r

Geological Charactelistics of Epi thermal Precious and Base Metal Deposits

STUART F. SIMMONS,'
Cmlngy lJcpartmclI/ , of Auckland. Prioow Bug 92019, AIlCkulIId, Nell) Zeo/wul
NOEL C. WHITE,
PO. Box 5181, Kemllore EMt , Queells/fIIld, Australia 40ti9
AND DAvlI) A . JOHN
U. S. 345 AHddlefJeld lid., Mellio Park, Cali/omla 9.1025
Abstract
Epithermal deposi ts are impol'tallt sources of gold and siiver that foml at <l.S-km depth Bnd <3O()OC in
higb-tc ili perahlre, mainly subaerial hydrollu:::nnal systems. Such hydrutlJcnnlll systems oommonly develop in
llS5OC'iatiOIl with calc-alkali ne to alkali ne Illllgmatism. in \'Olcanic arcs at convcrgent plate margins, 35 well as in
intra-arc, back-arc, and rin settings. Many important deposits are Tertiary and younger in age
and are conccntntt(.>d llfOunrl thl" Pacific Rim and ill the Medit erranean IUld Carpathian of Europe.
( )1cler deposits oc'(:ur in the Tethyan arc from Europe to Asia and others are scattered UI vokanie IlJ'CS of all ages
with rare examples os old as Archean.
Precious mineralization ili:velops in zones of high pakoupcnneability, hosted within sequences of (:0-
cval volcanic and underlyi ng basement rocks. Veins with steep dips are common and these tend to host h.igh-
t.'St gnule ores. PreciOuS metal mineralization also occurs in breccias, coarse clliStic rocks, lind intensely leacht.'<i
rocks: such disseminated Or1! is much lower in gnade but greater in total tonnage and may he amenable to bulk
mining Ulcll ... Kb. DeposiLS and districts. comprising one or more orebodies. cover areOilS from < 10 to -200 kml.
Epithemlal depoSits have been classified on the basis of a1teratinn and gangue mincnUassemblages, metal
contents, sulfide contents, 1lI1U sulfide mineral assembl ages, IUld eliCh scheme has merits. Sli -
cause ores are oxidized by weathering, we prefli r a classification that utili7.e5 gangue mineral llSSCmblages. Wli
describe ""'0 types of minemlil'..llotiOIl anoc!ated with quartz .:t: calcite :I: adularia :I: lillie and quartz .. afunitc :I:
pyrophyllite :I:-dickite.:t: kaolinite 8SSCmblag<.'S, which reflect the pH orhydrulhennal solutions.
Epilllcrmal deposi ts associated with qua.u.:t: <."aldte :I: adularia :to illite contain Au-Ag, Ag-Au , or Ag-PbZn
ores. Electrum. ac.:aJlllLite, silver 51l lfosalts. silver SciCllidt.'S, and AII.Ag tellurides are lILe main gold- and silver-
hearing minerals. with generally minor sphalerite. galena. and chalcopyrite; In some deposits base metals dom
inate the metal assemblage_ Quartz is the principal" gangue mineral accompaniM by variable amounts of chal -
cedony. adularia, illite. pyrite, cllkite, antVor rhodochrosite. the latter ill more Ag- and bllse metal -rich deposits.
Distilll.'tively banded crustiform-collofonn textures, and lattice textures comprising aggregates of ploty calcite
and their quartz pseudomorphs, are common. Hydrothennal alteration is wned and comprises deep regional
propylitic alteration. which gives way upward to iLK'f"Casing amounts of clay, carbonate. and zeolite minerals,
whereas quartz. adulari a, illite, and pyri te fonn proximal alteration zones enveloping orebodies. Ore-grade
mlnernHL-1tion commonly tcnninates upward. and where there has been minima.! erosion. it call be (''Oncealed
beneath regionally extensive blllllkebi or c1ay-carbonate-pyrite or kaolinite-alunite-opal :r pyri te alteration.
Fluid inclusion data Indicate sali nities arc (''OLmnoniy <5 wt percent NaGI equiv for AIL.Ag deposits and -dO to
>20 wt percent NaGl equiv for Ag-Pb-Zn deposits. Stable isotope data indkate that hydrothennal solutions
were composed mostly of deeply circulated meteoric water, with a nil to small and variable component of mag-
matic wnter.
Epithennal deposits associalM with quartz + alunite :I: pyrophyllite :r dickite :r kaoli nite assemblages con-
tain Au :to Ag:t Gu 0(<.'$. Native gold and elect:mm are lIlC mail! ore-bearing minerals, wi th \'Wiablc IlInounls of
pyrite, eu-bearing sulfides 1lI1U sulfosalts such as enargite. luwllite. (,'O\'eIUt e, tetrahedrite. and tcnnantite, plus
sphalerite and telluride minerals, emugite dominates the Gu )"ulfides and Indicates a high-sulfidatiun mte.
Quartz (both massive and \'uggy) and alunite are the main gangue minerals with kandite minerals (dickite
alldfor kaolinite) andlor pyrophyllite_ CoTl(:entric paNems of hydrothemlal alteration envelop the zone of vuggy
ulld massive quartz alteration. which hosts Uri: . Outward. these comprise WILes uf quartz and alunite. dickite .t
kaolinite ur pyrophyllite. and illite or smectitc a1tenltion. surrounded by regional propyUUc alteration. Zones of
illi te or pyruphyUite al teration occur in the roots beneath some deposits. Fluid inclusion data indicatli that salin-
ities are Iypkally <5 to 10 wi percent Nael equiv but may be as hid! as >30wt percent NaGI equiv. Stable iso-
tope data indicate that the alt ering nuids llIe (''OlIlpost.>d mostly of magmatic nuids with a minor to moderate
component of mctt.'Oric water.
Critical genetic factors incl ude; ()) at several -kilometers depth. the delo-elopment of oxidU.ed and acidic
sus reduced and ncar-neutral pH solutions, controlled by lite proportions of magmatic and 1I1<.-tt.'OriC compo-
nents in solution, and lIle amount of subsequent water-rock interaction during ascent to lIle epillLcrmal envi
I Corresponding author tl-mail. ,f.simmorulihuc1c4nd.ac.nz
485
486 SIMMONS T A1-
mnment; (2) at epithermal depths. the of boiling andl"or mixing conditions which create sharp
physical and chemical gradients conducive to precious and base metal precipitation; and (3) at shallO\\l' level.
the position of the WIIter bl.ble, which controls the hydrostatic pressure-temperature gradients lit depth where
epilhen nal mUlcnd.i:tatioli fonlls.
Epithenm:al mineralization can occur in large areas, with orebodies that mnge in shape, size, and gnuJc. lind
lie easily conCt.'aled beneath blankets uf clay alteration or unal tered volcanic deposits. Efficient explOrllliOIJ re-
quires integration of all geological, 8,,""OChcHlical, and geoph)'5lcaJ data, from regional to deposit scale. Vein min-
eralogy and texture. patterns of hydrothcnnal alteration, patterns of geochemical dispersion. and three-di-
mensional interpretation of related geophysical siglla.tures are Important guides. Willingness to drill is crucial,
as surface feat\lre5 may not reliably indicate what is pn .. "SC1l1 al depth.
Introduction
EpmlERMAL deposits fonn in the shallow parts of high-tem-
perature hydrothennal systems that commonly develop in
volcanic arcs (Fig. 1). The deposits are host to both precious
and base metals, but in the past three decades, Uley have
l.Jeen mined mainly for thei r gold and silver contents. The
totn! metal contents of some orebodics are substantial, and lo-
cally the precious metal concentrations of some achieve b0-
nanza grades (>1 MaL Au at >30 gIt; Sillitoe. 1993a). Some
deposits have been amenable to mining by simple methods
dating back many cenhuies (e.g .. Abbot and Wolfe. 20(3).
The Spanish empire reached prominem:e during the colonial
period (ca. 1500-1800 AD) through exploitation of ule ep-
ithermal ores of Mexico, Peru. and Bolivia. rich in either gold
or si lver. [n the mid l SOOs to early l 000s, epilhcnnal
crics fueled gold-silver rushes to Nevada and New Zealand.
During the past few decades, improved ret:overy methods
and favomble gold and silver prices (since the late 19705)
have enabled many low-grade orebodies to be mined. [n total ,
A Magmatic-Hydrothermal B Geothermal

N


, , ,i ' , ,
" v" " v
,

L:
2km
volcanIc rocks
basement
intrusion

. .""
, ,
v" y.

t
R
water table t magmatic fluid
........ " met eoric water , epithermal deposit
Flc. 1. Simplified COnceptllal models of high-temp ern til III hydruthcmlal5)lnems. showing the reladonlhlp ep-
ithermal envimnmenu, nmgmnli(!' Intrusions, !luiu (,1rculllUon paths, and volcaniC and basement hOllI mc:kli, A, TIll, "pither.
mal environment forms in 1I 111agl11l1tic-hydrothennai system dominated by acid hydrothemlaJ fluids, where tllere is II strung
OWl of magmatic IIqulU and vapor. containing li t<), COl. IICI, IItS. and SOt. witll variable inpllt frum lot'al meteoric water.
Ibis type of environment Is analogous tn those existing in modem vok'VnOC!i (e,g . Hedenquisl et al.. 1993: Chrl!!tenson and
Wood, 1993). B, The epithennal environr1l("nt fornu in a geothermal system dominated by near .. ne11lral pi I chloride waters,
where there i5 a strong n'LA of lk>L-ply dn:ulated water (mcmIy of meteoric origin), containing COs. NBC], and HiS. nlis type
of system is analogous to those exploited for generation of electricity (e.g., Simmons wid 8""""". 2(l()(#. b). The inferred lo-
cation of the underlying in hoIh (A) 811d (8) lllC purtnlyed to show the different path IengthJ thai deep nIl'
Ids tra\'erse before encountering the ore-forming enviromTlCnt. The relatively short path 10 the epithermal environment in
(Al meall5 there Is minimal _tef'>ltx:k interaction during ascent. whereas the relatively long path to the epithennal en'; ..
ronmcnt in (8) ml"llJ\S tllcre Is considerable water .. rock Interaction during ascent. TI,,, m.wnmlll prcssun. ..-temperature gra.
dient under hydrostatic conditions is represented by boiling pooul for Ot.'Ptll (8PD) temperatures. which are also Ihown for
reference.
EPITHERMAL PRF.CIOU$ AND BASE METAL DEPOSITS 487
about 6 percent of all gold and about 16 percent of all silver
mined have C(Jme frulll epithermal deposits (Singer. 1995).
and their wide range of tonnage-grade chanl.{:teristics
(Hedenquist et ai. , 2()(x)) make them an attractive target for
both large and small exploration and mining compani es.
The term epithermal derives from the genetic classification
scheme for hydruthermal are deposits proposed by Lindgren
(1933). On the basis of stratigrophic relationships in volcanic
sequences, and by analogy with mi nerdl and metal occur-
rences and mineral textures in active hydrotherm31 systems,
Lindgren inferred that epithermal deposits fomled at <200"C
and <100 (- 100 ban). Aside from the seminal
paper by D.E. White (1955) that strengthened the link to all
active hydrothermal environment, there W.iS little advance in
the understanding of epithemlal deposits until the late 1970s
when exploration interest rose due to the increaosing value of
gold and silver. New research techni ques applied to these de-
pusH's included fluid inclusion studies that extended the range
of formati on temperature to lIhout 3(X)"C (e.g., Nash, 1972;
and Ohmoto, 1977; Kamilli and Ohmoto. 19TI;
Sawkins et 31.. 1979; Buchanan, 1981 ), and stable isotope
studi es that indicated the prevalence of meteoric waters in
the formation of gangue minerals from some epithermal de-
posi ts (e.g . O'Neil and Silbennlln, 19i4; Casadevall and
Ohmoto, 1977; Kamilli and Ohmoto. 19TI; Sawkins et aI. ,
1979). Experimental and theomti<.w tl.'dmiqucs were used to
t1etcnniuc metal solubilities and mineral stabilities tlTlder hy-
drothermal conditions (e.g., Sewanl, 1973; Barton et al.,
1977; Barnes, 1979), which led 10 numerical simulations of
reaction paths and ore formation (Reed, 1982; Drummond
and 01.111010, 1985; Reed and Spycher, 1985; Spyeher and
Reed, 1989).
Meanwhile, in Nt!W Zealand, Japan, Philippines. United
Stales, and other countries, the demand for altenlative
sources of electricity em:ouragcd geothermal exploration
drilling and development. Temperatures and simi-
lar to those in the epithemlal environment were encountered
at depths of less than 1 km (e.g .. White. 1981 ; Henley lUlti
Ellis, 1983), and precious amI metals were found de
posited in springs. wells, and surface pipes (e.g .. Weissberg,
1969, Hedenquist and Henley, 1985a; Brown, 1986; Krupp
and SeWHro, 1987). The rapid increase in understanding at
the time was such that the first two volumes uf Reviews ill
Economic Geology focused on the nature of epithermal envi-
ronments (Henley et al .. 1984; Berger and Bethke, 1985).
Thus, by the mid 1980s, genclic models were formulated to
explain the occurrence and zonation of metals and minerdls,
to define the physical-chemical col1ditiuns of ore deposilion
in several epithermal depoSits, and to prOvide a basis (or spec-
ulnuon on the sources of fluids and metals (e.g., Barton et a.I. ,
1977; Kamilli and Ohmntu, 1977; Sawkins et 31. , 1979;
Buchanan, 19SI; Berger and Eimon, 1983; Henl ey and Ellis,
1983; Hayba et aI., 1985; Heald et aI. , 198i; Stoffregen,
1987). In these models, hydrology \VQS seen to be an e5sential
fador in producing Ofe deposits, with boiling and fluid mixing
being recognized as causative agent.s for metal deposition.
Because they o\'erlap in temperature and metal suite, Carlin-
type depoSits were initially included in the epithermal realm
by several workers (e.g . Radtke et al., 1980; Berger and
Bethke. 1985; Radtke. 1985; Berger and Henley, 1989), but
they were later defined as a distinct class of sedimentary rock-
hosted hydrothermal ore deposits (Kuehn and Rose, 1992,
1995; Horstra and Cline, 2000; Cline et aI .. 2005). The mod-
em use of the term epithe nnal thus retains much of Lind-
gren's intent and inSight.
Since 1990, numerous articles have reviewed the nature
and genesis of epithennal gold-silver deposits (e.g., \Vhil e
and Hedenqwst. 1990, Sillitoc, 1993a, h; Arribas, 1995,
Hichards, 1995; Simmons. 1995; Cooke and Simmons, 2000;
Jensen and Barton, 2000; Sillitoc and Hedenquist. 2003). in
this paper ..... 'C draw heavily on these references together \vi th
data, mostly published since 1975, tabulated for more than 70
epi tllCrmal depoSits (sec App. Table AI ) that were selected to
represent the range of typical characteristics and geographiC
distribution. The ileposits ci ted below as examples nre listed
in the Appendix along with their relevant references. and
their locations are shown in Figure 2. Plan maps of some de-
posits (Fig. 3) show the main geologiC features and the di-
mensions of ore zones. Our ai m in this paper is to provide an
overvi ew of the tliversi ty of features that characterizes ep-
ithennal deposits and to relate the..>;e to C(Jmmon ore-forming
processes and to suggest stnltegie5 for exploration.
Definition and Classification
The term epitherm31 refers to a range of temperature ver-
sus depth (pressure) ore-forming contlitions that develop
within much larger, mainly subaerial, hydrothermal systems
(Fig. 1). Depth relates directly to pres.sure in the shallow en-
virunment where near-hydrostatic conditions prevail. with
maximum temperature largely controlled by the boiling-
point-for.depth curve (e.g., Haas, 1971; Fig. 4). Ore minerals
precipitate at temperatures ranging from _150 to _300C
and at depths ranging frolll -so to as much as 1.500 m below
the water table, caused by chemical changes that result from
sharp pressure and tempe rature gradients in this environ-
ment . These physical controls define the epithermal environ-
ment. although ore genesis also depends on the composition
of the hydrot hcnnal solutions, whiell controls metal transport
and deposition (e.g., Henley, 1985). Such metal-transporting
solutions vary in composition and differ in origin (e.g., Ar-
ribas, 1995; Simmons, 1995) and thus vary in their metal en-
dowment (e.g., A1binson e1 aI., 2(01).
Lindgren (1933) showed that despite sharing common
gangue minerdl assemblages, metal inventorie5 of epithermal
deposits range Widely, with varying proportions of gold. silver,
ana base metals. including mercury, a.lllimony. tellurium, and
seleuium. Lindgren recognized their diverse characteristics
when he distinguished nine deposit based on metal oon-
tents (Le., dnnabar, stibnite, base metal, gold, argentite gold,
argentite, gold telluride, gold tellUride with alunite, gold se-
lenide). Nevertheless, epithennal depoSits mined todny are
prindpallya source of precious metals.
Since the late 19705. over a dozen classification schemes
have been proposed (Table 1). All or them consider some as-
pect of ore or gangue mineralogy and most reflect some as-
pect of the fluid chemistry (pH, oxidation state, or sulfidation
state) associated with proximal hydrotherm31 31teration
andlor ore mineralization (Table 2). That so many schemes
have been proposed reflects the wide rd,nge of chlltl:l.cteristic
features displayed by orebodies, as well as the evolution in
488 SIMMONS ET A.L
Ftc. 2.. Lxation of t-pithcnllal deposi.u)me<! in Appeodb: Table AI. labels include 1nosl okpos.l'I mcntiunl.-U in the ,""
but some Ilre leA: out for darity. Abbreviations: Sa ,. Baguil'l (ACUpotn); 8M 8m Marc; Bo ... Bolide"; CC .. Crip-
ple Crce\c.: Ch .. Chinkuashlh. ehe ... Chelopecll: CP ... Cerro de Pasco:> lind Culquijiru.-San Gregorio; Cr ... Cracow; en ...
Cerro RIc:o; CV ... CeITO Vangllardia: EI-P ... EllndiO-PIlSt:UIl: Em ... Emperor. EP ... 1::1 Pel'lon; Es .. Esqnel; Fr .. Fres.nillo:
ru .. Fllrtel: Cto .. Guanajll.lll0; H8 ... Hope BrooI<; HI .. Hlshikarl; In ... Jukanl: Kc .. Kelian: La .. LadOlolll; Lto-Vi .. t..ep.
anto-Victoria; I.e .. Ltt Coipa: Ma .. Murtha Hill-favona: Me .. Mclaughlin: Mi .. 0.. ... Ovacik: PII . PilChm:a- Real
del Monte: Pi .. furina; Pj .. Pajingo: Po .. Porgera; r v .. Puehlo Viejo; R1o.'1 .. Round Mountaiu; Ro .. RodaIqullar; Ta
TM)\'ltihl: Tc .. Temora; Y . .. Yanacocha.
thinking. Acid-base and redllction-oxidation fluid-mi neral
equilibria underpin the par.unefers that distinguished acid
from alkali ne types (Sillitoe. 1977), aCid-sul fate or a1unite-
kaoli nite from adularia-sericite types (Hayba et al. . 1985;
Heald et aI . 1987; Berger and Henl ey. 1989), and high-
from low-sulfidatioll types (Hedenquist. 1987: White and
Hecl enqllist . 1990, 1995; Sill itoe, 19933.; White and POi7..at .
1995).
TABU: I. Evolution of Sehemi!! Applied 10 Erid...,n",.! Olpos;t' C .. >Odlfll"ti from SllIItoe ilnd Il edenquist. 20(3)
Silliloe (1977)
BuehalWl (1981)
Ashley ( 1982)
Gik'S all,] Nelson ( 1!l!:I2)
Bonham (1986. 1988)
lIayba I!t aI. (1985)
i1e-ald et al. (I98i)
Hl-dcnquist (1987). White and
Hcdcnqui$t (1990, 1995)
BlI'rgll'rand IllI'nley (l9AA)
Alhino alld Margolis (1991)
Sillituc (iu.s9. 1993a)
\\o1l1le and Poiw! (1995)
Hedenquist ct ai, (2000).
Elnaudi et aI_ (2003),
Sillitoe and Hedenquisl (2000)
Cooke &lid (!!003)
Acid
En2r'gitll' gold
High $ulfur
Acid sulfate
High sulfidation
Alunite-kaoli nite
Il ighSulr;cbtion
High sulf1dation
An-Ag-CII
deposits Wllh
vujlg)' qUIl.l1:t
iIlteration
AU-Ag-Cu

pyrophylUte-sericlte
alleration
High sulf.datiull
Alkalii'll!
Epithl!':nnaI
Hot-spring type
Low sulfur
Aduram.-seridl!:
Low ,ulfldaUon

