> April *A1A/. Anon, op cit, p. +A. Ibid, p. *. Ibid (lobal #ecurity, op cit.

Security.

*6 estimated that only twenty percent of the people who died were armed combatants, the rest were civilians.1*+ It can be argued that religion was a causal factor in this war, because the :ortherners wanted to have an Islamic state, but the #outherners refused. As a result of the religious differences between :orth and #outh, the -irst =ivil ?ar bro&e out. Euring the course of the war, religion also played a role in the sustainment of the civil war. Ten years of peace followed the Addis Ababa Agreement. 4.5.2 T/# S#+,$" C&=&. W)1 >15!342995?

In 156+, !resident :imeiri attempted to create a federal state in #udan which would have included some southern states. <e further intended to exploit the natural resources of the #outh. <e wanted to place the oil rich areas of the #outh under :orthern control by redrawing the boundaries to include more of the oil rich areas under :orthern rule. 1*9 Another reason for the renewed outbrea& of violence was the government"s plan to build the $onglei canal which would divert water from the #outh to the :orth. 1*> The introduction of the #eptember 7aws in 156+ was the spar& that was needed to start the armed rebellion against the government. The #eptember 7aws entailed that the strictest form of #haria was imposed in the :orth and #outh, on =hristians, %uslims and animists.1*8 As a result of the actions ta&en by :imeiri, the #udan !eople"s 7iberation Army .#!7A/ was formed by a number of soldiers who mutinied under the leadership of former army =olonel (arang to oppose the government. The political arm of the organisation was &nown as the #udan !eople"s 7iberation %ovement .#!7%/.1*C The ob0ectives of the #!7% were to have a democratic state where all people would be e2ual and their human rights be protected. They further appealed for the abolishment of #haria and that the government will ma&e sure that economic development of the #outh will ta&e place in the future. being neglected by the 4hartoum government.1*6 This meant that the #outherners would no longer accept domination by the :orthern Arab,%uslim ma0ority and

123 124

Anon, op cit, p. +A Ryle, op cit. 125 Eeng, -. %. 1559. =ivil ?ar in #udan3 The !aradox of <uman Rights and #overeignty. international affairs, Ool 9C, :o *. p. >A1. 126 Ibid. 127 Ibid. 128 Ibid, p. >A*.

Journal of

*5 In 156>, :imeiri was overthrown by the military. A democratic election was held, but the ma0ority of the #outherners could not vote as a result of the ongoing civil war, so the new government was once again dominated by :ortherners. 1*5 #adi2 al %ahdi of the @mma !arty won the elections and resultantly become the new president of #udan. The war continued but %ahdi attempted to stop the conflict by negotiating with the #!7%. In August 1568, the #!7A shot down a civilian aircraft of the Red =ross and all negotiations between the government and the #!7% were stopped. The war once again escalated. After the aircraft incident, %ahdi 0oined forces with the :ational Islamic -ront of the %uslim Mrothers .:I-/. This led to greater enforcement of #haria on everyone. 1+A In 1565, %ahdi once again attempted negations with the #!7%. It loo&ed as if %ahdi was going to accept the #!7%"s re2uest that #haria should be abolished. The :I- did not approve of this. As a result the :I- overthrew the government of %ahdi on +A $une 1565. 1mar al Mashir became the new president of #udan. <e declared that his main ob0ectives were to put an end to the civil war and to ma&e #udan a wealthy country. Mashir never held an election and remained in power himself. <e declared himself prime minister, defense minister and commander in chief of the armed forces. 1+1 <e furthermore 'suspended the constitution, dissolved parliament, banned political parties, forbade civilian association meetings without government permission, shut down the free press, declared a nationwide state of emergency and set a curfew.)1+* Mashir was elected as president in the 1558 and in the *AAA elections. In *AA+ and *AA9 peace tal&s between the rebels and government became more prominent. 1n 5 $anuary *AA> The =omprehensive !eace Agreement .=!A/ was signed between the government and the #!7%. According to #ullivan, the =!A 'is based on a fundamental compromise which gives the #!7% autonomy in the
#outh while ensuring Islamic,based #haria law in the :orth. -or a six year period, a (overnment of :ational @nity is to be formed and to wor& toward ma&ing unity attractive to the #outh, leading up to a referendum in *A11 when the #outh will decide whether it wants to separate or remain a part of a united #udan. Another &ey provision of the =!A was that half of the oil revenues from the #outh will be given to the government of the #outh.)1++
129 130

Ibid. Ibid. 131 Eeng, op cit, p. >A9. 132 Ibid. 133 #ullivan, E. !. *AA8. #udan"s =omprehensive !eace Agreement at 1ne ;ear of Age3 =ause for =elebration ?or&ing !aper -(8. Stifftun# +issenschaft und Politi, -erman Institute for International and Security !ffairs. pp. 1,+.