T)'pII' I Il<tulllrill-scrilile l)-pe 2 adularla-SI!ricit e
Low sulfldation
High sulfide + h.:ue metal Low mlftdc base metal
Low sulfldatlon
Sn-Ag-base
metal
deposits
Ag-Au-base
m,'"
depos,tJ;
Inlennedi:lle sulfidation
Au-Agc!epos,15
Wilh calc-ultu.liuc alkaline
,,,lclllile rocks yolcanic rocks
Low suilldallon
Descripth"fl nomenclature based on ore metals. dcpoJlt form, diagnostic h)pogene gangup. and ",iIlCOOs,
&lid dominant Cu-buring mineral
EPITHE.RMAL PRE.CIOUS AND BASE ME.TII.L DE.POSITS 489
l'..\I;ILE 2. DiIIgnl)slic Minerals and Textures of Variow; Stutes of pH, Sulfldation and OxIdation Stille 10
DIstinguish Epithcrmal Ore-F"orming En\1ronmentf (Ciggl."bad" 199i; Einaudi et aI., 2(00)
of h)Jlhens between minerals md/Ulles an equilibrium for wltid. all phases need to be present)
kid II II
Alunite. kaolinite (clicklte), pyrophylUte.
reskluab-uggy q.....rt:"l
Hig/, . ulfodlltiofl
Ntlltrol pH
Quartz-adularia J. illik, .
t.l/ernwiiat, ,ulftdotkm
IUZ(lnite. co\,eUite-
digenite, famatinitc, orpimenl
Te.lIlantite, tetrahedrite, hematite-pyrite-
magnetite. pyrite, chalcopyrite,
Fe-poor 'Pfl&lcrile-pynte
Low tu!fidDtion

pyrrhOlite, Fe-rich sphalerite.pyritc
Oxidlzccl
Alunite, hematitc-lIl11j1;llChte
Application of the term which in respect to
cpithermal deposits was initially used to describe the oxida.
tion state of aqueous sulfur species of deep ore.forming solu-
tions (Hedenquist, 1987; Hetlcnquisl and Lowenstem, 1994).
was merged to agree with its other usc in ore
petrology to describe the stabilities of sulfur-beari ng minerals
in terms of sulfur fugacity (e.g., Barton and Skinner, 1967,
1979; Hedenquist et al. , 1994; Einaudi et al., 2(03). This re-
sul ted from recognition that epithermal ore mineml assem-
blages (:ould be distinguished in terms of lhcir high-, inter-
mediate-, or low-sulfidation state (John et a1. , 1999) and iJlat
fluids forming these assemblages could change sulfidation
stutes in response to chemical evolution both in space and
time (Ein3udi el aI., 20(3). The variability in ore minerology
(cspcciruly Fe-, Cu-, and As-bearing sulfides) and in the sulfl-
dation states be correlated to pnxJe!i.Ses wiiJlin the ep-
ithermnl environment , as well as to igneous rock compositions
and tectonic setting, the latter reflecting fundamental con-
trols beneath iJle orefonning environmcnt (John et al.. 1999:
John, 2001; Sill itoe and Hedenquist, 2003; see Table 3), Al-
though there is much remaining to learn about these rela
tionships, the slllfidation-stnte tenninology refleds the cvolu
tion of ascending hydrothemlal fluids and assists in
understanding the genesis of epithermal deposits (Einaudi ct
al . 2003).
111e classification schemes in Table 1 that are based on al-
teration and gangue minerals associated wiiJl gold and silver
",",,ad
MlIgnetile'pyrite'p)'IThotlle, chlorite-pyrite
ore are useful, cspccinlly at the early stages of prospect eval
uation, because their respet.1:ive rock textures and alteration
zonation patterns can be distinguished in the field or with
lIlinimni petrographiC study. By comparison, the sulfide min-
enlis in epithennal deposits that occur near the surface and in
tht! vadose zone are susceptible to rapid oxidation and con
version to supergene minerals. Thus, the potential inSights re-
sulting from determining the sulAdation states of precious
metal mineralization may be elusive or difficuJt to determine
from field examination of rocks and may not be precisely es-
tablished until exploratiun uf a prospect or deposit is well un-
derway. The hvo cndmember types descril>ed below are
based on the hypogene gangue millenll assemblages that con
tain quam. :t (.-alcite ;z; adularia :t illite and + alunitc :t
pyrophyllite :t dickite :t kaolinite. These minerol o.ssemblages
form from solutions of near neutml and acid pH, respectively,
but as discussed later in this paper, iJ\C fluid compositions in
ferred from these mineral assemblages may differ from iJIC
(.'ompositions of ore-forming nuids transporting metals.
Cooke and Deyell (2003) suggested another means of classi-
fying deposits that is based on the metal contents, deposit
form. diagnostic hypogene gangue and alteration minerals,
and iJle dominant Cu bearing mineral (Table I ), similar to the
deSCriptive proposal made earlier by White and Hedenquist
(1990). This classification has merit but is dependent on de-
posit familiarity. the lellbrth of the names may limit its future
use.
TABLE 3. Summll1)' of RcUtl.iUnships Sulfldadon Stille of Ore-Forming Environment, Related Igneous RocIc ComjXl>&itioN,
and Tectonic Setting Proposed by Sillitoc antfHedeoquist (20(3)
Sulfldat10n nate Igneous mek composition'
<..:ak-a1lailinc. andesillHiacite
il)Iermcdiale Cak:-alkalil1c, audesite-myolile
Caic-allcatine, alkaline, tholeiitic biTnudul hasalt-rhyolite
I Genetic relaliollslul' ... ferred hy temporal-spatial condation
Tectonic St.-thllg
Magmatic an: In a neutral to milc1ly eJ.tensional stress state:
COll1pres5i't'l!; stress state UTKOmmon but se .... -es 10 suppress
\"O!clI.llic acti>ity
Magmatic arc In I neutral to mildly Cl<Iell$ionaJ stress state;
compressive Slreu stale I"Ilre
Magmatic arc undergoing exteTUion leading to T1fting;
pnstcollisional T1ftlng
490 SIMMONS ET Al_
Cerro Vanguardia 131 tAu
1,605 tAg
Guanajuato
.......
175 t Au
34,850 t Ag
,
Cracow
) _.-
f ( ,
, ' ,
,
Puebl o Viejo
--
26 tAu
30 tAg
1,242 t Au
7,062 t Ag
--t K-
\ "

-""-
iii ....

--

\.
...
' \ ' . "

". .
"-...... ...
,-
,
....
. "'"'--
. o-- Fd
Rodalquilar
/'
,:
,
,
,
"
"
---
_ AdIIWlCed IrgIIIic
....
_ Intenntodiatl arviIIiC

. ....

.. .. .. ..
.. .. .. ..

.. -'-
\
\,
\, .
' .. -
"
10 t Au
_ ....
0 _
I .lbl.ndanI 2 ..... u.
'"
115 t
393 tAg
...
1"'1(;, 3. Sketch maps of f!pitM:rmal depos,ts, SllO"o1ng the outlines of orebodles grouped according to K:aJe. 11leSe .nus-
half! the great vlIriahility in lilt: sizes llml shapes of orcbodles. Note that total production conelates poorly ,,;ti, the IIna] Cl[-
I .. nl of orcs. ",hidl is further n:l1ectcd In the data set reported In APpP.ndit Tahle Al MUI)S IIfC n.-dn<v. .. , U pn.'scntoo in pub-
lications 10 there Is some Inconsistency In, for example, locahng the uf veins. References for each dqx>sil
given In the Table Al.
"
Fresnillo
Acupan
,/---,.-'
..- .. -
.,<
/'

Ellndio
PRECI OUS AND BASE METAL DE. POStTS
-
200 t Au
200 t Ag

26 t Au
16,050 I Ag
Emperor
136 t Au
Martha Hill-Favona 263 I Au
1,253 lAg

Hishikari 260 I Au
140lAg


}ole. 3. (WI'.)
Summitville 17 t Au
231Ag
-:;.:.:..'--. ......... .
' .
....
-..., ... , ....
_u.--.. _____ ...


,-
491
-
492 SIMMONS ET AL..
A B C

Vertical distribution Alteration zonation at

of minerals the water table
i '. .


=:

in boiling upflow zone
......
... 1>. it

=

Temp rC) ij'"
Depth (m) t i .... 1OciiiiD _3' OII
acid alteration massive opal
".
0
"''iil I
ii
,
, ,.
,
,
,
, 1;
,
,
,

,
D
,
"',!!! QI
,
,
- \ !i

Depth (m)
crlstobalite + sulfur
..
\
o-
J
massive opal
,
,
1
,
,
,

,
\
a
"
, ..
\

11
..
I

, , , , , ,
".
.. ..
Temperature rCJ
FtG. 4. Kfl)' indieator minenls in "''Pitilol"rmal er,\;mnme:n15. A.. Stability range uf temperature-sensitive cbys. phy!IosiH
elliei'. IIntl ".oolite'! (Jll'mley and Ellis, lU83: Keyes. 1990). B. Vertocal distrihulion of some of the l'IIJrle lot'led ac-
cordi ll 10 tlepth. the hydmstatk: holling curve.., th", reference Temperature gr.I.iCIlt. C. Diagnostie h roI hermai
fanning at the wal eI' table, comprising silica sinter where near.neutral 1' 1-1 waters dbcharge arotJlI ooiliug hOlt
springs and vmicall)' acid alterntion (modified from $illilue, 199.%). D. MagnifICation of ZUll(.oU steam.
ho!:ued acid alteration lit th.., table (Schoen aI., 1974, SlmlTlOlU and Browne. 2000a); cristoballte and sulfur form lit
and alxwe the water table; tabular opal forms at and below the water table; lIIunite and kaolinite form III and below
the WlIter table and the 'WIle of manl\'e opilI.
General ChlUllcteristics of Epithennnl Deposits
Epi thermal deposits comprise epigeneHc ores that are g(:n-
erally hosted by coeval and older volcani c rocks and/or un-
derlying basement rocks and rarely by subvolcanie intrusions.
They cover areas that range from dO to >l(X) km! (Fig. 3).
The orebodies occur in a diversity of shapes that reflel.1 the
infl uence of structural and litholOgical controls, and they rep-
resent leopenneability within the shallow parts of
once adive h rothermal systems (Figs. 3, 5). Most com-
monly, ore 'es occur in vei ns with steep dips that formed
through di lation and extension. Some are hosted by major
faults but more commonly they are hosted by minor faults
(seoond- or third-ortler structures) with small displacements
(dO m). Optimum structural development generally de-
pends on rock rheology and briUlc failure. Uthology is also
important, especially where contrasts in porosity and perrTle-
ability focus the fluid flow through spedfie unilS, along rock
contacts, or through pemleable masses of breeciated rock.
These lithologic feat ures may be an inhinsic chamcterislie of
the original rock; alternatively, th!:!y may be a byproduct of
hydrothermal altemtion and chemical dissolution or hy-
drothermal brecciation (Sillitoe, 1993b). Thus, faults and
fracture neI:Y.'Orks. as welt as breccias, coarse clastic rocks. and
intensely leached rocks account for the spectrum of vein-re-
lated to disseminated ore.'i (Table 4), which can extend for
l 00s to 1.000s of meters laterally and lOs to 1005 of meters
vertically. The dominant gangue mineral is quart-z. making
ores hard and generally resistant to weathering. and the dom-
inant sulfide mineral is pyrite, wi th sulflde contents that can
range from <,1 to >20 vol percent.
Melal endowments
Most orcs arc mined for gold and silver, and there is a spec-
trum of gold-rich (AWAu ratio dO, locally <1; e.g . Cracow
;lnd Pajingo, Australia; Hishikari, Jap.m; ACl1pan lmd Antamok
in Baguio, Philippines: Ladolam, Papua New Guinea: Hound
Mountain, United St'.ites) to silver-rich deposits (Ag/Au ratins
-20-200; e.g., Pascua-L:\ma and La COipa, Chile; Tayoltita,
Guannjuato, and Paehuea-Real del Monte. Mexico; Comstock
and Tonopah, United States). Some of these are copper bear-
ing, with high- to intermediafe-suUid,lfion-state mineroJ as-
semblages containing As and Sb (e.g., Yanacocha, Peru: EI
Indio, Chile; Lepanto, Philippines; Goldfield. United States).
There are also Ag-Pb-Zn deposits (wit h subordinate Cu, As,
and Sb) that are poor ill Au (AWAu ratio >4(0). and thei r dis-
tribution is restricted to provincia] belts of minem.lization, best
N
--
.m
-
-
.. '"
.,.,
EI'lTIIF.RMAL I'RECfOUS ANU BASE METAL DEPOSITS
Martha Hill
s s
Ladolam
----
----
\

+ + + + +
\+ + + + + +
\+++++

+/ +- +
... +'"
-
y'l
.IJ 'I
I'
""'-...
['""'] , -3
,
_3- 7
. ,_15
,
,
=m
_ >\5
-
I
, ___
,"'IG. 5. Eumples of strul'l.ural and litliological oontrols on orebody At Mllrtha l!ill, preo:.Wus metal mint' niliza
tIon is l!lItill'ly host<!rl in steeply dippIng ,'('irl! O'o'er j\ 500' 111 vertic.;a.l inlervW (red""wu (rom not ..
thallh., tops of the \"irlll are cut Ioy .. n erosional ""t.'tmfonnil)' ....... riain by 1111:Ilt ... n.'<I Ignlmh",c, AI Jisseml nal/!rl
Okllllusdyoccurs '" subhorV.nnh.] tabular 7.DntlS J,usted by n culllpiCJ( 5ef1uell(.'O;: of volcanic IIml hydrothermal breec\a.$ (re-
dl1lWJl from C.armllll, 20(3).
493
N
".
+
+
+ .,,,,
+
. =
...
N
''''
-
-.,,,,
...
...
exemplified by those CM.:c.:urring in northern Mexico (e.g., F res-
nillo and Zocah."cas). Even more isolated in occurrcm.:e are ex-
amples like Cerro Rico de Potmi, Bolivia, which, albeit ep-
ithcnnal in style and the largest silver deposit in thl! world, is
a vmiant of mineralization found in the Ag-Sn belt of Bolivia,
wl, ere deposits fom,ed II I <.'Ondltions generally deeper and hot-
ter than eplthem)al (e.g. , Sill.itoe et at., 1998).
Geologic panllneters afTet.1ing produd:ion of epithennal orcs
include mineralization !>tyle (e.g., structurally t.'Ontrolled versus
disseminated), grade distribution, and supergene oxidation, all
of which can afTe<:t the cost of mining and metallurgical pro-
<' "eS.o;ing. Open-pit are used for large lonnage low-
grade (1-2 g Au/I; 90 g AWt) oreborues (e.g., Round Mountain,
United State .. ; Real de Angeles, Mcxk'O), with gold in oxidized
ores being amenable to low-cost heap-leach treatment. Under-
ground mctllods are generally used to exploit small to mode.'iI:
tonnage but higl l-brrnde (10->100 g Au/I, >500 g AWl) orebod-
ies (e.g., Hishikari, Japan; Emperor, Fiji: Fresnillo, Mexico), ex-
cepl where they inter.;ect the surface and can be mined from
open cuts (e.g., Cerro Vanguardia, Argentina). At finer scale,
within individual orebodies, the highly variable nature of gold
and silver H.'isays over distances of [c.'iS than a few meters, makes
gmde control a critical part of successful mining, especially
where ores are hosted in structum17.Qnes.
llclation.sli'p to igneous rocks
Most epithennal deposits are affiliated with coeval VOIC-.lOic
rocks alld subvolC'.mic intrusive eCJuivalents of predominantly
T.ul.f; 4. Ceometric-ltl Controls on Penueabllit;.' and Epithennal Ordxxlleli (modifit'() rrom SiUitoe, 1993b)
Structural,
Infiuef\<.'t.'<i by raulu
and
",fiuenced
loy the and
fellcthity of fluids
Lithological: mf\ucnced
by the physi\."!
dwact",rUticl or rocks
Orebodies

faul t Inlel'S(!(;tions
Hydrothennal breccia;
lind
V\'ggy (Iuam
Str.lt:aoo.mu dinemil\:lliollS
Permeabil ity CQ!ltml
Exl<!ll5iontTllllstension $t.'t.'Ond and thin.l-order
dllational jOgS and bends:
hriltk rl1tCturing
o.."rpressuri ng follw.'Cd by hydruuUc rr.letlLnng
or hydmthemml eruption: III"-'Ic;e II(:Id leaching
Ignimbrite :md/or rimel.tal)'
unit that is \.IJl<.vnsolidalf)(\ or ,hat has easily
dissolYed l-crncnt: rook .. U\tacts S<!Jlo,,,,ung
p!!mlt."I\bIc and impt'rJlocable
Examples
Martha HiU
Mclaughlin
Tayo!titll
Hi5hikari
"'.- Comstock
t.ndolam
Cripple Creek
Summitville
Nansa'$\1 district
Acupwi
GtJldflcld
lInacocha

Round Mool\lain
Chlnkuru;hi h
y.".",.;,.
494 SIMMONS T ~
calc-alkaline affinity that form in magmatic arcs resulting
from convergent plate movement and plate .subduction
(Sawkins, ]990; Sillitoe and Hedcnquist. 2003). Cold-silver,
Au :i: Ag ::I: Cu, and Ag-P!rZn deposits are all found in vol-
cani c sequences containing andesite, dacite, and rhyolite.
T h ~ s e calc-alkaline magmas are relatively oxidi7-ed (magmatic
oxygen fugacity ;j?: nickel-nickel oxide bulTer; e.g., Hifdreth,
1981; John, 2001; Einaudi ct aI. , 20(3) and generated by par-
tial melting of the mantle wedge above suLc:luding oceani c
lithosphere (e.g., Gill, 1981; Lulu, 1992). Epithermal Au-Ag
deposits of relatively low A'J/Au ratio are also found with vol-
canic rocks that erupted in 1ack-arc and continental-rift envi-
mnments, producing reduced tholeiitic magmas with bimodal
basalt-rhyoli te t.'OmIHlSi ti ons. The best documented examples
are in the Creat Basin of the western United States (Hildreth,
1981; Jolm, 2001 ).
There are some important exceptions to these gcneml
trends, including the few, but very large, Au-Ag :t Te deposits
that are closely related to alkaline volcanic rocks that were de-
rived from oxidized and hydrous mafic magmas (Hiehards,
1995; Jensen and Barton, 2000). Such magmas form outside
conventional volcanic arcs in zones of crust where deeply
penetrating tensional structures developed through rifting
(e.g., Cripple Creek, United States; Ladolam, Papua New
Cuinea; Emperor, Fiji) or postsubduction tectonism (e.g.,
Porgera, Papua New Guinea; Sillitoe, 1993a; Richards, 1995;
Jensen and Barton, 2000). The corrclation of magma compo-
sition and metru assemblage is also seen at Cerro Rico de Po-
tos!, where host volcanic rocks for the Ag-Sn ores consist of
relatively rooue<..>d ilmenite-bearing rhyodacite (Sillitoe et aI .,
1998). The late Pliocene-Pleistocene age MCLaughlin de-
posit, Cruifomia, formed during activity of tite Clear Lake vol.
canic Aeld that erupted in response to upwelling of mantJe
through a slab window in a largely tmnspressional environ-
ment east of the San Andreas tnmsform fault (Sherlock et aI.,
1995; Dickinson, 1997). These exceptions highlight the \vide
range of tectonic settings that can host mineralization noted
by SiUitoe and Hedenqwst (2003).
PreseflXlt/on In the geologiC record
Civen the relatively shallow depth of formation, epither-
mal deposits may have poor preservation potential in the ge-
ologiC record, because they commonly form in high-renef
volcanic arc settings and because (.'Onvergent plate bound-
aries are espet.'ially prone to phases of rapid uplift and ero-
sion. Thus, 3 majority of deposit' are Tertiary or YOUl lger
(Table A I ), and there are major deposits that have formed
since 2 Ma (e.g., Lepanto. Philippines; Hishikari , Japan;
Ladolam, Papua New Cuinea; McLaughlin, United States).
However, older deposits have been preserved where their
host volcanic belts are well preserved, such as tJlC Mesozoic
deposits (e.g., Cerro Vanguardia, Argentina) of the Desendo
massif in Patagonia and the Paleo7.0ic deposits (e.g., Temora,
Pajingo, and Cracow) of the Tasman fold belt in eastern AIlS-
lralia, as well as si miJar examples in Mongolia and Hussia
(Yakubchuk et aI., 2005). Precambrian examples are also re-
ported for Canada, Scandinavia, and Australia but, to date,
the known very ancient epithennal deposits are small (Dube
et at., 1998; Hallberg. 1994; Turner et aI., 2001; Huston et
at., 2002).
Active Epithermal Environments
Active epithermal envi ronments in geothermal and mag-
matic hydrothermal systems (Fig. 1) were important to the
conception and classification of epithermru deposits (Ran-
SOll1e, 1907; Undgren, 1933). Such high-temperature hy-
drothennal systems are located in geologic settings analogous
to epithermal deposits (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Henley,
1985), and they provide a context in which the mineral prod-
ucts of hydrotJlennai act.ivity can be compared with (.'uexisting
fluids at known tempemtures, pressures, mass flows, and
chemical compoSitions. For example, the occurrence of spec-
tacular sulfide scales, containing 6 wt percent Au and 30 wt
percent Ag, 011 back-pressure plates (downstream of the
throttle point) within surface pipe work at the Broadlands-
Ohaaki geothermal field was shown to be the direct conse-
quenceofboiling (flashing) of a fluid at 260 10 lSOoC initially
(''Olltaining about J to 2 ppb Au (Brown, 1986). Although the
low-saliltily 0.5 wt % NaC!) and near-neutrAl pH solution is
initially undersaturated in brold and silver, the flashing envi-
ronment results in quantitative precipitatiun of precious met-
als, highlighting the efficiency of metal precipitation induced
by boiling in tile epithermal regime. With geothennal wells
drilled to >2.5-km depth (>300C), such active systems pro-
vide an overview of hydrot hermal processes occurring witltin,
above, below, Imd on the periphery of tlle epithermal envi-
ronment (e.g., Henley and Ellis, 1983; lIedenquist, 1990;
Heres, 1990; Simmons and Browne, 2000a, b). Here we
briefl y examine the main fluid types and corresponding hy-
drothcmlal miner& assemblages of active environments
(Henley and Ellis, 1983; Ciggenbach, 1992a, 1997) as a
framework for understanding hydrothermal minernls in ep-
ithennal depoSits (Table 5), described in greatcr detail below.
Ceothennal systems
Ceothermal systems in volcanic arcs and rifts involve deep
convective circulation of meteoric water driven by shallow in-
trusion of magma at >4-km (?) depth. At the deepest level ex-
plored by geothcnnal wells, these chloride waten;-sn-called
due to the dominant anion-are reduced and have near-neu-
tral pH and contain from 0.1 to > 1 wt percent CI, up to 3 wt
percent CO2, and l Os to l00s of ppm H2S; the latter is an im-
portant ligand for aqlleous transport of gold and silver as
bisulfide complexes (Seward, 1973; Seward and Barnes,
1997). The concentrations of the main aqueous constituents
represent equilibrium with quartz, albite, adularia, illite, chlo-
rite, pyrite, calcite, and epidote, which form as secondary
minerals during alterAtion of igneous rocks (Barton et aI .,
1977; Giggenbach, 1997). The fluid reaches equilibrium with
the rock alld its constituent minerals where flow is slow,
through a Hrock-domillated' or rock-buffered environment,
to form a propylitic alteratioll assemblage (Ciggenbach,
1997). BOiling occurs in the central upflowiug column of fluid
down to 1- to 2-km depth helow the water table, controll ed by
near-hydrostatic pressure-temperature conditions (Fig. 4). In
this environmcnt, quam., adularia, and calcite (usualry platy)
deposit in open spaces and subvertical channels from the
boiling and cooling li qUid (e.g., Simmons and Browne,
2OOOb). Depending 011 the permeability structure, the chlo-
ride waler may rise to the surface to discharge and deposit
fITHERMAL PRECI OUS AND BASE METAl. DEPOSITS 495
TAIlL.5. Summaz or lI yc!mr hennaJ Fonnlng in Erithermal Environmcnts
Altention
Adv. AzglIlic: (lteamheated)
Adv. AzglIlic: (magmatic:
'"""""nnol)

Quartz. K.feldqm (adularia), albi te, Illite.
chlorite, calcite, epidote, pyrite
Illite. SIIll-'CtitC. chlorlte,lnter-layered d:ty.t,
pyrite, calcite (slderlt!!), chaJoedooy
Opal, alunite ( .. ttit". powdery. fine-gralned.
l)Seudocubic-), bolinltc, pyrite, marcasite
alulI;t" (lIIbular). dickite. pyrophyllite.
(duaspore. 'mfIytte)
Occurrence IlIld
Develop! at >24O"C deep ill the "pithcnnal environment through
alt!!mtion by near.neutnil pH "''Ilters
Dt.:vc!ops at <18O"C on the pericb!!ry and In tlle sh..tlow epithermal
environment through altemtion by sh.'aI1l-heated COrrieh waters
Develops at 0( 12O"C 1M.'IlC the water tab/f! IlI\d In tIN!
q)ltlocnnal through altemlioo by steflm-I .... 'Il\(.-d
lI(.;d-sul rate waters; locally associated with silica sinter but only In
geotlwmnall)'Stems
Develops at ,2O)"C .. ithin the epithermal environment through
altellition by magrnatkrived acidic w.llers
Adv. A<gilllc (rupergene) A1unit!!, kaolinite. halloysite. jttrorltc, Fe oxioo Dllveklps at 0(40"C tI.lUugh wt:athcring IlI\d oxidation or
sullld6-b.:arillg rock,
silica si nter where topography intersects the geothermal
water tablc; wternativcly, this liqUid may disperse laterally
through an outflow zone.
By contrast, dissol\lt!d gases (mainly COl and H2S) separate
from the liqUid into vapor due to boiling and rise to the sur-
face wong Ii path distinct from the residunlliquid. The risi ng
gases, COl and H2S, may be partially absorbed into cool
ground waters at sh3.lIow levels, along with (:ondensed water
vapor, to form two types of steam-heated waters, COt-rich
and acid-sulfate. C0 2-rich steam-heated waters (."Uutain high
concentrations of dissolved CO
2
(> 1 wt %) and tend to accu-
mulate at shallow levels. They drape the stagnant margi ns of
the upflow zolle to depths &, much as J ,000 m below the
water table. Their distribution is best known at Bmadlands-
Ohaaki, where weaklr. addic steam-heated waters alter vol-
canic rocks to an argillic assemblage dominated hy clay min-
erals (illite, ilIite-smet..tite, smectite, and kaolinite), calcite,
and siderite at temperatures up to about 150C (Hedenquist,
1990; Simmons ana Browne, 2000b).
Acid-sulfate steam-heated waters are close to 100C and
form in the vadose 7..one where H2S comes into atmospheriC
contact and oxidizes to H2S04. Their pH is -2, and they con-
tain relatively high concentrations of sulfate (-1,000 mJikg).
These waters al ter rocks to an advanced argillic assemblage
of opal (cristobalite), alunite, kaolinite, and pyri te as the so-
lution is neutrAlized near the water table (Sehocn et al ,
1974). The distribution of these three WAter types largely de-
pends upon topographically controlled hydraulic gradients.
In low-relief volcanic settings (e.g., calderas, flow-dome
(.'Omplexes, rifts), the steam-heated waters occur above and
on the pt!riphery of the chlOride-water plume, whereas in
high-relief settings (e.g., andesitic composite cones), the
steam-heated waters may extend from the snmmit to the
lower flanks of the volcanic edifice; under the influetl(:e of
such a steep hydraulic gradient, chloride waters may flow lat-
erally long distances (>5 km) to form subsurface outflow
zones (Henley and Ellis, 1983). Hybrid compositions form
where the waters mix.
Magmfl tic "yd,othenrw[ system.r
Magmatic hydrothem,al systems, unlike geothermal sys-
tems, are rarely drilled because of their acidi c conditions
and high lcmperahlTes. What we know of subsurface condi-
tions is from gases discharged from fumaroles at 100" to
>8ooC, acidic hot springs, and hydrothennally altered
rocks ejected by explOSive eruptions <e.g., Hedenqulst et w. ,
1993), An exception is in the Philippines, where several
magmatic hydrothennal systems with zones of very reactive
fluids have been explored for their gcothennal energy po-
tential (Heyes, 1990; Delfin et aI., 1992; Reyes et al., 1993,
2003). Existing data on the metal cont ents of hi gh-temper a-
ture volcanic discharges indicate the potential for substan-
tial flux of both precious and base metals (Hedenquist,
1995). Within the ccntral upflow column overlyi ng shallow
intnlsions, the fluids in these systems are dominated by
magmatic componeuts, including BCI, S02, and HF. When
these gases condense into the hydrothermal system, S02
disproportionates, forming H2S and l hS04 (Sakai and Mat
subaya, 1977; Rye et al., 1992) and a very acidic (pH -1) so-
lution, (.'Ontaining subequal amounts of HCI and H2S04, up
to -1 wt percent each (Giggenbaeh, 1997). HydrolysiS reac-
tions with igneous country rocks progressively neutralizes
the acidi ty while forming hydrothermal minerals that in-
cl ude alunite, pyrophyllite, dickite, quam.., anhydrite, dias-
pore, and topaz, as well as kaolinite and illite, eharaderistic
of alterdtion conditions (Reyes, 1990;
Giggellhach, 1992a, 1997). Surficial steam-heated aci d-sul-
fate waters also form in magmatic hydrothermal systems,
just as they do in thc wdose zone over geothermal systems,
due to the presence of HtS in the vapor. Silica sillters, how-
ever, are absent due to the acidic condi tions that inhibit sil-
ica polymerization and deposition of vitreous amorphous sil-
ica (Fournier. 1985). Tn thiS setting. two styles of advanced
argillic alteration, magmatic hydrothennal and stcam-
heated, develop with different origi ns hoth containing alu-
nite and kaolinite (Rye et aI., 1992).
496 SIMMONS T AI-
Advanced argillic alteration
The origin of advanced argillic alteration can be deter-
mined from its morphology, as well as mineralogy and zona-
tion (Table 5), and this information can be used to interpret
the level of exposure and proximity to potential epithennal
mineralization (Sillitoe. 19933; I-ledenquist et aI., 20(0). Mag-
matic hydrothemlaJ or hypogene. advanced argillic alteration
includes minerals that fonn at >200
a
C, such as pyrophyWt e.
dickite, diaspore, zlinyite, and topaz.. with alunite that is gen-
erally tabular and sometimes coarse grainoo. This a1terdtioll is
epigenetic in nature, so it generally cuts across stratigraphy
and follows high-angle structures, although it can be strati-
fonn in permeable host rocks.
Steam-heated advauced argillic alteration forms above the
water table at - lOO"C in horizons with pronounced vertical
mi ner.u wnation. Tn general, this blanket of alteration does
not exceed 10 to 20 m il1 l.hickness. Tabular but diseoTl tinuoll s
bodies of massive opal mimic and mark the water table, un-
derlai n by a discontinuous zone L'Omprisi ng al unite. kaoli nite,
opal, and variable amounts of pyrite and marcasite that gives
way with depth to a kaulinite zone comprising kaolinite plus
opal (Schoen et al, 1974; Simmons and Browne, 2000a; Fig.
4). These alterAtion minerals are typically very fine grained,
and the alunite generally occurs as pscudocubic crystals.
A third type oT advanced argillic alteration is formed by su-
pergene weathering and oxidation of sulfide-rich rock. .. that
postdate hydrothennal activity. This alterotion forms at
c: 40"C, within the vadose zone, and comprises alunite, kaoli-
nite, halloysite, jarosite, and iron oxides and hydroxides. Su-
pergene advanced argillic a1temtion also has a blanket like
geometry that mimics topography, but it may line sub-vertical
fractures that were patJlways for deS<.'t!nding lIurfare W3ter.
A combination of Coveful geologiC mapping and mincral
identification (with a hand lens, infrared spectrometer, petro-
graphic microscope, X-ray diffraction, or scanning electron
microscope) are generally sufficient for distinguishing the ori-
gins of advanced argillic alteration. Rye et al. ( 1992) and Rye
(2005) further describe how the alunite and kaolinite forming
in these three environments can be distinbruishcd all tJle basis
of sul fur, oxygen, and hydrogen isotope analysis.
Minerali7.ati on Associated \vi th Quartz :t Calcite :t
AduJaria :t Illitc Assemblages
Dllc type of epithcnnal minerAlization is distinguished by
its intimate association with quart'Z J: calcite :i; adularia :i; illite
that fonns from the nearneutral pH chloride waters in ex-
tinct geothermal systems. This gangue minerAI assemblage
hosts a spectrum of Au- to Ag-rich ores, as weU as the Au-Ag
:t Te ores ass<K."iated with albline rocks, and the Ag-Pb-Zn
ores of northern Mexico. Quartz ancVor chalcedony domi-
nate. accompanied by lesser and variable amounts of adularia,
calcite, pyrite, illite, chlorite and rhlKlochmsite; with the ex-
ception of quart:2;, there are many examples where one or
more of these is missing or is trace in amount. Ores
occur in veins and stockworks, making up subvertica1 frac-
hires, or. more rarely. in pore space of breccias and pcnne-
able rocks, forming disscminated minerali7..ation. In Au-Ag
depoSits, gold typically occurs as microsL'Opic tu suhmiem
scopic brrAins or electrum and rare tellurides, whereas silver
occurs as ele<:t:mm. acanthite, sulfosalts (e.g., pyrargyrite-
proustite, Ag-rich tctmhedrite) ancVor silver sclcllide miner-
als. 80th precious metals are found with highly variable
amounts of base metal sulfides (sphalerite. galena, and lesser
chalcopyrite) and pyrite, marcasite, ancVor pyrrhotite. Sul-
fides constihlte from < 1 to > 10 vol percent of the ore, and the
sulfide abundance, particuJarly tJle base metal sulfides, in
some deposits increase with depth or with changes in host-
rock composition. Sulfidatiol1 states inferred from ore-related
sulfide minerals range from intermediate to low (Heald et al.,
1987; John, 2001; Einaudi et aI., Sillitoe and Heden-
quist, 20(3).
Epi thennal deposits are also distinguished by the gangue
mineral tcxt ures (Fig. G). Cmstifonn banded quartz is com-
mon, typi cally with interbanded, disconti nuous layers of sul -
fide mi nerals (mai nly pyrite) amL'or selenide minerals, adu-
laria. and/or illite. At relatively shallow depths, tJ IC bauds are
L'OJlolunn in texture and millimeter-scale. whereas at greater
depths, the quartz becomes more coarsely crystalli ne. Lattice
textures, comprised of platy calcite and its quam pseudo-
morphs, occur as opcn-spaL't! fill ing in veins, and along with
vein adularia indicate boiling fluids of near-neutral to alkaline
pH (Simmons and 1994; Simmons and Browne
2000b).
Bre<.-cias in veins and subverticaI pipes commonly show ev-
idence of multiple episodes of (onnation. They comprise jum-
hied anb'ular clasts of altered host rock and earlier vein fill,
supported by a matrix of mainly qulll1Z, calcite, and/or adu-
laria and sulfide minerals (Fig. 6), suggesting rapid pressure
release and violent fonnation that can be ascribed to seismic
ity (e.g. , Sibson, 1981) and hydrothennal eruptions (e.g.,
Hedenquisl and Henley, 1985a).
8road-scale patterns of alteration zoning surround orcbod-
ies and re flect the level of exposure (Fig. 7). At regional scale,
deep level (>400 m below the water table) alteration is propy-
litic (e.g., Aeupan, Phili ppines; Comstock Lode and Round
Mountain, United States; Tayoltita, Mexico: Martha Hill,
Ncw Zealand; cf. 2003). At intermediate levels
(400-150 m below the Wilter table), clay ami c-arbonate mi n
erals at the expense of aluminosilicate minemls,
whereas zonation of clays (i ll ite to smectite), and zeoli tes
(waimkite tu heulandile to mordenite) reflect decreasing
temperature (Fig. 4). Intense quartz, adularia, illite, and
pyrite alterAtion commonly surrounds ores and reflects the
sharp increase in permeability associated with fluid conduits:
accordingly, In host rocks with low penneability, alteration
may be closely restricted In tJle selVAges of veins and veinlets.
At shallow levels (150-0 m below the water table), blankets of
argillic aitenttion, illite and other clays (with or without dis-
seminated pyrite, carbonate, minor barite, and minor anhy-
drite) are generally well developed, especially in host volcanic
rocks, and may conl.'eai underlying orebodies (e.g. , Creede,
United States; Pachuca-Heal del Monte, Mcx.iI.'O; Bartun el
al., 1977; Dreier, .1982). At the shallowest depths in the ep-
ithennal environment, steam-heated advanced argilli c alter-
ation occurs with or without silica sinters that foml near tJle
paiL'Owater taille and the paleosurface (Figs. 4, 6). Silica sin-
ter, which deposits as amorphous silica and then converts to
'1uartz (Herdianita et al .. 2(00), shows rhythmiC banding,
plant fragments, allJ diagnosti e columnar struchlres and may
F.I'IHlflUIAL PRfX /O(JS AND HA';E MTAI. DEPOSI TS
Flc.. 6. of minerals and textures II'al rommonly occ.,r in e\,ithermal deposits associated "ith quart!;:o eal.
dte., a. 1"bri" ., illite: /\ . silic-.t sinter (I>uhipuhi, 7.ea and: scale bar . 2 em), 11. eolloform cnlstifornl
handing in)!old_sil\l._l>caring ore Hill . New Zcabml; ,,,,;ale bar " 2 ern). C. Adnbria encnlsted on op" n fract nn;
Ilill. Zeabnd; seale har I em), I), LatliCC text ure_ in which pbty e-.ileite j. replact'd b)' qll,lrt? in gold-si l-
\'Cr- beo,uingorc Il ill. 1\cw7.caiand; 11.1 3 em), E. Vein contai ning coarsely crystalline quartz. and
galena (I'aehuca- Ih'al del Monic, scale bar . 1, 25 CIII). E llJ1.'C('iated \'ei n mat erial in or,'
(Gold,:u Cross, New :t"" :tland: sc;,Je bar .'1 em),
497
498
SIMMONS E:T AL..
Quartz Calcite Adularia Illite
clsy
catb0n8te
pyrite
--
--
5O-100m
qUlJrtz, chB/c&dony. edulBJia. carbonates
pyrite, Au-Ag, Ag-Pb-Zn
lattice textures, crustiform-colloform banding
1-10 m
Quartz + Alunite Pyrophyllit e Dickit e Kaolinite
quartz, sJunite
dlck1te (klIoIlnft8) -
pyrophyilite. pyrite
!If
propylific