+A

The =!A has brought an end to the #econd #udanese =ivil ?ar, but irreparable damage was already done to the country and its people. It is estimated that more than 9 million people were displaced and more than * million died during the second civil war in #udan. 1+9 The =!A only catered for the =ivil ?ar and did not include the conflict that is ta&ing place in the Earfur region. The role of religion is more blurry in the #econd =ivil ?ar than in the -irst =ivil ?ar. In the -irst ?ar, the ultimate cause for the conflict was religion, but in the #econd ?ar it was more complicated. Religion was still a cause of the conflict in the #econd ?ar, but the ultimate cause for the conflict was resources. :imeiri merely used religion as a way to lure the #outherners into fighting with him, in order for him to have a Gvalid" reason for him to fight them. Mut he actually wanted part of the oil rich territory of the #outh. 1nce again religion was used to sustain the conflict when the @mma !arty 0oined forces with the :I-. ?hen the @mma !arty wanted to abolish #haria and maybe end the conflict, the :I- decided that they would rather overthrow the government than to allow the abolishment of #haria law. Therefore it can be argued that they used religion to sustain the conflict. 4.5.3 T/# D)1-01 +,$-.&+% >299342919?

The Earfur region is a poor and remote area in the ?est of #udan. The ma0ority of the population of the region are from the -ur tribe, hence the name Earfur .it means home of the -ur/. The conflict in the Earfur region in #udan started in *AA+ when the #udan 7iberation %ovementFArmy .#7%FA/ and the $ustice and E2uality %ovement .$E%/ accused the #udanese government that they are oppressing the blac& Africans. The two groups felt that the government only supported Arabs.1+> The government was still militarily tied up on the #outhern front, so they had to devise a plan to deal with the new threat in the Earfur region. As a result, the government armed tribal militias and as payment for their services to the government they could ta&e everything they found in the villages for them including3 food, women and animals. 1+8 This armed militia was called the $an0aweed.1+C The government"s policy that the $an0aweed could rape and plunder as much as they want to led to the &illing of many innocent people. The &illing raids by the
134 135

=entral Intelligence Agency. *AAC. The $I! +orld 2act*oo, 233:. :ew ;or&3 #&yhorse !ublishing. p. >6C. Ealy, %. ?. *AAC. arfur8s Sorro)' ! (istory of estruction and -enocide. :ew ;or&3 =ambridge @niversity !ress. pp. 1,*. 136 ?adlow, op cit, p. >. 137 Ibid. $an0aweed means the evil one on horsebac&.

+1 $an0aweed are also responsible for a large amount of refugees fleeing to =had and the =entral African Republic.1+6 1n > %ay *AA8, a ceasefire agreement was signed by The #7% and the #udanese government. continued.
1+5

1n paper it seemed as if the conflict was over, but in reality the fighting The rebels that refused to sign the peace treaty continued the fighting. The

conflict was still carrying on into *A1A with millions of people being &illed and displaced. =onflict analysts have determined that the conflict in Earfur is definitely not the result of religious differences. The analysts base their argument on the fact that the participants in the conflict are not divided by means of religious lines. Moth sides participating in the conflict are comprised of %uslims.19A -urthermore, the indigenous population of Earfur is entirely %uslim, so it is impossible that it is a religious conflict. 191 It is also not a resource war, because Earfur has no valuable mineral resources.19* 4.6 4.6.1 THE CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT IN SUDAN T/# /&*%,1&+). N,1%/4S,0%/ "&=&*&,$

The conflict that persists until today can be traced bac& to hundreds of years ago. 19+ The %oslem expansion period that swept through :orth and ?est Africa, stopped before reaching #outhern #udan.199 That is why the =hristian ma0ority of #udan is still in the south of the country. The %uslim Arabs tried to convert the =hristians from the south until the Mritish colonised #udan. -rom 1655 R 15>+, #udan was under Anglo,Egyptian rule. ?hen the Mritish colonised #udan, they governed :orthern and #outhern #udan separately. The Mritish governed the two areas separately in order to stop the Arabs from converting more #outherners to Islam. This deepened the divide between :orth and #outh #udan.19> Traditionally :orthern #udan has been better developed and more prosperous than the #outh. The Mritish focused on developing the :orth, while the #outh was insulated and forgotten. The #udanese government was also based in the :orth which led to the further
138 139

Ibid, p. 8. Ealy, op cit, p. 1. 140 (oodenough, !. *AA8. Min 7aden tries to put religious spin on Earfur conflict. Student Ne)s http3FFwww.studentnewsdaily.comF cssIsiteFsitePcss.v.1*A81*6889 .accessed *> %arch *A1A/. 141 Ealy, %. ?, op cit, p. 1+. 142 Ibid, p. 1. 143 Mrown, op cit. 144 Ibid. 145 Anon, *AA5, p 1.

aily.