vuggy to massive quartz
native Au, sulfosalts, pyrite
5O-100m
' -10m
f' ,c,7. Sketch diagrams showing the mineralogic v::maUon at two different _Ie!! 11Il)",KI el'ithermal nrebollies M.'iOclalecl
with quartz * calcite .. adularia", Illite and quartz + alunite i. pyrophyllite .. .t: kQOlinite S"ngue mineral o.s:semblages.
Thll diagrnms on the len show the large-scale pattern, and the rectangle arca outlh\(:d 1.$ 1n1l!.;nllk.J on the right tu show al
\l'lratKm 1.onation patterru: in thll vicinity of ore (after SlIHtoe, 1993b),
be preserved in rock sequences containing epithennal de-
posits (White et al., L989).
Fluid inclusion data
Fluid inclusion studies, mostly on transparent gangue
phases (quartz, calcite) nnd sphalerite (the main ore-related
sulfide mineral suitable for fluid inclusion study), indicate ore
deposition from dilute to moderately saline solutions at tem-
peratures between 150 and 300C. Gold-silver deposits gen-
erally have dilute solutions of <5 wt percent NaCI equiv,
whereas Ag-Pb--Zn deposits commonly have brines of dO to
>20 wt percent NaC\ equiv (Fig. 8). Coexisting liquid- lind
vapor- ri ch fl uid indusions are common and indicate boiling
conditions at the time of trapping (Bodnar et al., 1985). This
allows temperatures of boiling to be used to calculate pres-
sures and estimate depths of formation (Hoedder and Bodnar,
1980). Therefore. assuming a hydrostatic boiling-point-for-
depth grndient (Haas. 1911), consistent wilh estimates of
vertical temperature gradients (Vikre. 1985; Simmons et aI. ,
1988; Cooke and Bloom, 1990; Sherlock et al., 1995) and ge-
othennal system analogues, ore deposition occurs over a
depth r.mge of about 50 to 1,100 In below the water taLle.
These are minimum values, however, because the presence of
small amounts of dissolved COl, the main gas in geothennal
fluids (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985b), inereases the total
fluid pressure by as much as several tens of bars and increases
the depth r.mge of ooiliug up to hundreds of meters (e.g.,
Simmons, 1991; Sherlock et aI., 1995).
Stable isotope data
Stable isotope studies, comprising measurements of bD
and 6
111
0 , have been made on several gangue minerals
(quartz, adularia, days, wld carbonates) and on fluid inclu-
sions to determine the provenance of the fluid responSible for
alteration and mineralization; few of the studies have de-
termined the isotopiC composition of the ore solutions
EPlT1IERMJ\L PRECIOUS AND BASE METAL DEPOSITS 499
o
Au-Ag
- __ - - Au (Te) (alkaline rocks)
Ag-Pb-Zn
Au (Cu)
10 20 30
wt % NaCI equivalent
F'lc . 8. F'lwd Indusian Mlinities vs. metal contf'nts m L-piiliermal depn5.its.
CoId)ih.,:r, ROkI (Tfl), and Ag-!'b-Zn dflpOOu are with quartz .t.
calcite.t. adularia S Illite gllngue, whereas the Au (eu) deposits lire lWQ(.'iated
with qlWtt alunite to p)TOphyililfl s dickitc gangufl.
themselves (Fig. 9). The interpretation of such data is not
straightforward, because the data typicaHy are seattered,
water compositions generally have to be construL1ed from
aualyses of different lllinerais (hydroxyl-bearing clays) or nuid
inclusion waters. and equilibrdtion (or fractionation) temper-
ahlres have to be estimated. In addition, doubt has been cast
on the validity of 6D analyses of quartz-hosted Iluid inclusion
waters, as they may yield unreliaLle values that arc too low if
the quam. crystallized from originally Jlrecipitated amor-
phous silica or if the .. vaters arc extracted by thermal decrepl -
tatioll (Faure et al., 2002; Faure. 2003). Deposits younger
than a few million years gemmilly allow more act,''Urate con-
st raint'> on the comlx>sition of local meteoric water, with pre-
sent-day values serving as a reliable proxy. Notwithstanding
0
-20

.'
-40
>'
0
..
if'
::;:
-60
.!/'
(()

-SO
0
K>
-1 DO

-120
epithermal deposits
-140
-20 -15 -10 -5
these problems, the results generally plot between the mete-
oric water line and compositions associated with magmatic
water (Fig. 9), suggesting that mixing of water.> from both
sourt:es accounts for the compositions measured (e.g., O'Neil
and Silbennan, 1974; Faure et al., 20(2). Commonly, inter-
pretations are inconclusive. bt..'Cause water-rock illter..tction of
deeply circulated meteoric water results in an evolution of
isotopic compositions-tlle "IHO_shift" (Cmig, 1963; Taylor,
1979). This overlap in isotopic compositions has caused con-
sidcmule debate on the origins of waters in subaerial geot-
hennal systems (e, g. , Giggenbach, 1992b, 1993). Two points
are clear about epithennal deposils: a Significant portion of
near-neutral pH chloride wu.ters is derived from deeply circu-
lated meteoric water, and there is evidence in some deposits
for n component of magmatic water. thus a potential source of
some components, even metals (e.g., Simmons, 1995).
Mil1cmli:.:ation affiliated with alkaline rocks
Cripple Creek, Ladolam, Emperor, and Porgera arc grouped
as a subtype of the deposits with quartz ::t calcltc :t
adularia ::t illitc assemblages but are distinguished Lecause
they show a number of distinctive features, including associa-
tion with alkaline igneous rocks, and the common ()(,'currence
of telluride minerals in thei r ores (Bonham, 1986; Hichards,
1995: Jensen and Barton, 2000; Sillitoe. 20(2). AltllOugh they
are relatively few, alkali ne rock-related deposits have
Significant gold contents ilnd grAdes, and they display features
suggesting genetic aspects that differ from most other ep-
ithermal deposits formed from near-neulral pH solutions
(Table O. Cold occurs In nati ve form, 1.11 electrum, in tel-
lurides, and in refractory pyrite, the latter of which can be a
Significant component of ores (Cannan, 2003; Pals et al. .
vapor.i
magmas
0 5 10 15 20
0" 0(%0. SMOw)
Flc.9. Stahle isotope (c) O YS. c)1"O) patterns foc flpithenmll tlt..-posits (compiled from Arribu. 1995; SiIllTllQIU. 1995;
Cookfl and Sioulllons. 2000: and ct al .. 20(1). The trend fl,lr LepanlD 15 based I,In hydmthflnnal u1unile that Is a hall,l
11,1 Ihfl euaTlc.bearlng ore; Ihe trend lodicalflS condensatil,ln Df magmatic vapor by Ioca1 meteoric water (Hedenqui5t et aL
1998). 11le trend for r..IoIam represents Ill(I(\em Kt'CJIhennal walflrs and s1l(1\\13 bet"""",n magmatic ancIlo;x,.I mete-
oric WlIttr (Cannan. 20(3). 11lfl 0 shift due 11,1 wtllel'roc:k inlflmctit;m is bufld on Tllyktr (1919).
500 SIM.IJO.VS ETAL
2003). Adularia is a dominant gangue mineral, probably at the A
expense of quartz, which is generally subordinate (Jensen and
Barton, 2000), perhaps due to the hi gher quartz solubility
Ilnder alkaline conditions (Sillitoe, 2002). Fluolite, ros(;oelite
(vanadium-bearing mi ca), and telluride minerals are com-
mon, although not essential accessOlv minerais, und the oc-
currences of magnetite hematit e, "'Fe-rich sphalerite, and
tetrahedlite-te nmllltite indicate low- to lTI(xlerate-suHklauon
states (jensen and Bmtoll, 2000); lattice and (;ollofonn,
handed vein textures are rare. Ores extcild over unusually
large vertical inlen'als (500-1,000 m) and can be ilSsociated
\\ith telescoping of epithermal lind porphyry environments
(Jensen anJ Barton, 2000; Sillitoe, 2002). Hydrothermal al-
teration is restricted to areas immediat ely ad.jacent to ore, B
where there is extensive development of propylitic and
argillic assemblagcs. There is also a lack of zoning among
temperature-sensitive alt eration minerals , such as clays. Fluid
inclusion studies indi cat e that ore fluids had saliniti es of <5 to
10 wt percent Nilel eqniv, and along stable isotope data
(e.g., see Ladolam trend, Fig. 9), suggest that minerali;t.ing
fluids cont,lin a propOltion of magmatic waler
(e.g., Ahmad et aI., 1987; H.ichanls, 1995; Simmons, 1995;
Carman, 2003; Honacher et aI., 2004).
Mineralization Associ ated with Qu:utz + Al unite
Pyrophylli te :!: Dickite:!: Kaoli nite Assemblages
A second 9"1)e of epithermal mineralization is distingui shed
by its close association qumtz + alunite pyrophyllite
dickit e kaolinite alteration that forms from hypogene acidic
(luids in extinct magmatic hydrothermal systems. This gmlhfue
mineral asscmblage may be host to Au-Ag Cu and Au-Cu
ores, and rarely Ag-Au-Zn ores (e.g., La Coipa, Chile). Quartz
is the dominaut gangue lllilleral, variable, commonly
high, amounts of pYJ;te amVor alunite (Fig. to),
dickite and/or kaolinite, pyrophyllite, diaspore, barite, and
alumino-phosphate sulfate (APS) minerals. Ore minerals
occur as open-space filling and rcplace ment of preexisting
minerals. The strongly altered, highly siliceous rock is either
porow; "nd vuggy or massive and dense (Fig. to) , the latter
largely due to silicification of the residual quartz developed
due to leaching (Steven and Ratt e, 1960). Orebodies tend to
be somewhat irregular in shape and st rongly influenced by
zoues of high penneahility, which arc cont rolled by st ructure
aud/or lithology, complising vertical strucl ures and pipes and
bedded volcanic or sedimentary rocks. Ore also occurs in
mnes of brecciation. Native golJ predominates, whereas
elect rum is minor mid commonly occurs with copper-arsenic
and copper-antimony minerals, such as enargite, its dimol1)h
lnzonite, famatinite, tetrahedrite, and tennantite (e.g. , White
et ai., 1995); the first three indicatc a hi gh-sulfldation state,
the latter two an intermediale-sulfldalion slalc. Paragenetic
relationships between these minerals indicate that snlfldation
slates fluctuate between high and intermediate hut that most
native gold (not electrum) deposition is associated with inter-
mediate-snlfldation stat es (\Vhit c el al. , 1995; Einaucli et ai.,
2003), developed after most cnargit e has deposited; refrac-
tory gold commonly OCCll rs in the lattice of sulllde mineral s.
Other COllllllon but t}pically minor minerals include chal-
copyrite, covellite, sphalerite, and tellulides, and locally chal-
cocite and hornite.
FI G. 10. PhotO'"trnpils of minerals and text ures that commoil ly (X'Cllr in cp-
ithennal depOSits asSO(.1;<ted ,,;th quartz oj- alunite :I: pymphyllite dickite
kaolinite. A. Oxidized. residual quartz (Smnmitvillc, Unit ed States;
scale '" 2 em). B. enargite (El l ndio. Chile; seale = 1 em). C
Coarse tal",Iar al Ullite on \11gg)' Chile; bar = 1 em).
Note thai the \"Ugs in Sn!llmih;lle sample represent leached feldspar
phenocrysts.
Ore textures show relatively little variation aud are domi-
nated by b(Xli es of vuggy and/or massive quartz (Fig. 10). In
some deposits (e.g., El Indio, Cllile; Lepanto, Philippines;
Cllinkuashih, Taiwan), veins and brcccias arc important hosts
to high-grade ore, arc ma.s.sive occurrences of enargit c, lu-
zonite, and pyrite (Fig. 10). In other less-common deposits
(e.g. , Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic), vuggy quartz may
be minor or absent , and (he dominant alteration is pyrophyl-
lite-qumtz-pyrite alunit e, which typically forms deeper in
the hydrothermal system, in some cases close to pOJ1.)hyritic
intrusions (Thompson et ai. , 1986; White, 199 I;
et aI. , 200Z; Gustafson et aI., 2(04). Supergene oxidation of
sulfides plays a crucial rol e in liberating gold from refractory
ErIT/lF.RM."t PRECIOUS AND BASE Mt7AL DEPOSITS 501
sulfides, making minerali7 . .1tion that might ot herwise he un-
economic (e.g .. Pueblo Vieju. Dominic.. 1n Republic; Nelson.
2000) amenable to low-cost processing (e.g. , Yanacocha.
Peru; Harvcyet al. , 1999).
Vuggy quartz is a residual prooUl .. 1 uf intense acid alterntion,
and it is a distinctive feature that reflects the original nx::k tex-
ture and differential lellching of phenocrysts and/or lithic
fr;lgments. Its fonnation predates deposition of copper and
gold. which life introduced by a fluid of different composi-
tion. ilIustr.lting the importwu:e of paleopenneability in
prepamtiull fOf metal deposition (e.g., White. 1991; Arribas.
J995). The vuggy qUHITL. texture in combi nation with dickite
<Ind/or kaolinite and pyroph)'llite indicuttls that initial fluids
causing altcl1ltion :,mcl ruek dissolution were eXlremely IIcid
(pH <2 for aluminum to be soluble; Stoffregen. 1987). The
presence of magmatic hydrothennal alunite indicates that the
fluids were relatively oxidizt.>t.I. The vuggy quartz zone flares
1Ipw'Ard h1l1 may narrow toward the SUffa(,.'t! where shallow
rock units have low permeability. diminishing the altemtion
effects of acid-leaching solutions (e.g., Nansatsu; Urashima et
al. , 1981). In sOllie deposits. such as Cerro de Pasco (Einaudi,
1977: Baumgartner et 31., 2003) and San Cregorio-Colqui-
jin:a, Pen! (Bendezu et al.. 20(3), and East lintic, United
States (Uartos, 1989), the host nx::ks comprise c.lrbonate units
and bec-Allse of their aCid-neutralizing capacity, the dlaracter-
istics of the distal ores difTer. In these depoSits, vuggy quartz
only occurs in igneous plugs and diatremes thai have focused
nuid flow. In llJja(,.'t!ut carlx)!l:lte wall rocks. the base metal-
sulfide assemblage is zoned, with a (:ore dominated by high-
suifidatioll-stllie eu sulfide assemblages hosted by silicic
zones. grading laterally through intennediate-sulfidation-
state eu-rich assemblages to distal ores dominated by spha-
lerite and galena.
The pa.'isage (Jf acid solutions leads to broad-scale alterntioll
patterns that form distinct (:om:entrie wnes around depoSits
(Fig. 7). Olltward. these zones comprise II sili cic core (leached
and silicified rock), alunite, dickite anW'or kaolinite or pyro-
phyllite. lind smectite or illite assemblages (Steven and
1960). nlis alteration may extend laterally from 1 to >100 m
but commonly is confined to zones dO m wide, and the
boundary between the centrAl SiliCiC alteration and the outer
zones is typically knife sharp (e.g., Summitville, United
States; Nansatsu deposits of lwato. Akeshi, and Kasug:a,
Japan; Chinkuashih, Taiwan). Propylitic alteration is wide-
spread and surrounds the acid-altered core, but zones of illite
and pyrophyllite can extend well below some deposits (e.g.,
EI Indio, Chile; Rodalquilar, Spain; Lepanto, Philippines;
Yanacocha, Peru). These dlanges in alterntion assemblages
reflect outward and upward neutralization of acid fluids
through water-nx:k inleraction and cooling (Steven and
19(0). In some districts and deposits (e.g., Ellndio-
Pascna hel t , Chile-Argentina; Bissig et aI., 2002, Deyell et aI.,
2004; Pure n prospect near 1 ... 1 Coipa, Chile; Sillitoc. 20(4),
the shallow revel is presclVcd and represented by steam-
heated advdnced argillic alteration that marks the position of
the paleowuter table (Sillitue, 1993b. 1999).
Flui{l inclusion data
Because of the corrosive Illlhire of acid solutions and the
character of hydrothennal minerals pnxlllced during the
early leaching (i.e., ruunitc, kaolinite, pyrophyllite), and the
lack of <Jltart".l associated with the ore stage, nuid illdusions
representing orc .. fomling conditions for these deposits are
rAre. Based on the infrared microscopy of enargite. discussed
below, minernlizatiun appears to be associated wilit dilute to
moderately saline solutions 5 to -10 wt % NaCI equiv; Fig.
8) al temperatufes between 180 Ilnd 320C (Deen et ar ..
1994; Arribas, 1995; Mllllcano and Campbell, 1995; Dcyell et
aI. , 2(04), with hotter and more saline nuid inclusions occur-
ring sporadically, especially in deep rocks beneath ore 7J)nes
(Arribas et aI. , 1995a, b; Bethke et al. , 2005). Hydrostatic boil-
ing point for depth gradients appear to prevail, suggesting
that ores formed between - 100 and -1,000 m below' tllc pa-
leowaler table (Anibas. 1995; Sillitue, 1999). There are data
for late, coarsely crystalline quartz and secondary inclusions
in quartz phenocrysts; coexisti ng Ii<Juid- and vapor-ri ch inclu-
sions are (,.ommonly observed, indicating boiling l.'Onditions
(e.g., Arribas et 31. , 1905b; RUggieri et al .. 1997; Wang et aI.,
1999).
Fluid inclusion studies on emu"gite provide much of the di-
rect evidence of the salillity of ore-depOSiting solutions. De ..
tenninations for !lIlcani (Deen et aJ .. 1994) range 8.1 to 19.2
wt percent Nae equiv (Th 200-300C) and for Lepanto
(Mancll.lIo and Campbell. 1995) range from 0.5 to 4.5 wt per-
cent NaCI equiv (Th 190_290C), consistent with more re-
cent duta reported for deposits in Bulgaria and Serbia (see
Sillitoe Wld Hedenquist, 2003; Heinrich, 2005). The salinity-
hOlllogeni7.ation tempernture data from Lepanto represent
one of the most dclai!l..d data sets available; the data plot in a
broad linear trend indicating cnargite deposited during coal-
ing of the parent fluid (_300C. -.5 wt % NaGI equiv), caused
by mixing and dilution with shallow ground water during lat-
eral now along the strike of the deposit (Mancano amI Camp-
bell. 1995).
Stable isotope data
Stable isotope measurements of 6D, dlSO, and 6
34
S have
been detennined for OH-bearing phases (alunite, illite, and
kaolinite) and coexisting sulfides (Rye ct aI., 1992; Arribas,
1995; Hedenquisl el aI., 1998; Deyell et al., 2004; Bethke et
aI., 2005; Fifarek and Hye. 2(05). The 6D versus the 6
1
11()
data for the advanced II.rgillic alteration cluster tightly near
the composition of magmatic vapor (Ciggenbach. 1 992b) and
show mixing trends with meteoric watef (Fig. 9). 111e signifi-
cant involvement of a magmatic component is consistent with
ore formation at relatively shallow levels above crystallizing
and degasSing stocks. In some cases, the mixing trends sup-
purt the fluid inclusion data, indicating that dilution and the
concomitant cooling influence mineral deposition (e.g. ,
Hedenqulst et al., 1998). 6
34
S measurements on sulfate-sul-
fide pairs indicate equilibration temperatures of 200 to
">.350C and a source (Rye et aI. , 1002; Ar-
1995; Hedenqmst et aI., 1998; Deyell et aI . 2004;
Bethke ct aI., 2005; Rye, 2005).
Association with Intrusion-Centered DepoSits
Epithermal deposits are the shallow and relatively distal
part of.1 continuum of ore-forming: environments that fonn in
high-temperature hydrothennal systems, of which the most
proximal, deepest, and hottest part is represented by intrusion-
502 Sf.\fMOSS I:.T
eentc red ore minerali:mtion slieh pOlllhyry CII (Mo-Au),
earbonate replacement deposit s, and shlrns (e.g., Meinert et
al., 2005; See<lorIT et al ., 2005). Iligh- to
dation-state sulfides and ores that arc with quart:!.
+ alunite :t pyrophyllite :t dkkit c kaolinite gangue Iypieally
show the strongest links to these 1110re deeply formed styles
of minemliz,ltion, as is indieatcd b), their common oecnrrcnce
in proximal volcani<:: settings, their ovcrlapping w.lll-rock al -
teration and ore mineral assemhlagcs, and o\'crlapping fluid
incl usion characteristics (Sillitoe, Einalldi et a1.. 2003;
Sil iit()t! ,mel lIedenquist, 2003; Hd nrich, 200.'5). There arc
districts (e.g., .. fanka)'an district, Philippines; Cajamarca rc-
gion, nOlthem Pem; belt and district ,
Chil e; Ag-Ph-Zn helt of !lonhern Mexico) where intl1lsioll-
hosted minemli:t .. .ation and ('pithcnnal mineralinttion occnr
dose 10 one another et al. , 1988; Arribas el al., 1
Il edenquist et al., 1998;- Sillitoc et al. , 1998; Murlteml mid
Einaudi, 2001; Cmtufsoll ct aI., 2004; >vJasterman et aI. , 2004).
I II somc cases, the adjacellt oecurrences of mineralization
have nearl), the same age, implying a close genetic link be-
tween hydrothermal acti vity, igneous iutnlsious, and orc min-
emli7';ltion, sHeh <1. .. in the Mankayan district, Philippines (Ar-
rib.'lS ct aI. , 1995a; Hedenquist cl aI., 1998; Claveria, 2001;
Sajona ct al., 2002). Rarely, epithermal1l1inernliz,lltion is found
d ose to deep batholiths (Kesler et aI. , 2(04). This continuum
of styles, however, shollld not he taken as in(li-
cution that an obsclved close slxltial correlation hetween shal-
low ,lilt! deep formed orcs is com mOil , despite the likelihood
I'hat igneous intrusions underli e (probably at eomiderahle
depth) a Significant 1'Oltioll or epithermal deposits (Fig. 1).
_ Biotile dacile porphyry
- I
_ Fine-grained quam: porphyry
_ Hornblendo d.<>ci!e ptOphyry
AI>doaiIo.Oac>t ..
D e.-.IIAAdeS<l ... RhyoIiIe
'-. -
Case Studies
\\'e review fi ve examples to illustrate the variation betw(:cn
epithermal deposits, highlight ing the gt-'ologic context. min-
eralmning. ;md the range of metal o(:curren(:C$ and patt erns
at different scales. \Ve sl:u1 with the vely large Ag-rieh (All )
Puehllea vein deposit in Mexico followed hy the intennediate-
size Chinkllashih Au (eLI) dt!IXlSii nf Taiwan to emphasi:t.e the
deposit-scale controls on ores of the two dilTerent typcs of ep-
it hermal Thi s is followed by a description of
the giant Ymmeodm An (CII) deposi t in nort liem Pem, simi-
lar in origin to Cliinkuashih bllt with distinct ly diITerent lilho-
IO'6ic controls. \Ve review the I iallraki goldfields oftlie COI"O-
maude! peninsula, North Island, New Zealand, and the
epithermal belts of the western United States and northern
Mexico, to show provi ncial dmmdelisties, clust ering of de-
posi!. .. , and variations il l metal contents, at the regional to
metallogenie belt scale.
p(lc!lIIw-Rcu[ del MOIlle, Mexico
P'lchnca- Il eal del the largest silver production
from .lIt ore deposit. It eovers ;111 area of ahout 100 km
2
and
has pr(Kluced - 45,000 t Ag and 220 t Au (Fig. 11). Similar to
man)' of the early discoveri es in Latin America, it mined
by the Spani sh from ahout 1550, although it was likel),
worked in pre- Hispanic time. The deposi t was exploited oy
underground mining. but these adivitics are now greatly re-
duced and small in scale. The district divided into two min-
ing areas, Puchuca to the west and Heal del !\'Ioll te to the
cast. Excellent descliptions of the geology, alteration, and
Fl l;. 11. Subsurf:1l'e map or Iht I' tlChuc<I-Rcal dd .\Ionlc mining shOWi ng the Iocaliolls or lIlill(:ml i/.L'd \"('ins. \"01-
eanie mck.<, ;I1I<11<;(}ns, and raul! s (roor:-.wll from cl al. . 1003).
PrTIfERMAL PllfCIOUS AND BASF. METAL DI::fOS1TS 503
mi neraliZAtion are found in Ceyne et al. (1963) and Dreier
(1976. 1982).
The deposit is entirely hosted by a thick sequence (up to
1,000 m) of cail:-alkaline volcanic and hypabyssal rocks, rang-
ing fmm basaltic andesite to rhyolite. These rocks are region-
ally altered to a pmp)'litic assemblage of qnart"L, epidote, chlo-
ri te. ;ldularia, albite, eruelte, and pyrite, but near the veins the
host-rock al teration fonTIS narrow envelopes a feo,v meters
wide comprising quartz, adularia, and pyrite. Orebodies are
contained in a series of east -west-, northwest-southeasl-, and
lIorth-south-trenciing, fault-hosted veins (Fig. II ). Individual
\'ei ns r,mge from 0.5 to -5 m in width, ruthough there arc
sheeted zones comprisi ng closely spaced vei ns filling frac-
tures that r:mge up to 35 m in width. Major faults have nor-
mal olTsets of up to 350 m, but many of the fall It s hosting
vei ns show displacements of only a few meters. These faults
were ll(:tive both before and during mineralization, and al-
though some are recugnizable on the surfac:e, many are diffi -
cult to trdce and poorly exposed.
Ore is locruized in dilatant , highly fractured Wiles, fonning
irregular ami lenses separated hy low-gmde and bamm
mnes where the fault 7..01lt: narrows or is Alletl with gouge.
Productive ore w nes occur where there arc changes in vein
strike aud dip. Throughout the Jistrict, ore is constm.ined to
an -SOO-m vertica1 interval (2,800-2.000 TIl asl), making up a
Rminemlized horizon," although the vertical extents of ore5
\IN.1)' widely between veins (Fig. 12). In many veins, ore ler-
upw.ard below the sun al:e into zones of intense clay
aitenllion comprising illite, calcite. chlorite, uud pyrite wit h
dis<.'Ontinuous vein lets of quartz ami calcite {Fig. 13). Down-
\vdfd, orebodies tennillate where veins Ilarrow to le5s than
minimum mining width, where they pi neh out, or where sil-
ver values decrease below the cutolT grade; dl."Cp drilling
sho .... 'S that sume vei ns extend seventl hundred melen he-
neath the ore wne. Representative ore mined in the mid-
19305 contained 410 Wt Ag, 2.3 gil All , 0.5 wt percent Zn.
0.05 wi percent Pb. and 0.01 wi percent Cn (Geync et at .
19(3).
Ore was deposited during St.>veral episodes of vein filling,
forming coarse-scale erustiform banding of flne- to medium-
brrained quartz; colloform banding and lattice textures have
uot been reported. Quartz., with minor amounts of adularia,
albite, calcite. pyrite, chalcopyrite, gnlena, and sphalerite are
the common vein minerals, wi tll silver Ol.'l.'urring mainly in
aeanthite. This mineralogy renects the reduced near-neutral
pH and intermediate-sulfldntion state of the ore-forming s0-
lution. M n-hearing minerals. rh(Xionite and bustamite, arc
present in trace amounts in many vei ns but occur in signifi.
cant abundance where there is ri ch silver ore. Sulfides gener-
ruly constitute beh"'een <1 and about 12 \'01 percent of the
vein flU. Metat7.oning has not been reported ex(:cpt that base
metals are generally more abundant at depth: the comhined
base metal content never exceeded 4 WI pen.."t: llt (Ceyne et
aI., 1963). FlUid inclusion homogenization
range from 210 to 3Q5C, ami iee-melting temper:ltmes in
dil.:ate hydrothennal sul utions had salinities of 0 to 6 wt per-
cent NaCI C<lni v (Dreier, 1976). deformation is re-
stril.fed to stlike-slif, displacemcnts, which occurred along
the cast- and lIort Iwcst-trending vei ns, offsetting north-
trending veins by d to >100 m.
As is chnracteristic of Ul any Mexican epithennal depoSits,
the veins are vel)' long. The east-west-trcnding Vizcafna vei n
(Fig. 11) is mineralized for an 8km strike leubrt.h and is
hosted by a major fault tlmt crosses the district. Numerous
dikes, <:5 to 100 m wide. prec.late mineralization and follow
faults parallel to the veins, indicati ng that mag-
matism and hydrothermal activity shared the same stress
regime. Most dikes are fin!" gmi ncd and are intnlsive equi va-
lents of the overlying vok'llnic rocks; a small intrusion consist-
ing of coarse-grained quartz porphyl)' occurs locally in the
southeastern part of the district (Fig. II ). Pra :ious metru
minernliz..'ltion formed at about 20.3 Ma (McKee et al.. 1992),
during the last phase of ore deposition within the Mexit:an sil o
vcr belt and during the last phase of felsic volcanism within
the Sierra Madre Occidental igni mbrite province (Camprubi
et aI .. 2003). Oespite being part of a much larger metallogenie
belt. described below. these age relationships suggest that the
Pachuca-Real del Monte formed in isolation. -SOD km from
San Martin de Bolai'ios, whi ch is the uelifest known deposit of
similar age (Campnlbi et aI. , 20(3).
ChlnkllllShlh, Taiwan
Chinkuashih is Ii Pliocene-age deposit loc'll.ted near the
northeast tip of Taiwan at the junction of the LU7 ..0n lind
Ryukyu arcs. Epithennal mineraliz..'ltion was discovered in
1894 and WdS exploited unti l the mid 1980s. Histori c prodm:-.
lion exceeds 90 t gold, with an unknO\VIl quanti ty of copper.
Cold-copper mincralization ocetln in a wne of intense
sil keous alteration forms some of the highest peaks, one
of which (since removed by mining) gave I.he deiXlsit Its name
(Chinkuashih means golden melon stone). Until the mine
closed in 1987, ure was treated by notation of rul sulSde min-
erals to produce a pyrite (XlIIcentrate contai ning approximately
I WI percent Cu, mostly in the fonn of cnargite, and by
cyanide treatment of the tailings. Huang (1955. 1963), Folins-
bee et aI. (1972), Huang and Meyer (1982), Tan et al . (1987),
and Tan (1991) described the characteristics of the deposit.
The host rocks are augil'e-biotite-homblendc phyric dacite
bodies intruded into a sequence of moderately steep west-
dippi ng shallow marine to continental sedimentary rocks con
sisting of clIl careous sandstones, siltstones, conglomerdtes,
mudstones, sedimentary breccias, and minor (.'oal beds (Fig.
14). These rock types host more than 80 individual orebod.ies.
The largest, Penshan, was responsible for the bulk of produc-
tion. It occupies a north-south zolle about 2 km long, dipping
70 E, which cuts across an intrusive dacite dome and extends
into the adjacent sedimentary rocks.
MinerAlization is conAned to zone5 of intense silicic alter-
ation (vuggy qUilrt/.:, wit h or without alunite, and massive
quartz), typil.."Rily with abllndantllyrile (Fig. 14). North-south
faults, breccia pipes and favorab e stratigraphie horizons con-
trol ore OCCll rrell(.'CS in the Penshan area. Average
were 0.55 wi percent Cu and 2.7 g It Au. The most favOnl.bl e
host rocks are dacite lind calcareous sandstone. In the dacite,
are is hosted by vuggy quartz funned by acid leaching but
"'1tll strong structllrif controls. In the crucareolls sandstone,
pyrite completely replaces the calcareous matrix, and ore
wnes that are narrow in othe r rock types \viden sharply.
There is a great diveni ty of structural controls on the many
individual orehodies at Chinkuashih, including bedding
504 S1MMONS T AI-
Pachuca - Real del Monte district - vertical extent of mineralized veins
-
"
Ii Ii j""" J 'it
} t ttt Iljjtl ilj f ! ji ii J I
! jaIl
:JOOOm
2000
... , ... ...... .... .................................................................................................................................
''''' I
i
I
"""
.... . . -..
HHH H H wn. . ..
""
.. .... --
2000
........ ..... ... ... .... .. ................... ............. .-............................................................. ...... .........
Pachuca - Real del Monte district - vertical extent of mineralized veins
i i"
1- ! I lilj
}... jJ Iii
EXPLANATION
:JOOOm
... ....
'''''
i
] - """"'"
- Alluvial nu
I
.. ..... . ...... .
Ilr
. .. ...
I
III
"'"
.. . ... -
.....
- Or. Interval
..
"00
"""
- Su. of mine WOI'kings
.... ....... ...... ....
2000
Fu:;. 12. V,'rtil,..d distrilwtiun of Of(.'S in urthe l'achucaReaJ del Monte mining district (redrJ.W1l from Ce)'ne el aI.,
1963). 1belr different 1e-.-e1J of fonnation are inferred to renee! shifts in the PIl5S1111! and lempemturt' of hyurutl,cnllallvn-
dilions conducke tQ precipitation (Ceyne ... , aI ., thtre is '10 imlil-llilOn IhYI till')' 1I1l.' II prudUl.1 of p!l5tore fault
d'spl3Ce1nenI5.
. ....
....
. .....
. ......
planes, faults, joints, and the margins of intrusions. Cold is
found in veins and pi pes filled with lIIll.Ssive eTlargite and
pyrite and disseminated in sili ceous bodies; bonnnz..1. w nes
occur at shallow depths in hre<:cia pipes. Overall , gold
contents are higher at shallow levels, whereas t.'Opper con
tents are higher at deeper levels.
The Pcnshan main vein is the pril1Cilml orebody. with ore
extending over ;1 650-]1l vertical interva in strong associatiul1
EPITHE.RMAL PRECIOUS AND BAse METAl. DEPOSITS 505
K-s par
propyli tlc
100m
FIC:. 13. SI...j'clI1atic crosr HlC'tion or tI'e PltC'hucaKeal dll'!l Mont", mining
dislrid . the relationship IJeI"''t.'t:1I arWUIc. K.fll'!lrlsrar . .. u,J prup)iitlc
a1ter .. ,i"" pallen., and blind ''''''iii (mdnlWII from 1982).
with zones of massive and vuggy quartz. Locally, these zones
attain widths of 100 m. Enargite forms stri ated prismatic crys-
tals up to 2 em long, intcrgrown with pyrite (pyritohedral and
octahedml fomls) and barite. Cold oc:curs mainly in its nutive
forlll with minor electnlln and trace amounts of tellurides;
aUriferous !lyrite (.'ontains d to 100 ppm Au (Tan, 1991).
Massive Sll fide orcs (.'Ontain pyrite, cnargite, lU7"onite, and
minor chakopyrite, co1.'eUite, tetrahedrite. and chal(.ocite.
Quart'l: and alunite are (.'Ommon gangue minerals. Sphaleri te
and galena are rare; cinnabar and native mercury {)(.'CUT near
the surface at Balllboo and Changien.
Zones of silicic altemtion (i.e . voggy quartz, locally with
subsequent quart;. floodin)l} life surrounded by altemtioll
dominated by kaoli nite and dickite with TIIinor nacrite, alu-
nite. quart;., ilnd pyrophyllite, which give way outwArd to al-
teration consisting of kaolinite, montmorillonite. and mixeJ-
layer clay (Chen, 1971). These clay-dominated assemblages
occupy relatively narrow zones no more than a few meters
wide (Fig. 14) and grAde sharply into widespread chlorite-car-
bonat!:! alteration that. al distances of severnl hundred meters,
grades into fresh dacite (Huang. 1955). This alteration se-
quence reflects the restricted and focused nature orfluid Oow
and intense acid leaching, which enhanced the penneability.
Fluid inclusion data on barite inlergrown with enllrgite.
hydrothennal quart;., and igneous quartz (secondary inclu-
sions) indicate homogeni7.ation temperatures of 190 to
290C thai are consistent with equilibration tcmptmltures
(.-Alculated from 6
34
5 data for barite-sulfide (enargite. pyrite)
pairs (Folinsbee et al., 1972; Wang et aI . 1999). The bulk of
the ice melting temperatures indicate salinities of 0.5 to 5.0
wt percent NaGI equiv, bllt there are some halite-bearing liq-
uid-rich incl usions. with vufXlr-rich inclusions, that homoge-
nize from 300 to >370C (Wang et aI. , 1999).
Qmutz-carbonate vci us at Ch iufen, with historic produc-
tion of over 30 I All , occur about 1.5 km from the copper-gold
epithennal deposits of Chinkuashih, and their proximity to
each oUler suggests they may have fonned about the same
time. The veins cuntain electrum, pyrite, chalcopyrite, stih-
nite. sphalerite. galena, rhodochrosite. and barite, tn>ical of
intermediate-sulfldation veins, and represent formation from
reJ uc.:ed, near-neutml p H solutions. Such side-by-side occur-
rences of contntSting alteration styles (acid 'IS near-neutral p H
gangue assemblages) are relatively common, albeit with one
typically hosting a minor metal resource compared to the
(ilher. as occurs in Japan, Peru, and ",'estern Creat Basin (Sil-
litoc, 1999; John. 2001). Chinlmashih-Chiufen is an exception
where both cpilhennal environments (.'Ontain mined ore de-
posits, is also the case with Lep.1.nto and Vi<.1oria (Glaveria,
2001).
l'an(}C()Cllll, Penl
Yanococha. locatcd in northern Peru (3,300-4,200 m asl ), is
one of the premier ef.ithermal districts in the world, <.'Ontain-
ing a total resource t lal exceeds 1.300 t of gold (Fig. 15). Al-
though primitive mining for mert:ury dates back to 300 AD. it
was not until the early 1980s that systematic gold exploration
was ini tiated and geochemieal anomalies were identified by
drainage, soil, and nICk-chip sampling (Sillitoe. 19953; Harvey
el al . 1999). There nre at least eight disti nct epilhennal gold
deposits in Miocene volcanic rocks known in the district, with
scverAlmi ned from open pi ts (Harvey et aI., 1999; Bell et al .
2(04). I n addition, there is a related gold deposit (La Quinua)
that is hosted entirely by young unconsolidated basin-fill
gravels derived from glaCial-fl uvial erosion of bedrock (.un-
twni ng epithermal minerAlization (Mallette <: t a!. . 2(04). Ep-
ithermal gold ores are disseminated, oxidized by supergene
weathering, and have averAge grades of 0.8 to J.6 Wt. Recent
summaries describing the deposit and its geologie character-
are found in Turner (1997). Harvey et al. (1999), Dell el
01. (2004) nd Longo (2005).
The Miocene Yanococha Volcanic Complex that hosts tbe
deprniits covers an area approximately 20 by 25 km and was
formed between about 14.5 and 8.4 Ma (Longo, 2005). The
complex consists of numerous domes, di kes, and diatremes
that illtmde a sequence of pyroclastic deposits and lava fl()\'IS
up to several. hundred me.ters thick. Rocks. from an-
desite to daCite and contalll phenocrysts 01 lel(fsp..1.T, pyrox-
ene, amphibole, and quartz. Numerous breccias fill dikes and
pipes and many (.'Ulttain round to subanglliar clasts and fine-
gru.ined matrix suggesting explOSive emplacement from
r.
hreat ie ami phreatomagll111lie cmpti ons (Bell et aI . 20(4). A
ew of the diatremes contain distinct feldspar porphyry clasts
Ulat indicate the presence of porphyry copper mineralization
ttt depth (Harvey et al. , 1999; Gustafson et aI . 20(4). These
506
c
SIMMONS IT AL
clay altOl"ed
seNag.
,
clay altered
: I selvage
, ,
,
flC. 14. Chtn\cuashih epithermal deposit, Taiwan. A. Sketch plan of mllin fClltun'$ showing the locations of ore-
bodles and dacite mtnuioos (modified from Tan, 1991). B. Skctdl cross section showing Jlrueturnl and lithological conlrol
on minentli7.1ll;on within the PenshlUl ores (the eastWlI.rd dip on the strata shown Is a loc::aI fl"ature ,h ..ll difTers from tbe ""-"101-
d'III""g hl:.td; from Huang. 1963). C. Vemcal 7,IOI\e of gold mirw!raiil.lltion culling sh"Uuw-t.!ipping interbedded
sambtonc and shale adjacenllo the Peruhan dacilt!. The central (dark-colorffi) lIlid lc.'llCht.od siliceous moe gr.KJes 3.8 gIt Au.
The pale-<:olored adpcent to it are balTen clay altered zones. which gJ.de sharply into w.lIl rnek M'f!r ahOlut
1102 m.
EPITIIERMAL PRECIOUS AND BASE METAL DEPOSITS 507