+* degeneration of the #outh.198 The #udanese government neglected the people of the #outh, so the #outherners were less educated and there was virtually an absence of any form of transportation. The government expected from the #outh to be the producers of raw materials. As a result, the #outherners became labourers and one can almost say slaves to the :ortherners.19C $ohnson argues that the conflict between :orth and #outh #udan is usually misunderstood by researchers. conflict.196 This is a result of the misrepresentation of the historical roots of the The two most common explanations for the :orth R #outh divide is the 'W

centuries of exploitation and slave,raiding by the GArab" :orth against the GAfrican" #outh) and the splitting of #udan by imperialist Mritain.195 $ohnson agrees that the two previous reasons are true, but he is of the opinion that the situation in #udan is much more complicated than what the ma0ority of the wor& on #udan suggest. <e further argues that religion, local perceptions of race and social status, economic exploitation, and colonial and post,colonial interventions all play a role in #udan"s current civil war, but none, by itself, fully explains it. 1>A <e is of the opinion that factors such as '... the role of successive #udanese states in producing regional underdevelopment and racial and cultural antagonism...)1>1 also play important roles in the conflict. 4.6.2 I"#$%&%'

:ational identity has always played an important role in #udan. Especially group identity plays an important role in the conflict of #udan. According to Mrown, the willingness of people to become martyrs for the sa&e of their religion is evidence that some people in #udan will go to great lengths to fight for their identity group. 1>* Identity in #udan is usually based on religion or ethnicity. As a result religion and ethnicity is intertwined in #udan. #udan"s first population census which too& place from 15>>,15>8 estimated that seven ma0or ethnic group were living in #udan. These seven groups were can then be further subdivided into 98 smaller groups that spo&e different languages and followed different religious creeds.1>+
146

Xolberg, A.R.D A #uhr&e D #. Aguayo. 1565. Esca"e 2rom .iolence' $onflict and the Refu#ee $risis in the e%elo"in# +orld. :ew ;or&3 1xford @niversity !ress. p. >A. 147 4atende&o, -. *AA+. #udan"s >A year war. Peace and $onflict Monitor. www. monitor.u"eace.or#>"rinter.cfm? id@articleA:B (accessed 2< March 23;3). 148 Anon, op cit. p. 1. 149 Ibid 150 Anon, op cit, p 1,*. 151 Ibid, p. *. 152 Mrown, op cit. 153 %ohamed, op cit.

++

Mrown argues that the :orthern #udanese are in 'identity limbo).1>9 Their limbo is a result of the Arabs that resent the blac&s who prevent #udan of being a full,fledged Arab country. This fuels tension between the two groupings in the :orth. The ruling elite view #udan as a %uslim country and integral part of the Arab world. 1>> #o identity does not only cause tension between :ortherners and #outherners, but also between people from the same geographical area. In many articles the ma0or reason for identity conflict in #udan is their differences in religious beliefs. It is difficult not to lin& religion and war in #udan, because for such a long time, the wars have been portrayed as religious wars. 1>8 As mentioned earlier, the :orthern government played on the fault line of religion in the #outh to validate their aggression against the #outherners. 1sama bin 7aden also tried to portray the conflict in Earfur as a religious war. Min 7aden argued that the conflict is a result of a ?estern anti,Islamic crusade. 1>C Even though religion is almost always cited as a reason for conflict in #udan, it is actually 2uiet seldom the main reason for conflict. The government and the rebel leaders of #udan usually use religion as a method to mobilise the population behind them and to add fuel to the tensions. The more prominent reason for the conflict in the last decade has been over the resources of #udan. 4.6.3 R#*,01+#*

The 155+ population census in #udan estimated that C1 percent of the #udanese population were living in the rural areas. These people all have to fight for the s&impy natural resources that are found in the rural areas of #udan. 1>6 The ma0ority of the people that live in #udan are dependent on agriculture for their survival. In order for their animals to survive, they need pastures and at times the scarcity of green pastures forces the herders to move into the territory of another tribe which leads to conflict. The scarcity of water in #udan leads to another source of resource war. ?ater is the fuel of life, but in #udan water is a scarce commodity, so people often fight over water sources.1>5 $ohnson argues that the war in #udan is being fought to gain total control over abundant oil reserves.18A It can be argued that the #udanese government have been manipulating ethnic
154 155

Ibid. Ryle, op cit. 156 ?ills, $. *AA+. Religion in the #udan3 A Review Article. Journal of Reli#ion in !frica, Ool ++, August *AA+. p. +*6. 157 (oodenough, op cit. 158 %ohamed, op cit. 159 Ibid. 160 $ohnson, p. xii.