Epithermal
*
Porphyry
0
Polymetallic Ag
0
Tertiary volcanic rocks
D

Intrusions
D
Paleozoic-Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks
X
Andean parallel
structures

\
Trans-Andean
structures
" Fault
B
Silicification (massive. vuggy. granular. opaline)
Silica alunite
Silica clay
Clay
D Propylitic/fresh rock
[QJ Ore body
N
4km
t
tl e. 15. A. Map of the CajamaTCa province showing the lcx:ations of Yanacocha and surrounding cpithcnnaJ and porphyry
Cu-Au-Mo deposiu, which are localized at the intersection of northwest-trending Andean and northeast-trending Trans-An-
dean slmctull!S (modified fmm Custafson el at. , 20(4). B. Map nf the Yanarocha district and the outline (If orehodies with
IUllos of altemtion (from ReIl..,1 ;_1. , 20(4); Quinua is an alluvial deposit oontAining 10 Moo gold (Mallei!!
et a1 .. 2004).
igneous rocks are associated with regional early to middle
Miocene magmatism that developed in northern Peru (Noble
and McKee, 1999), Their relllilants underlie the Yanac..'ocha
Volcanic Complex and comprise andesitic lavas, lahars, and
debris flows. An unconformity separates them from the
derlying, thick and strongly folded Cretaceous sedimentary
sequence of quartzite, argillite, and limestone.
Progressive deformation, p.xtending from the Paleocene to
late Mioc-ene, bas aJTected all the rocks in the region
vides-Caceres, 1999). Faults and fractures withi n the district
strike northeast-southwest, northwest-southeast, and east-
west, and were active multiple times. The northwest-south-
east strUl.1ures show evidence of both tramcurrent movement
due to compression and normal movement due to extension,
whereas the other main trends relate only to open fractures
and normal faults due to extension. Mi neralized zones, brec-
cias, and shallow intrusions are aligned in a
ing helt tlmt is part of the larger tnms-Andean Chi cama-Yana-
cacha corridor, which is 30 to 40 km wide and extends for 200
km from the Cajamarca region to the Pacific Ocean {Fig.
508 SIMMONS IT Ai..
Quiroz, 1997). Its interseclion with the Andean fold belt may
have played Ii. role in focusing magmatism and hydrothennal
8.<:tivity in the Yanacocha district (Turner, 1997). ux:a1ly. east
wcsl- auJ north-south- trending fnt(;ture wnes of interpreted
extensional origin host high-grade gold ores (Bell et al ., 20(4).
Hydmthennal alteration is pervasive and widespread in the
district. Cold mineralization is associated with tabular, sub-
hori zontal masses of intense silicic alteration due to acid
leaching. largely of welded units. SiliciC alteration
includes granular quartz, Vt100' quartz, and massive quartz.
which is 7.olled vertically and hori7..ontally and attains thick-
nesses of many tens to several hundreds of meters (Harvey et
aI. , t999). Ilypogenc alunite is 7..oned outwnrd and downward
from these siliceous masses, extending several tens to several
hundred meters from the silicic zone, replacing gmundmass
and phenocrysts as weU as fanning fine crystals growing illtn
open space. Pyrophyl1ite occurs locuJ.ly intergrown with alu-
nite and grades outward from pyrophyllite-alunite to pyro-
phyllite-alunite-kaolinite to pyrophyllite-kaolinite. Kaolinite
and smectite clays dominate the distal zones of acid alteration
but give w"y to regi onal propylitic alte mtion contai ning chlo-
rite, smectite, quartz. illite, pyrite. and calcite.
Cold WdS introduced as disseminations, fracture anel \lUg flll-
ings, or in breccias during several stages of hydrothennaI ac-
tivity, spanning - 5.4 m.y. from 13.6 to 8.2 Ma (Longo, 20(5)
and postdating the phases of intense Icaching and silicic aIter-
ation. Submicron- to micmn-si7..ed particles of native gold
were deposited with fine-groined pyrite and minor enargite
and covellite. Later gold deposited with pyrite, enalboite, cov-
clli te, alunite, and b..'lri te. Pntchy ot.-currences of veins fillt:J
with rhodochrosite, dolomit e. and base metal sulfides repre-
sent the last hydmthennal event and a shift to near-neutral pH
conditions (Bell et aI. , 20(4). A Significant poltion of nre was
subje<.1: to deep supergene oxidation (>300-m depth) during
which iron oxide minerals fonned at the expense of sulfide
minerals (Harvey et aI., 1999). Oxidation, coupled with the
fact that gold postdates most silica deposition, thus precl uding
silica encapsul ation, means that metallurgical processing uf
oxide ores is relatively straightforward (Bell et aI., 20(1).
Multiple cent ers of porphyry copper-gold minel'a/ization
underlie epithennal orebodies in thc Yana(:ocha district (f ig.
15). Drilling results from Kupfertal show that ncar-surface
pyrophyllite-aIunlte-kaolinite alteration grades downward
into weak sericite-chlorite alteration which overprints weak
potasSic alteration at depth (Gustafson et aI. , 2()()4), associ-
ated with porphyry-style mineraJiz.'ltion of 0.3 wt percent Cu
and 0.3 '{/t Au.
Hauraki goldfields, Nf!W Zealand
The Hauraki goldfields in the Cormmilldel peninsula oc-
cupy an area of about 200 x 35 km and containing a dense
cl usteri ng of epithemlal deposits and seveml exposures of
weakly develuped porphyry Gu-style mineml i7.ation (Fig. 16).
More than 50 deposits were mined between 1852 and 1952,
during which time approximately 1,400 1 of bullion (AulAg :::
lIJ) was produeed. Christie and Brathwaite (1986). Broth-
\v"i le et aI. (1989), Brathwdite and Christie (1996), Bmth-
waite et aI. (2001a, b), and Brathwaite and Faure (20(2)
described the regional setting and chal1lcteristics of the
epithermal deposits.
Precious metal millertlli7;:tti on is hosted by a thi ck sequence
(up to 2,()(X) m) of Miocene to Pliocene volcanic rocks that
dip at a low augle to the east. Andesite I1nw5 and breccias
dmninate the lower part of the sequence. rhyolitic
lavas and pyroclastic depoSits domi nate the upper part. The
volcanic rocks rest unconfonnably either 011 a thin sequence
of Oligocene-early Miocene marine sedimentmy rocks ur on
basement (:o mposed of Mesozoic gl'd)"Vltcke and argillite c.'(-
posed locally in the nort hern p..'Ul of the peninsula. Faults dip
steeply and st rike northwest allli northeast. Volcanis m and hy-
drothennal activity that produced \videspread alt eration halos
and epithennal mineralizatiun were both pnxlocts of sulxloc-
tion-related magmatism that has si nee migrated southeast to
the nO\v active Taupo Vol cani c Zone. l'reselVatiull of the pa-
leosurfaee, whrch is marked by silica sinter occurrences, is re-
stricted largely to the younger on the east side of
the pmvi nce.
By fnr the most important deposit is Mart ha Hill (see Figs.
3, 5), which has producet.l more than 260 t Au and more than
1400 tAg. Otller major producers include: Thames (45 tAu,
27 tAg), Kamngahakt: (29 tAu, 97 tAg), WIt! Golden Cross
(23 tAu, 73 tAg). All of the on:: oeclI n in veins or veinl l!ts,
many of which have a northerly to northcllsterly trend. Min-
eralizat ion in the Haumki goldfields generally is associ at ed
with dominantly nonnal faults, although in very few cases
slickensi des indicate st rike-slip movements. Veins bnUleh up-
ward and also sideways at their ext remiti es. where some ter-
minate agamst crosscutti ng faul ts. Most vei ns arc 0.2 to 1.5
km long. ami mnge from 0.3 to 5 III in width. Veins extend to
eonsiderdble depth. but because ore usually bottomed out
above their termi nation, the chamderistics at the deepest
level are px>rly known. Ore genernlly is rcstrided to vertical
intervals of <300 tn , except at Martha Hill and Kamng.lhake
where it extends over intervals of575 and 700 nt , respectively.
El e<.-t rum and acanthite arc the main gold and silver min-
erals. Sulfide minerals comprising pyri te. sphaleri te, galena,
and chalcopyrite make up <2 to 10 vol percent (up to 30 vol
% very locally) of the vei n fill . The Tui mine , which was ex-
plOited IIntil the early 19iOs, is a base metal deposit with s111-
fide-rich veins, from which 163,000 t of ore was produced
that (.'(mtained 4.5 WI. percent Zn, 2.7 wt percent pL, 0.2 wt
percent Cu, 15.2 g lt Ag, and 0.36 'Elt Au. Base metal sulfide-
rich mineraJi7 .. "ltion also o<:curs in the deeper parts of both
Martha Hill and Karangahake. In the 1950s and 1960s, Pb-Zn
-* Au-Ag were prospected in the Sylvia and Monowai de-
posits. Other trace minemls include selenides. tellurides, s111-
fosaIts, stibnite, molybdenite, marcasite. arsenopyrite, nnd
cinnabar. but these occur in only a few deposits. Quart-I.:, cal-
cite, and adularia are the main gangut! minerals, \vith spomdic
occurrences of rhodochrosi te, inesite zeoli te), siderite,
barite, kaolinite. and anhydrite.
Martha Hill (.'Omprises a bmnchi ng of subparullel,
steeply dipping quartz-calci te-sulfide-adularill veins that ex-
tend about 1.5 km along strike (Fig. 3). The Martha vei n is
largest and up to 35 m Wide. Mining began in 1882 follo\ving
discovery of surface exposures of veins, but most of the min-
emlization was t.'oncealed by posture rhyolitic ignimbrite and
underlying lake sediments that fill a pnleodepression running
down lhe axis of the vein system (Fig. 4). Most of the ure was
extracted by underground mining (1883--1952), but since
ePITHERMAL PHECIOUS AND BASE METI\ L DEPOSITS 509
N
T
Alluvial sediments
O
Late Miocene-Plioc8fle
rtlyolile

o
Early Miocene-Pliocene
andesite and dacite
Early Miocene
diorite Intrusion
Jurassic greywacke
basement
Epithermal Au-Ag
.& Epithermal Pb-Zn (Ag-Cu)
i::l. Epithermal Au-Ag (tellurides)
... Epithermal Au-Ag (selenium)
o Porphyry Cu
..

Wellington

J>
" Fault
25 km
FtG. 16. Map of t:pithcnnal and porphyry deposits in the HaunUd goklflt'lds 'nd the Coromandel peninsula, North b-
land, Nt:w Zealand. Iteep, mgged.'op:.>gro&pfIY is by and the rocb _therd. (n-
cUed by stlTamJ and m-eTS. Alilhe ep1lltennal depostts are assoa.ated witli quam <t. calcite <t. adulana ,Ilite
(modlfled froon Chrutie PliO Bnotllwaltc, 19.55: Brathwait e et al .. 1989: Brathwaite and Faure, 20(2). Epithcnnal Au-Ag
deposit.<; with OO:'"11 '''', ........s of tellUride. or selenium-rid. $ulndl.'S are distlnguWw!d (A. R. Christie !lnd M.P. Slmp.tOn, pers.
commit"., 20(5)
1988, vein material l eft behind and stope flll have been ex-
pl oited by open-pit mining. Fine-grained ele<:trum-sulfide
J?;old-sil ver ore contai ns 64 gft All , 400 glt Ag, 0.47 wt pen.-ent
Zn, 0.41 wi percent Pb, and 0. 15 WI pen:ent ClI based on a
representative assay of drill core over 1 m, in comparison to
deep cCl.1fse-grained sulfide ore, which contains 0. 1 to 2 gil
Au, 5 to 70 glt Ag, 0.3 to " wt percellt Zn, 0.05 to 2 \\It per-
cent Pb, and 0.01 to 0.2 wt percenl Cu based on assay of drill
core over widths up to 8 m (Brathwaite and Faure. 20(2). The
enclOSing Iludesitic host rocks are extensively altered over an
area of >10 k1ll
2
, and in the vicinity of vein.s they are altered
to adularia, illi te, quartL, calcite. chlori te, and pyrite, with
minor Illbite and epidote. The nearby Favona, Karango.hake.
and Colden Cross deposits are similar in tenns of mineraliza-
tion style. alteration and gangue mineralogy. and silver/gold
ratio, although base metal sulfides are lacki ng at Colden
Cross.
The Thames deposit is notable for its bonanza ore shoots,
which coincide with fault-vein intersections. Epithennal min-
eraliz.'\tion there is closely associated with subel.'OnomiC
xc
510 SIMMONS 1 At..
porphyry eu minerali7.ation and advanced argillic alteration,
indicating telescoping of hydrothe rmal environments (Brdth-
waite et aI., 2001b). Electrum and pyrorgyrite are the main
gold-silver minerals along with minor amounts of gold-siJver
tellurides. Pyrite, sphalerite, stibnite, arsenopyrite, chalcopy-
rite, marcasi te, enargi te. and cinnabar are present in veins
consisting mostJy of quartz and barite.
Within the i-I auraki goldfields, there are a rew sporadic 0c-
currences of magmati c hydruthermal advanced argillic alter-
ation but none so rar have proven to contai n Significant pre-'
cious or base metal mi nerahzation. All or the known ores
formed rrom reduced, near-neutnal pH solutions of mainly in-
termediate-sulfldation state (Christie and 8rathwaite, 1986).
K-Ar and dates for hytlrutllennal minerals related
to are deposition show that the Martha Hill, Favona, Golden
Cross, Kanl.llgahake, and Tlli deposits fanned within a short
period between G and 7 Ma (BratJlwaitc and Christie, 1996;
Mauk and Hall. 2003, 2(04). This suggests that several adja-
cent ore-forming hydrothermal systems were active l.'Ontem-
poraneously. By contrast, the Thames deposi t formed around
U .6 to 10 Ma (BratJlwaite et aI., 2001b).
The Hauraki goldfields, with their numerous occurrences
of epithermal mineralization, highlight the regional and local
geofogic controls on are mineralization. The presence of Au-
Ag deposits with telluride and selenide minerals (e .g.,
Thames) or of an epithermal Pb-Zn deposit (Tui mine),
Il mong numerous other Au Ag deposits poor in tellurides, se-
lenides, and base metals, dcspite relatively unifonn regional
st ratigraphy, suggests that deep-seated factors, rather than
local country rocks, dictated the metal invell tories of are-
fonning systems (cf. John, 2001. ror a similar distinction in
the Creat Basin in westcrn United States). At the same time,
the prevalence of vein-hosted ores and mineralogiC evidence
of boiling emphasizes the prominence of shallow hydrology in
localizing orebodies.
Metallogenic belts of western Uni/cd States-northern Me:rico
This large region of southwest North Ameri ca hosts nu-
merous epithennal deposits, comprising a huge endowment
of prc. .'Cious metals l.'Oncentrnted mainly in the Great Basin of
Nevada and eastern California and in northcrn Mexi(:o
(Buchanan, 1981). We examine only four provinces to show
how the continui ty of metal assemblages forms distinct met-
al logeni C belts extending hundreds or kilometers. Figure 17
shows the distribution of major mid to late Tertiary ep-
ithermal deposits and their metal assemblages, allOwing
comparison to equivalent-scale tedonomagmat ie features,
including the distribution of silicic volcanism and Basin and
Range extensional tectonics that overlapped the timing of
ore rormati on.
John (2000 described the Miocene to Pliocene epithermal
deposits of the Great Basinllild showed how sulfide mineral-
ogy or ore correlates wi th the composition of coeval magmas
and plate-tectonic setting. He distinguished two igneous as-
semblages and two corresponding mctallogeuic belts, termed
western andesite (22,...4 Ma) and bimodal (17
Mil to Holocene). Western andesi te-related deposits include
Comstock LOOe, Bodie, and Tonopall, witJl quartz % calcite %
adul ari a :t illite gangue assemblages, and Coldfield and Par
adisc Peak witJl quartz + aluuite :t pyruphyllite % dickite :t
kaolinite gangue assemblages. These deposits formed in ass0-
ciation with the K ri ch calc-alkaline conti nental arc magma-
tism, c.:olllprising strdtovubmoes, fl ow domes, and intrusions,
in a narrow bel t or transtensional and strike-slip faulting
known as the Walker Lane. Amphibole and biotite are char-
acteristic hydrous phenocryst phlLSus ill the igneous rocks that
occur with plagioclase, cli nopyroxene. orthopyroxene, and
Fe-Ti oxides (titanomagnetite > ilmeni te).
Bimodal basalt-rhyolite-related deposits include Midas.
Sleeper, Mule Canyon and the National district, which aU
have quartz :t calcite :t: adularia :t: illite gangue assemblages.
They fonned during Basin and Uange extension and magma-
tis m in association witJl mafic dike swarms and lavas and fel -
sic flow dome complexes. Basalts contain plagioclase, ulivine,
and Fe-Ti oxide (ilmenite> til anomagnetite), whereas ooge-
netic rhyolites locally contain quartz and Ferich olivine. Hy-
mineral phenocrysts are absent in most rocks of all
compositions.
The phenocryst mineralogy associated with the two igneous
suites indicates that the western ande.'Ii te magmas were more
oxidized and water rich than the bimodal basalt-rhyolite mag-
mas (Johll, 20(H). There are also di stinctions in mineralogy
and signatures of the associated epitJlennal deposits
tJlat c::orrelate wi lh magma composition. In the western an
desite assemblage, most Au-Ag (Cu) deposits with quartz +
alunite :t: pyrophyllite :I: dickite % kaoli nite gangue contai n
f.
yrite and/or marcasite, native gold, enargite-Iuwnite. spha-
erite, covelli te, % chalcopyrite, galena, tetrahedrilc-lennall-
tite, bismuthinite, stibnite, and gold tellurides, indicating an
Intennediate- 10 high-sulftdation state. They gcnerally have
sil ver/gold ratios of 0.2 to 2 and chemical Signatures of Au,
Ag, As, Sb, Pb. Cu :t Bi, Hg. Mo, Sn, Te, and Zn. In tJlis sallie
magmatic assemblage, there also are Au-Ag (CuPb-Zn) de-
posits with quartz % cnIcite adularia :I: illite gangue. These
deposits l.'Ontain pyrite, electrum, acanthite, silver sulfosal ts,
tetrahedrite-tennantite, galena, Fe-poor sphalerite, and chal-
copyrite ofintermediate-sulfi.datton state affinity. They gener-
ally have silver/gold ratios of 10 to 100 and chemical signa.
tures ur Au, Ag, Ba, Mn, Cu, Pb, Se, and Zn. By contrast,
the bimodal basalt-rhyoli te-related deposits are relatively sul-
fide IXlOr where hosted by rhyolites but relatively sulfide rich
whe re hosted by basalts. They contain pyri te, marcasite. ar-
senopyri te. elcctrum. acanthite, siJver selenides, and mUl or
chalcopyrite, stibnite, and Fe-rich sphal erite of lowsulfl da-
tion-state affinity and chemical signatures of Au, Ag. As, Sb,
Sc, Hg, :t: Mu, TI, and w. Silver/gold ratios are generally S:1O
(commonly near 1). These minenalogical and geochemical
chanl(!teristics correlate closely with magma composition;
water-poor and reduced lII afiC correspond to the de-
velopment of dominantJy lowsulfidation- state ore minerdl
assemblages, w.lter-rich and oxidized intermedi ate
magmas correspond to the development of intermediate- (to
lligh-) sulfidation-state assemblages.
The work on the Great Basin deposits described above has
no known counterpart in northern Mexico or anywhert: else
in tJle world. I evertheless, Clark et aI. ( 1982) and Staude and
Barton (2001) show, in a morc gellcr.u way, that metall ogeny
throughout the Mexican region correlates in space and time
to tJ1C magmatic evolution with plate convergence
during the mid to late Terti ary. Isotopic Jatillg and fluid
lii'l T/ l fllMAL mi'.' c/Ous ANI) JlASE JIi'."fi\ /, /)1':I'OS/'I'S
130'
" 0'
11 0'
'"
. cc
Pacific Ocean
30'
20'
Geology
Basin and Range province
Middle-Tertiary ignimbrite
Mellican volcanic: belt
Boundary between eastern and
western terranes
Deposits
o Basall-rhyolite
West ern andesite (Qtz:t;Calc:iAd:t;ill)


Western andesit e (Qtz+A1un:t;Pyroph.tOickKaol)
o Ag-Au vein deposit
Ag-Pb-Zn vein deposit
Ag- Pb-Zn (Cu) carbonate replacement deposit
Other Epi thermal Deposits
Qtz+A1un.tPyroph:l:Dick:t; Kaol
OtzCalc:iAd:t;1IJ
120 110
100"
<D'
USA
Mexico
20'
100'
FIG. Ii. :\1:lp of major CJ,i t l,,mH,l (koposih '><. .... ill ,,",.,.tl'm Unital Stat{'s alill that fOrnII'd from the Jl ,iddlc
ECICt,,, to the early PliOC("nc. in mmp"riwn to tht: dbtributioll (Of .. al rll)Olili<, deposits (II(' Sa" J" "n '"Oirnnic
field, Color:l.Ilu, und t he Si.rra '\1adre OL' d(kntal .. \t.:.,ico) and th.: B ... ,; n and Hang .. prOlince (I [, my and
1!l2) . \ Iost d"p"si ts that an' pcnt raycd re lak tn the work of J" hn (ZOOt), Silll' nons and Al bi nson (lW5). and Al bi n;;c m d "I.
(2tXll ). and to SOUl{, extent t il': cla..,sif'eation nsed aT uot l"Ompamhl<- (Le . som" "ith . ;",i lar chamct"ri.,
tl(.$ nre t"n,K..,J uifferent ly between regions). I II :\1.:..\1:( p"lcozoie-:\k")7,oi(- ba.,,lIltnt rocl.s an tli\ided into hn, bro.ld1)
packag<.'" of rocks cowpri.ing <""astem amI ,w.tem tedunu!<tmtigrapl,ic I('Tran"" (Campa and COll<j, 1983; :\kgawet
a1 .. )9SS); the wesh' m termnes contain rocks of .\h-'<Jwic marin' and isb nd-are affi nity. wlU'rcas the tcrmnes :m'
m:lI:1c up of " thick succession of Puleo zoic to mari n(" shales, conti", ut ll l red 1x. ... ls :",d C\ap-
ori tL"; that (C.,t "" ""leozoic crystalline rocks. Tile rhyolitic 'o1c;u'ic defX"'ih Ihal cap III<! Skrm Occidcutal fon .. "
,cl) b ... coll tilluOUS rhyolitic igll imbrilt' sequeU(." (SW,UlSOll aud :\ leOOl'cll. 1984). The :\Icxica .. '"Oleanie belt represents
the Ulotlcm arc tlo:1I trends Basalt- rh)u1itc, and \\l'St,m andesi te"ffil iated e pi thc nm.1 depOSil of the
CR"t Bas in :!rI. hy John (2001) . Til(' and epithermal d('posit s and tIll' Ag_l' b_Zn (Cn) re-
baS<' d on a classifica tiun S<'heme di ffe rent from Juhn (200 1). arc f'Ol ll ,\ tbinson ct al. (200 1) ;md :\Icgaw
(t a1. (19&'. Other not d iscusS<..'(1 in the text are shown for geugraphi("al refe,""lM;:C. AUm ,..,iations for de poliib: AU
.. ,\ urum, HI) .. Hodie. BU .. CC '" Cripple Creek: CL .. Comstock i.ode. C . Cn.'ede. I" .. 1"0 . Fr .. s_
nillo. C F '" Goldfi .Jtt co = r '" k anho.. LC '" Ci ty. '" " :\10 ... \logollon. '" '\ IC ..
M.,le Can)"o", l. '" :\Ic! .. ""glin. N " Natio""l. 0 .\1 '" Oal m"n. I'A '" I'"..,h"ea- lleal 1i,1 Monte. 1'1' .. ParadiS(' I'<'ak. I\ A "
111 ':11 (k'] IlM " Hound .\ \ mmtain, SB .. San "' "rt in de lIo1aoios. SL .. Sleeper. S .. Summit,ill" . TA '" Ta)oitit:t. T "
'10111'1'''.1.. TU .. T ..... ,ca .... ra, W " Wonde r, ZA '" z,"1l'iltecas.
511
512 SIMMONS IT Ai..
inclusion st udies (Simmons and AJbinsoll, 1995; Albinson et
al ., 2001, Camprubf et aI., 20(3) have resolved genetic as-
pats that can be correlated further to regional magmatism
and tectonism described below.
11le epithennal deposits of northern Mexico are divisible
into two distinl..'l pan.J.lel but overlapping metallogeniC belts
containing Ag-Au and Ag-Pb-Zn ores that cxtend >1,000 kill
in a northwest-southeast trend (Fig. 17; Damon et al. , 1981;
Simmons and Albinson, 1995; Albinson et a1., 2001). Some of
the deposits are middle to late Eocene in age, but most
fonned in the Oligocene to Miocene during the Sierra Madre
Occidental ignimbrite event when silicic volcanism was both
intense and widespread. The remnant outcrops of this period
are represented by sequences of pyroclastic deposits, many
densely welded with an average thi ckness of 1 km, which ex-
tend over a region 296,000 km
2
(Swanson and McDowell .
1984). At the same time, epithermal belts formed during ex-
tensional tectonism within the southern part of the Basin and
Range province, which extends into central Mexico (He nry
and Ar.mda-Come7 .. 1992).
The Ag-Au deposits are concentrated in the western belt,
commonly occurring in andesitic rocks that comprise the
lower part of the Sierra Madre Occidental sequence (e.g.,
Tayoltita); their fluid inclusions have salinities of <1 to 7.5 wt
percent NaCI equ.iv. The Ag-Pb-ZII deposits (e.g., Fresnillo,
Z1.catecas) are concentrated in the eastern belt and are asso-
dated with the upper part orthe Sierra Madre Occidental se-
quence comprising felsic ryroclastic depoSits. To the cast of
tlle Ag-Pb-Zn epithenna depoSits lies another subparallel
metallogeniC bell consisting of Pb-ZII-Ag-(Cu) deposits thai
fonned at higher temperatures (>300C), usually close to in-
trusive centers and predominantly hosted by carbonate units
(Fig. 17; Mcgaw et aI. , 1988). Fluid inclusions in the Ag-Pb-
Zn deposits generally have higher salinities, rdJIging from -5
to 23 wt percent NaCI equiv (Simmons and Albinson, 1995;
Albinson et Ill., 2001), with the orerelated salinity at Fresnillo
being - 10 wt percent NaCI equiv compared to the gangue
stage of -2 WI. percent NaCI equiv (Simmons et al. . 1988).
The Ag-Au and Ag-Pb-Zn epithermal belts extend across a
major crustal suture that separntes two sequences of base-
ment rocks comprising Paleozoic-Mesozoic tectonostrnti-
grnphic terranes (Fig. 17). Although the presence of evaP:lr-
ites in the eastern terrane has been suggested as a possible
source of hi gh salinities seen in studies of carbonate-hosted
Pb-Zn deposits (Megaw et al., 1988; Haynes and Kesler,
1988), they appear to be missing from the western terrane,
which also hosts Ag-Pb-Zn dcposits. l l t ~ r e is also clear evi-
dence from fluid inclusion and stable isotope studics that
lIIetalliferous brines in these carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn de-
posits were derived from magmas (e.g., Sawkins, 1964; Rye,
1966), so the contribution to brine fOnnation of evaporites
versus magmas remai ns unclear. We believe the patterns of
ore deposit distribution relative to the regional geologiC fea-
tures favor a prevailing deep-seated control on minernlization
that links orc gcnesis to magmatic prtx:e.'ises.
Genetic Considerations
Epithermal deposits represent a diverse class of ore de
posits, and many deposits clearly have different origins, but
the formation of all deposits is dependent on a complex
interplay of physiC:ll and chemical factors. Physical factors
(e.g., intmsion size and emplacement depth, the permeability
structure which evolves during hytlmthennal activity, and the
location of the water table) control henl flow, fluid flux, pres-
sure-temperature gradients, fl ow directions, and sites of
metal deposition. Chemical factors (e.g., magma l:ompos;tion,
cl')'Stalli7..ation history, influx of meteoric water, and host rock
compositions) affect fluid composition, ligand availability,
metal inventory, and metal tronsport. These fadors involve
te<:tonics, magmatism, host rocks, and hydrology, which all act
on the overall hydrothermal system to influence the metal ra-
tios, mineralogy, and mineral mning. plus grade. tonnage.
shape, and size. Although these fa(:tors are known to be im-
portant, the timing of processes and the magnitude of their
effects are difficuft to measure, so inferences are made by
analogy with active hydrothermal syste ms.
High metal solubilities and favorable temperature, pres
sure, and host-rock conditions along vertical and horizontal
Ilow paths of several-kilometers distance are reqUired for
metals to be delivered to an epithennal environment. More-
over, ore textures and discrete occurrences of precious mehUs
suggest that the critical ore-funning conditions only develop
epiSodically, and ore forms when they are synchronized to op-
timize both transport and deposition of metals. In some de-
posits we can relate these to pulses of deeply derived metal-
bearing solutions rising into the epithermal environment
(e.g., Simmons, 1991), whereas ill uthers t.hey appear related
to shallow nuctuating perme.1bility that governs fluid now and
boiling at the site of rninemlii'..ation (e.g., Saunders, 1994;
Christenson and Bayba, 199.5). The limited data regarding
the duration of ore fonnation indicate that the periods are
short, ranging from a few thousand to a fcw hundtl ..d thou-
sand years at must (e.g., Brown, 1986; Hedenquist et aI.,
1993: Arribas et al .. 1995a; Henry et al. , 1997; Cannan, 2003;
Leavitt et al. , 2004).
In summary, there are processes within, proximal to, and
distll.i from epithermal environments that lead to formation of
ore deposits, but no one deposit, district, or at.1:ive hydrother-
lIlal system reveals a uni fying frame-.vork, because epithermal
mlnernlization is so di verse. We louch 011 only three out of
sever..u aspects relevant to understanding the genesis of ep-
ithermru mineralization. These are the chemistry of ore-form-
ing solutions. the likely causes of metru depoSition, and the
role of the water table ill controll ing the site of ore deposition.
Chemlstn.J of orelonnfng soluuons
The chemistry of ore-forming solutions, which lIIay also in-
fluence gangue and alteration mineral assemblages, evolves
from deep to shallow Icvels (Fig. I). In both geotnermal and
magmatiC hydrothermal systems, the proportions of deep
fluid (i.e., magmati c versus deeply circulated meteoric wa-
ters). followed by the extent of wat er-rock interacti on. are the
main factors that influence the chemistryofhydrothcnnal s0-
lutions rising into the epithermal environment (Ciggenbach,
1992. ... , 1997). Not only do these factors (.'Outml the pH, they
also control the oxidation and sulfidation state of hydrothermal
solutions (Giggcnbach, 1992a, 1997; Einaudi et at., 2(03).
Stable isotope data (Fig. 9) indicate that the ori1:,rins of the
acid solutions responSible for the epi thermal ganguc asSCIll-
blage quartz + alunite ;I: pyrophyllite :t dickite ;I: kaolinit e can
EPITHERMAL PRECIOUS AND BASE METAL DEPOSITS 513
be traced directly to shallow intrusions that exsolve a fluid in
much the sallle manner as is inferred for the development of
porphyry copper deposits (Nedenquist et aI . 1998; Heinrich
et aI., 2(04) and degassing volcanoes (Giggenbach, 19923.,
1997). The buoyant magmatic val>or sepamtes from a hyper-
saline liqUid at depth, rises with ittle or no \vater-rock inter-
action, and eventually condenses in the epithermal environ-
ment. These solutions contain Signifi cant quantities of He l,
S02, and HF, and they become very rea(:tive due to dispro-
portionation of forming H2S0 4 and H!S, and dissocia-
tion of the acids. Illlense acid leaching and formation of VlIW
quartz result from reaction with country rock, creating highly
permeable zones that can focus the subsequent througllput of
metal-bearing liquids (White, 1991; 1995; Heden-
quist et al., 1998; Heinrich, 20(5). The early acidic solutions
are progressively neutralized hydrolytic alteration of
a.lumino-silicate minerals (e.g., feldSp..'\fS) accounting for the
sharp outward zoning in alteration assemblages (Fig. 7). In
many cases, however, a subsequent metal-bearing liqUid does
not reach the level of advanced 1lI"gi11ic alteration, leavi ng it
barren of ore minemlizatioll. Such barren zones are associ-
ated with porphyry copper deposits creating toptlbrmphically
promincnt features known Iithocaps (Sillitoe, 1995b). Min-
imal water-rock interdction in aseending metal-bearing solu-
tions is also reflected by the high-sulfldation state or Cu sul-
fide minerals. The relatively oxidized natu.re of these
solutions and their evnlution to a high-sulfidation state on
C(X)ung frolll magmatic to epithennal tempemtures results
from buffering with aqueous H2S and SO! (Giggenbach,
1992a, 1997; Rye, 1993, 2005; Einaudi et al., 2(03). Increas-
ing chmltion or water-rock interactioll leads to intermediate-
sulfldation state assemblages, which commonly fonn late in
the parngeneses of enargite-bcaring deposits (Einaudl et al.,
2003). Such changes in fluid chemist ry appear essential to op-
timizing gold transport. into the epithermal envi ronment
(Heinrich. 2005). Note that the composition of fluids causing
quartz + aluni te.:!: pyrophyl1ite.:!: dickite :I: kaolinite alteration
differs from the composition of fluids Ir.msporting the metals,
even if both l1uids have a common heritage, relating to the
same intrusive stock (White, 1991; Arribas, J995; Hedenquist
et al., 1998; Heinrich, 2005).
Stable isotope data (Fig. 9) indicate that the origi ns of near-
neutral pH solutions responsible for the epithennal gangue as-
semblage quart:z :I: calcite'" adularia :I: illite originate from deep
circulation of meteoric water. Based on the geothermal system
analogy, ' .... e inrer that the fluid in such systems is influenced by
variable input of magmatic oomponenlS (e.g., nl! to -10% mag-
matic 1'120) followed by extensive water-rock illteraction (Fig.
1). 111e resulting solution is near-ncutral pH and largely in equi-
librium witJl a propyli tic allerution assemblage. Minerals such as
K-mica and K-fcl&qlar buffer the pH, and iron-bearing phases
(silicates and sulfides) buffer the oxidation state (Ciggenbach,
19923, 1997), with the fomlation of low- to intennediate-sulfi-
dati(ln-state minerals possibly reflo::ting the nature of the par-
ent magma (John, 2001; Einaudi et aI., 2003; Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 20(3). Waters with high values suggest that
formation waters may have been present in some deposits (e.g.,
MCLaughlin, United States; Sherlock et aI., 1995).
The salinities of ore-fonning solutions (Fig. 8) vary widely.
In individual deposits, a salinity rangc of a factor of 2 or 3 can
be attributed to boiling and/or moon!? (e.g., Hedenquist and
Henley, 1985b; Hayba, 1997), although very locally a range of
ten times can resurt due to boiling and evapol'1l.tion in an is0-
lated fmL1ure (Simmolls and Browne, 1991). However, these
same processes cannot account for the differences in saUni-
ties, for example, between Ag-Pb-Zn (5-23 wt % NaCI equiv)
and Au-Ag (<1-7.5 WI % NaCI equiv) in northern Mexico
(Simmons and Albinson, 1995; A1binson et aI., 2(01), More-
over. tJle more saline hydrothennal solutions (i.e., >5 wt %
NaCI equiv) have no modem counterpart in analogous active
hydrothennal systems, and the stabl e isotope data indicate
that salinities renect fluid pulses having sibrnificant magmatic
input (Simmons, 1991. 1995; A1hinson et al., 2(01). The oc-
currence uf evaporites wi thin the host-rock stratigraphy may
in some cases account for high flUid salinities, as seen in tJle
Salton Sea geothermal system (e.g., McKibben and Hardie,
1997) and in some Mexican Ag-l
l
b-Zn deposits, discussed
above, but these appear to be the exception rather than the
rule. Thus, the range of salinities observed in fluids that form
deposits dominated by intennediate- versus low-sulflda-
tion- slate sulfides hosted by quartz :1 calcite ::I: adularia .:!: il-
lite appears to renect different sources. For fluids that Conn
high- to intermediate-sulfidation-state sulfides hosted by
quartz + alunite :I: p)'TOrhyllite ::I: dickite.:!: kaolinite, moder-
ate- to high-salinity flui( inclusions reflect the history of fluid
exsolution during crystallization of underlying magmas (e.g.,
HcJenquist et aI. , 1998; Heinrich et aI., 2004; Heinrich,
2(05). aItJlOugh most salin.ities are low, <:5 wt percent NaCI
equiv.
In summary. the difference between acidic magmllti c hy-
drothermal solutions and near-neutral pH chloride waters is
related to (1 ) the nature and deptJl or the underlying intru-
sion, (2) the resulting length of the flUid-flow path separating
the epithermal environment rrom the deeper parts of tJle sys-
tem, (3) the degree to which fluids are able to ascend freely
via open vertical conduits, and (4) related to the last poi nt, the
extent of water-rock interactions as fluids ascend to the sur-
face. These factors might explai n how in some deposits (e.g.,
Chinkuashih-Chiufen, Taiwan; Lepanto-Victoria, Philippines)
ores produced in the two contrasting alteration environments
(Fig. 1) can form side by side within the same broad period of
hydrothennal activity, as also seen in some active hydrother-
mal systems (e.g., Hedcnquist and Aoki, 1991; Heyes et al.,
1993). What remains puzzling is why some districts or belts
are dominated by ore deposits associated with quartz = ca1cite
::I: adularia illite gangue (e.g., Hauraki goldfields), some are
dominated by Ofe deposits associated with quartz + alunite ::I:
pyrophylli te ::I: di ckite :I: kaolinite gangue (e.g., Yanacocha,
Pem), and others have both types of ore deposits (e.g., the
Creat Basin in the westcrn United States).
Metal tmnsport alld deposition
Metal transport and depoSition and the formation of ore-
bodies over a rcstricted vertical interval, a few hundred me-
ters maxim lim, are among the most important processes af-
fecting ore genesiS in epithennal deposits. Cold and silver
tl'1l.nsport in hydrotJlennai solutions is caused mainly by bisul-
fide complexes, whereas the base metals and a component of
tJle silver arc tnm.sported by chluride complexes (e.g., Seward
and Barnes, 1997). The metal contents of deep nuids from
514 SIMMONS ET AL.
some geothermal systems have been analyzed from direct
sampling (Brown and Simmons, 2003) and deduced from
metal precipitation in surface pipes of geothermal welL'f
(Brown, 1986; McKibben and Hardie, 1997). However, data
regarding the meta1 contents of epithermal solutions is lim-
ited and much more is known about the causes of metal de
position in epithermal deposits. especially from near-neutral
pH solutions, based on abundant mineralogical evidence re-
Ilecting processes associated wilh orc formation. This is im-
portant because regardless of how much metal might have
passed through a hydmthennal liystcm, ores will not fonn un-
less there is a mechanism for efficient metal depoSition.
The most influential agent<! of metal precipitation are Co-.
cuscd fluid flow along with some combination of boiling and
mixing, as indicated by the occurrences of ores in zones of
high paleopermeability, deducti ons from fluid-mineral equi-
libria, fluid incluSion and mineralogical evidence, and obser-
vations in epithennal deposi ts and aL1ive geothennal systems
(e.g., Buchanan, 1981; Bro.vn, 1986, 1989; Heald et al., 1987;
Seward. 1989. Chri stenson and Wood, 1993; Saunders, 1994;
Cooke and Simmons, 2000; Cooke and McPhail, 2001;
Berger et aI. , 20(3). Phase separation due to boilillg a
sharp loss of lh, HilS, and CO! that lowers precious and base
metal solubili ty where sulfide and chloride complexes domi-
nate, and it also causes an increase in the pH and oxidation
state, largely due to the loss of COl and H2, respectively. Boil-
ing is a highly efficient mechanism which re moves most gold
and silver from solution, as clearly illustrated by gold and sil-
ver deposits in surface pipes mentioned earlier (Brown,
1986). BOiling also causes precipitation of adul aria, platy cal-
cite, and collnfonn-banded, amorphous si li ca (Simmons and
Browne, 2000b), and these are found in many epithermal vein
ores noted above. Many barren veins show these same
textures, suggesting that although conditions conducive to
metal precipitation existed (i.e., boiling), metals were deficient
in the hydrothermal solution. There are no known modem ana-
10gl.les for precious metal precipitation in a magmatic hy-
drothermal system, but chemical arguments and Iluid inclusion
data sUpfX>rt the imfX>rtance of boiling (Cooke and Simmons,
2000; Deycn et aI., 20(4), as does the occurrence of ores in hy-
drothennal breccias of explOSive origin. The development of
steam-heated watcrs and corresponding hydrolytic alteratioll in
shaJlow and near-surface environments corroborates that boil-
ing is (.'Ommon in epithennal environments hosted by both
magmatic hydrothennal and geothennal systems.
Mixing between fluids of Jifferent t;olllpusitiollS is anuther
viable mechanism of precious metal precipitation, as sup-
ported by some fluid inclusion data (e.g., Robinson and Nor-