+9 and religious differences to get more oil resources.181 1il has become one of the driving forces of the conflict in #udan. In #udan, the largest oil reserves are found in the southern parts of the country. The ma0ority of #udan"s export income .CAQ/ is from oil revenue. As a result, the :ortherners fight the #outherners in order to get control over the oil resources. 18* ?ith the money that the government ma&e out of oil, they buy more weapons that can help them to get more oil from the #outherners. The #outherners on the other hand fight to &eep their oil, therefore the oil installations are popular targets for the rebels.18+ CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 5.1 SUMMARY

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between religion and conflict in the selected cases of :igeria and #udan. The research problem was deducted from the idea that fault lines in religion may lead to conflict. <owever the research problem was whether religious difference is a cause of conflicts or merely a characteristic of the conflict religion used as a tool to mobilise a segment of the population to participate in conflict research 2uestioned stemmed from the research problem. ?hat role does religion play in the conflicts in :igeria and #udan In order to answer the research 2uestion, the paper explored some of the theories that exist on religious warfare. It was found that a number of theories exist on religious warfare, but there is nothing that specifically focuses on religious conflicts in Africa. In general there are not much literature on religious conflict in Africa overall. This is where the significance of this research paper comes in. Even though this paper only explores two of the case studies in Africa where religious conflict is prevalent, it still contributes to help other researchers in their studies on African conflicts and more specifically religion,based conflicts. The paper also investigated historical cases of religious warfare in order to get a bac&ground on religious conflict and to determine some characteristics of religious warfare. The ma0ority of the study focused on the two case studies in order to determine what role religion played in the conflicts of :igeria and #udan. This paper is a descriptive study, which focused on two case studies. A state,centric 1r is The

The research 2uestion was3

approach was followed and the units of analysis were :igeria and #udan. Religion was the
161

4een, E. *AAA. Incentives and Eisincentives for Oiolence In %, Merdal and E. %. %alone. -rie%ance' Economic !#endas in $i%il +ars. 7ondon3 7ynne Reinner !ublishers. p. +>. 162 Mrown, op cit. 163 Ryle, op cit.

-reed and

+> variable under the telescope. The study is a 2ualitative study based on a literature study and available factual data. 1nly secondary sources were used during the research for the study. Therefore the study cannot offer an exhaustive explanation on the role of religion in the conflicts of :igeria and #udan. -rom the research done conclusions can be made and the next segment of the paper will discuss the conclusions. 5.2 5.2.1 CONCLUSIONS T/#,1' ,$ 1#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+%

!eople view reality differently. ?hen humans disagree with each other, they are directly 2uestioning each other"s identity. Religion forms part of a person"s identity, which is why people are so sensitive when someone challenges their religious beliefs. and this leads to protracted conflicts. As a result, religious conflicts are usually fought by people who are passionate over their religious beliefs This chapter also discussed ethnicity as part of identity, because ethnicity and religion are fre2uently intertwined. Research has shown that there are four types of theories on religious conflicts. =hapter two has shown that there are many written theories and speculations about the role that religion plays in conflict. Religion is sometimes used by the elite to provo&e conflict, in other cases religion is used to maintain conflict and to motivate people to carry on fighting. Religion is also used to end conflicts. 5.2.2 H&*%,1&+). +)*#* ,- 1#.&3&,0* +,$-.&+%

The third chapter investigated some historical instances of religious conflict. The cases that were used were the =rusades, the Arab,Israeli wars and the #eptember 11 attac&s on America. This chapter proved that religious conflicts have been ta&ing place for thousands of years. This is because everybody has a different identity and when identities clash, religion is an easy scapegoat to use as an excuse to ma&e war. This chapter has shown that there will always be a religious conflict somewhere in the world. It was found that religious conflicts are usually prolonged wars, because nobody wants to admit that their identity is wrong or false. Another characteristic of religious conflicts is that the people who fight in these conflicts are usually very passionate for their cause and as a result religious conflicts are usually extremely violent and no one will be spared. 5.2.3 N&3#1&)

+8 -rom the research done for the paper, it is clear that religion definitely plays a ma0or role in the conflicts in :igeria. In :igeria, religion has been used to cause conflicts as well as to sustain conflicts. The Islamic :igerians have for many years loo&ed down on the =hristian :igerians. This can be seen in same context as apartheid in #outh Africa. The =hristian :igerians refused to be treated as lesser people and that is why some of the first religious conflicts in :igeria bro&e out after independence. #ince then religious leaders have used religion to mobilise their members against each other. #ince religion and politics are so closely intertwined in :igeria, political leaders competed to gain the support of religious leaders. This in turn led to the political leaders to use religion as a method to rally supporters behind them. These political leaders used religion as a fuel to &eep the conflict going by burning each other"s places of worship as was seen during the 156A"s. 1ne of the biggest causes of religious conflict in :igeria is when political leaders wanted to implement #haria law as the ultimate law in their states. A large proportion of the conflict in :igeria was resource driven, but was fuelled by religion and ethnic differences. Therefore it can be argued the conflicts in :igeria are a mixture of resource wars and religious wars. A possible solution to the religious conflict is that the president of :igeria should put his foot down and decide which states will be allowed to use #haria and which states should stay with ?estern laws. Then all the %uslim can go live in the #haria states and the =hristians can live in the other states. The problem with this solution is that the different groups will then fight over the resources of :igeria. In order to cater for this problem the revenue made from the natural resources should be divided e2ually between the people of :igeria. Another option is the upholding of a secular constitution together with guarantees for the protection of minority belief,systems. This could ensure that religion is still part of everyday life, but it is left out of government decisions. These are very simplistic solutions and there are many other factors that must be ta&en into account, but at least it could serve as a starting bloc&.

5.2.4

S0")$

#udan has been plagued with conflict for many centuries. The conflict has been &ept alive through all the years by the population"s differencesL differences such as ethnicity, culture, religion and language. #ome of the conflict has also been fuelled by contention over

+C resources such as water, graBing land and oil reserves. sustainment in both the civil wars. It is the opinion of the author that the conflict in #udan is not purely an economic war, neither is it purely a religious war. If it was solely an economic conflict, then there would not have been suicide &illers who are willing to give up their lives for their religion involved in the conflict. In some of the clashes it is %uslims that are fighting %uslims and Africans that fights Africans, so it is clear that the conflict in #udan is not solely a religious conflict either. Therefore religion is a mere character of the conflict in #udan and the conflict is a mixture or ethno,religious and economic conflict. It seems as if the #outherners have always been pulling on the shortest end. #ince Religion has played a role of

independence they wanted their own state where they could spea& English and practice =hristianity. Mut they were 'cursed) with natural resources. The :orth &new that they would not be able to survive without the resources of the :orth, so they had to devise reasons to fight the #outherners in order to gain control over the resources. In order to get the population behind them, the Arabs often had to play on religion to mobilise the masses against the 'infidels) of the #outh. Therefore the paper is of the opinion that none of the conflicts in #udan after independence can be seen as religious wars. Religion was rather used as an excuse to ma&e war in order to get resources or to mobilise the people to fight against each other. In both the civil wars religion was used as a method to sustain the conflicts. The real reasons for the conflicts were rather the persisting economic and cultural gap between :orthFArabF%uslim and #outhFAfricanF=hristian In conclusion, the blood of many Africans has been spilled as a result of their religious beliefs. In many cases the people who fought in the wars never gained anything out of it, but the leaders of the factions became very wealthy as a result of the resource rich territory that they obtained as a result of the fighting. Religion has also been used as a way to classify a large part of the population as lesser people and nobody want to feel as if they are less valuable than anyone else. The patience of the people was not endless and they had to revolt against the oppressors in the case of #udan. In the case of :igeria, religion played the role of instigating the conflict as well as to maintain the conflict. In #udan religion was used to maintain the conflict and to mobilise the masses behind the leaders. @nfortunately in neither of the cases religion could be used to facilitate the end of conflicts. The only way to stop the religious conflicts in both :igeria and #udan would be for both of the factions to negotiate a settlement to compromise a bit and accept that every person has

+6 its own identity. If neither of the religions attempts to force their beliefs onto anyone, then religious conflicts might also come to an end. In essence this means that there should be freedom of religion and hence a secular constitution 0ointly negotiated and maintained by both the religions should be upheld. I don"t believe that any religion prescribe to its people that they should &ill those who do not have the same beliefs, therefore all the bloodshed as a result of religious differences have been unnecessary.