man, 1984; Mancano and Campbell , 1995; Hayba, 1997), ex-
tensive stable isotope data (Fig. 9), and numerical simulations
(Reed and Spycher, 1985; Plumlee, 1994). There are also
cases where mixing has not produced metal depoSition (e.g.,
Simmons and Browne, 2000b); however, in cases where metal
depoSition oc'Currcd, it probably resulted mainly from dilu-
ti on and cooling and, to a lesser extent, from changes in oxi-
dation state and pH.
For either mixing or boiUng to occur and cause ore deposi-
tion, a favorable hydrological setting must exist. Boiling re-
quires sharp tempemture-pressuJ'e gmdients and a free lluiJ
path to the surface (e.g., Simmons and Browne, 2OOOa, b),
whereas mixi ng requires sustai ned interaction between Iluids
of different compositions andlor temperatures (e.g., Hayba,
1997), preferAbly in a turbulent envimnment. Bnt not all ep-
ithermal deposits can be easily cxplained as simple products
of boiling andlor mixing. Among these are the large gold de-
posits that l.'Ontaill telluride-bearing ores over long vertical in-
tervals (>500 m) in association with alkaline igneous rocks
(Emperor, Fiji; Porgera, Papua New Cuinea; Cri pple Creek,
United States). For these, mechanisms of metal deposition
seem complex, involving a combination of factors including
boiling, mixi ng, and water-rock interaction (Ronacher et al. ,
2(04), and posSibly reactions involving condensation of Te-
bearing magmati c into metal-bearing solutions (Cooke
and McPhail, 2(01).
The role of the water table
The regional water table controls the hydrostati c pressure
gradient in subaerial hydrothennal systems (Heilley, ] 985).
Thus, the elevation of the water table and its shift with time
relative to the land surface play an important role in di ctati ng
the vertical position of the epithermal environment (e.g.,
Steven and Eaton, 1975; Henley and Ellis, 1983; Henley,
1985; Sillitoe, 1993b). The position of tbe water table is inllu-
enced by topography and climate, so that in steep or arid ter-
rains there may be as much as several hundred meters be-
tween the water table and the land surface, in contrast to fl at
and wet terrdins, where the two closely l.'Oi nciJ e. Steep ter-
rains also inlluence the regional hydraulic gradient, which in-
lateral flow and mixing in the epithennal environment,
potentially conducive to metal deposition (e.g., Henley and
Ell is, 1983; Hayba, 1997). Despite the dynamic nature of sur-
face changes in volcanic terrains, the effects of the water table
on minerali7.ation are not commonly documented. There are
relatively few examples where the water table and its evol u-
tion have been interpreted and substantiated integral to
ore genesis (Simmons, 1991; Sillitoe, 1994; Ebert and Rye,
1997; Bissig et al., 2002; John et al., 2003; Wall aL'C, 20(3).
The water table rises and fal ls in volcanic arcs under the in-
fluence of uplift, subsidence, erosion, volcanic emption, and
lake drainage. These effects range from local (<1- 10 km!) to
regional (>10,000 km
2
) in extent. Whe reas the minimum
amount of time required 1.0 form an cpil.hennal orebody
might be a thousand years or more (Henley, 1985; Brown,
1986; Hedenquist et al. , 1993), large shifts in the water table
(>100 m) can occur on the scaJe or hours to months, for ex-
ample, due to voieanic eruption ({;(Jne bUilding or calderA for-
mation), sector collapse, or breakout ll00ding causing cata-
st rophiC drainage of a lake-Ail ed depression (e.g., Coff et aI. ,
1989; Simmons et ai. , 1993; L6pcz and Williams, 1993;
Manville et al., 1999). In such examples where the water table
falls mpidly, the accompanying pressure drop may trigger hy-
drothermal eruption, brecciation, and precious metal depoSi-
tion, whereas in examples of progressive erosion, a fall in the
water t.able may altemtion styles and
(e.g., Simmons, 1991; SLlhtoe, 1994, 1999). By companson,
water tabl e changes induced by steady regional uplift of a few
mmlyear requi rc several thousand years or more to have a
comparable effect, although this can be well within the li fes -
pan (dOO,OOO yr) of a Single hydrotherlllal system (e.g.,
Heyes. 1990; Bignall and Browne, 1994).
EPrTHERMAL PRECIOUS AND 8ASE METAL DEPOSITS 515
The overall effect of shifting the water table up or down
during hydrothermal activity is to extend or contrnct the dis-
tance separating rocks altered and mineralized in deep and
shallow envi ronments and. if precious metal mineralization is
forming at the same time, to change the vertical distribution
of ores. Evidence of the position of the water table is deduced
from fluid inclusion data and shallow alterntion patterns
(blankets of steam-heated advanced argill ic alteration, silica
si nter). In regions where the water table is rising (e.g. , due to
regional subsidence or damming of a drainage), 110tter alter-
ation assemblages prograde on to cooler altemtion assem-
blages and silica sinters may become stacked in the strati-
grapbic record (e.g., Hasbrouck Mountain, United States,
Graney, 1981; Drummond basin, Australia, Cuneen and Silli-
toe, 1989). In regions where the water table drops, cooler al-
temtion assemblages retrograde on to hotter assemblages and
mineraliZll.tion is telescoped. This latter si tuation may explain
occurrences of epithermal- over porphyry-style mineraliza-
tion (e.g .. Sillitoe, 1999) or. in the very rare case, in the vicin-
ity ofbatholit.h intrusions (Kesler et al., 20(4).
J mplications for Exploration
Epithennal deposits are variable in size. shape, and grade,
and eommonly the ore zones are not exposed. These charac-
teristics make them elusive to find and a cballenge to explore
(e.g., Sillitoe, 1995,2(00). Although some deposits are large
and continuous, many are not (Fig. 3). Efficient explonllion
thus requires integration of all available geological, geochem-
ical, and geophysical data with a good understanding of de-
posit characteristics and ore-fonning processes. plus a \.Vill-
ingness to drill targets generated from these data. Epithermal
deposits have the benefit that there are many features, as dis-
cussed above, that provide valuable information on erosion
level and mineral zonation.
There bave been many exploration successes since the re-
vival of interest in epithennal depoSits in the late 1910s. Some
have resulted from reevaluatioll of the potential for low-grnde
bulk mining of deposits Originally exploited as high-grnde de-
posits (e.g., Martha Hill, New Zealalld; Rouml Mountain,
United States), and others have resulted from di.scoveries of
new deposits in known mining districts (e.g., McLaughlin and
Sleeper, United States; Colden Cross, New Zealand;
Hishikari , Japan; San Cristobal, Bolivia). Some have been the
result of expanding exploration into previously unexplored
districts (e.g., Ladolam, Papua New Guinea; Mount Muro
and Kelian, IndoneSia; Ellndio, Chile; Cerro Vanguardia, Ar-
gentina). The discoveries of epithermal deposits in areas ori g-
inally being explored for other types or styles of minerdliZll.-
tion (e.g., Midas, United States; El Penon, Chile; Victoria,
Philippines; Nevada. Chile; Veladero, Argentina; Sillitoe,
1995, 2(00) highlight tbc critical importance of explorers
being familiar with the key characteristics of the different
styles of epithennai minemlizatiol1 so they can re{.'(}!,l"Jli:r.tl its
Significant traces, even if exposed in only small areas.
The first objective in exploration for epithermal deposits is
to choose the favorable regions to explore and then to narrow
this extensive prospective region to a manageable area for de-
tailed exploration. and finally to define targets for drill testing.
Once a potentially economic intersection has been achieved,
further work is most1y resource definition and evaluation,
rather than true exploration, although it is commonly COIl-
ducted by the same staff and many of the same skills are re-
quired. Tile distinetion ilere is between explOring for a de-
posit and assessment of a deposit.
There are few technical papers that address exploration is-
sues directly (Sillitoc, 19950., b, 2(00). White and Hedenquist
(1990, 1995) and Hedenquist et al. (2000) described and dis-
cussed attributes of epithermal gold deposits that are useful
for exploration. More specific geochemical and geophysical
aspects were addressed by Allis (1990), Clarke and Covett
(1990), IlVine alld Smith (1990), Ellis and Robbins (2000),
and Wright and Lide (2000). Table 6 shows the main goals
alii..! methods used at different scales of the explordtion
process. Some exploration programs cover all scales, whereas
olhel1l begin \vith a relatively well-defined target. In all cases,
the aim is to reduce the area, and then the volume of rock
being explored, with the goal of ultimately defining an eco-
nomic deposit.
Exploration techniques can be conveniently clasSified as
geological, geochemical, and geophysical in emphasis. In gen-
eral, the geologie techniques are tbose that geolOgists do
themselves and are dependent on recognition and mapping of
geologic features. Ceochemical techniques are those that in-
volve determining the concentration of various chemical ele-
ments. Geophysical techniques involve measurement of geo-
physical parameters that are subsequently inverted to
produce a geologie interpretation.
Geologic techniques
The aim is to use geolOgiC characteristics to identify
prospe<.tive areas for more detailed exploratiun. Such areas
are indicated by the occurrence of known depoSits and
prospe(:ts, either in the area chosen for explurdtion or ill other
areas that are thought to be geologically similar. Other favor-
able features illcluae hydrothemlal aiterdtion of appropriate
styles and dimensions (Figs. 4, 6, 10) and/or encouraging geo-
chemical signatures. Apart from prospecting and ground
mapping, remotely sensed images and spectral data can be
used to recogni7..8 areas ofhydrothennal alteration in suitable
regions (especially arid, poorly vegetated areas). Traditional
interpretation of aerial photographs is an effective technique
that has largely fallen into disuse. Mapping of structures and
their analysiS nonetheless remain a key guide to are.
Even at a regional scale, prospecting methods can playa
crucial role when exploring for epithennal deposits. In most
deposits the main ore wile consists of siliceous rcx:k.s (vei ns or
siliceous alteration) that are very resistant to erosion. Miner-
ali7.ed clasts are likely to be t.ransported into streams and can
be recognized by reconnaissance surveys at an early stage,
confinning the potential of an area selected on conceptual
grounds. Barren silil.'COus material that fonns above and distal
from epithermal mineralization (e.g., silica sinter and opaline
bhl.llkets; Fig. 5) can also point to paleohydrothennal activity.
As explorntion becomes more detailed, the emphasis shifts
from looking for broad areas of hydrothennal alteration, to
finding zones of foc.:used fluid flow and zones of are deposi-
tion. Mapping of the bast geology, structures, vein textures
and alteration mineralogy are all important. The availability of
affordable field infrared spectromctel1l has changed the ap-
proach to exploration of epithermal depoSits, because they
516 SIMMONS ET Al..
TABLE 6. The Main Objective: and Methods Used pi Different SclJcs of Exploration for Eplthennal Deposits
Scale and objectMl
lVgiorial (xOO--xOOO Ionl>
Lcx:ate fayorabie belt;
define pro.rpec:tiYe areas
lXstrld (xOO-xOO kmll
Define prospects
Look for
Known depoIltJ and/or prospects
Alteration zones
KnowlI dt.'tlO5ils IIndlor pn.npecU
Aitcl1Ilion wnes
Geochemical anomalies
Ceophyslc:al anOlllllLes
Methods used
Lilemure !'Mew, prospecting (high);
Uterature reYiew, prospecting. SAtellite and aerill.l
photograph (high);
Lilcf1lture prospecting. regIonal-JCa!e surveys (high);
Litcntll1'C reYiew, l'e'e\'aIu.tion of regIOn.aI
EM and gravity surveys (moderate)
UWar"re roview. 1M:n.i photo studies (high)
Prospecting. surveys. satellite and aerial photograph
studies (high)
Stream and JOil geochemical SUrveys (high)
I...aq;e-sc:aIe magnetic surveys (low)
1'ro#p;I { .. I- IOO kmll Veins, mlnenll%ed structures and/or umes
Alteration wnes
Mapping (Ind. trenching) (high)
Mapping with lR rpectrometl)l (loci . trenc:hing) (hii'M
Detailed soli and rock chip 5UM!)'!'I (high); Geochemical anomalies
Ceophysicol anomalies I P or resistivity surveys (moderate)
Veins. mincralUed ftI'UCtUteS andIor lOne5
Alteration :renes
Mllpptng. drill logging (very high)
Mapping. drill logging v.ith IR rpectm.-try, XRD (very high)
Deta1led glChemimy of drill umple.!i or uoo."ryvund Geochemical anomalies
allow inexpensive and rapid mapping of Rne.grained hydro.
thermal alteration. These studies are applicable at all S(.-aies of
exploration.
G4:0chemico1 technlql4t:S
In gold exploration by far the most important element ana
Iyzed is gold, althuugh other elements are commonly associ-
ated with gold deposits and they can also be used in explo-
ration. In epi thennal gold deposits the suite of associated
elements is large and includes Ag. Cu, Zn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi. Se,
Te, TI, Mo, W, Sn, and Hg.
Traditional panning for gold, as practiced by prospectors
for hundreds of years, has mixed success for epithermal tar
gets. The discovery of the Kelian deposit, which resulted from
explordtion upst ream of known alluvial gold deposits, is a no--
table example (van Leeuwen et al., 1990). In deposits associ
ated with quartz :I: calcite :t adularia :I: illite, the gold is typi
cally in the fonn of electrum, which is more susceptible to
dissolution in ground water than native gold, especially in re
gions with aciJic or saline ground waters (e.g., Webster and
Mann, 1984; Webster, 1986). In deposib associated with
quart-./. + alunite :t pyrophyllite :t dickite :I: kaolinite, thc gold
is partly nati ve, but it is typically Rne grnined and much of the
gold is refractory, contained in sulfide miner"'s. Conse
quently, epithermal deposits commonly produce less alluvial
gold than might be c1qlCcted from their gold content.
Regional-scale geocnemical surveys typically usc stream-
sediment geochemistry, collllllonly conventional (-80 mesh),
or low-density bulk cyanide leach (BLEC); pan-concentrate
gcocllt;! lI1ic.:al surveys also have been employed. As follow-up,
or for smaller areas, conventional surveys are more common.
Once areas of interest have been defined by early surveys, fol-
lowup is commonly by grid-based soil surveys. In rugged ter-
rain where grids wou1d be imprndical, ridge and spur sam-
pling is commonly used.
workings (W':ry high)
RlI!SistMly (moderate)
When gcochernically anomalous areas have been dcfint.>d,
but the source is not exposed because of cover by soil or
scree, trenching is commonly done to expose bedrock. This
allows detailed geologic mapping a.s well as rock-chip sam-
pling to define the source of the anomaly. Once the sourt:es of
anomalies have been located, and the geology has been
mapped, exploration requires testing of targcts at depth hy
drilling.
Geophysical techniqUes
Advances in geophysical techniques over the last 10 yr have
improved our ability to explore for epithermal deposits. In ex
ploration of geothermal areas, both resistivi ty and gravimetric
surveys have been employed (Allis, 1990; Bibby et nt., 1995).
In geothermal areas. the low resistivity response is related to
the hot water in the rocks ancVor clay alteration, and thus it is
not as effective as in inactive systems which host the epither-
mal depoSits. GrAvimetric surveys detect the increase ill den
sity that resu1ts from hydrothennal minerals deposited in per-
meable volcanic units and can also be used to locate
topographic highs on the underlying basement rocks.
Intense hydrothermal activi ty commonly destroys mag
nctite ill the host rocks by converting it to pyrite. Large-scil.fe
magnetic surveys can detect these areas of demagnetization
(Irvine and Smith. 1990); however, the lack of dis<:emible rea-
tures inside these areas means thil.t a much larger area Ileeds
to be surveyed so that structures can be detected outside the
altered area and trAced into the area or interest (c.g., Hilde
brand et al., 2001).
At a more detailed scale, several geopl,ysical techniques
can be useful in defining the position of zones of interest at
depth below surface anomalies. The extensive zones of dis-
seminated pyrite that characterize most deposits hosted by
advanced argillic allerdtion are suitable for induced polariza-
tion (IP) surveys. However, some deposits associated with
EPlTflfRMAL PRECIOUS AND BASE !1ft-TAL DEPOSITS 517
ruteraliou that formed from near-neutral rH solutions also
have abundant disseminated pyrite, and al deposits can un-
derlie a blanket of pyritic day-carbonate alteration, which
formed ncar the surface in the deeper p.'U'ts of steam-heated
zones.
High-resistivity siliceous 7.ones are intimately associated
with mineralization in the epithernlal environment, bolh in
vuggy and massive quartz as well as in quartz veins. Such
zones are amenable to detection by resistivity surveys, such as
controlled-source audio-frequency nUlb1Jleto- telluric (CSAMT;
hvine and Smith, 1990). as well as by IP. The limitation on
such surveys is that the high-resistivity target zones are com-
monly narrow in vein-related deposits, and associated with
other zones that have low resistivity (e.g .. clay zones) and high
chargeability (duc to sulfides). making their interpretation
very diffiL11ll Despite this problem, geophysics is the only ex-
ploration technique that allows measurement of subsurface
geologic properties prior to drilling. and its role in explonltion
for epithermal deposits is likely to increase, particularly as the
techniques are refined.
Concluding Rcmarks
Epilhcnnal deposits formed in the shrulow part of once-ac-
tive hydrothermal systems. They are a diverse class of orc de-
posits, L'Ontaining ores of differing metal compositions, min-
erruogies, and origins. We take the perspective that
epitllennal deposits arc best examined in tenus of their com-
mon gangue llJineral assemblagcs. This is based 011 cmpirical
observations, bUI it is underpinned by our understanding of
the conditions under which tllese gangue minerals form in
terms of temperature, pressure, nuid composition, and iso--
topic composition.
tn t.he past few years. the importance of magmas and tec-
tonic setling. and their influence on metaJ inventories, sulfida-
tiun state of orc minerals. and styles of alter-dtion and mineral-
ization h:tve been discussed (John. 2001; Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 2(03). In some places. such as the Creat Basin of
the western United States (John. 2(01). established relation-
ships have hel pt.>d to develop a genetic framework for epither.
mal ore formation. However, there are other places where
these relationships are difficult to est:tblish, and it remains to
be seen how often correlations can be made. Continuity in the
record of igneous activity and the ability to identify time i11llJ"k
ers that match ore formation to intrusive or vofeanic events
will help to strengthen the link between magmatism and styles
of epithermru minerali7.ation. In the casc of the high- to inter-
mediate-slllfldation-Slnte orcs . .'iociated with quartz + alunite
* pyrophyllite :t dickite :*: kaoli n.ite gangue, precious and base
metal mineralization is intimately associated with the crystal-
lization of ignoous intrusions and exsolution of magmatic nu-
ids. and knowledge of their effects will improve the under-
standing of genetic processes beneficial to exploration.
The same strong li nk is not as obvious in many intermedi-
ate- and low-sulfldalioll ores hosted by quartz * calcite
adularia :I: illite gangue, because the distance separ-dti ng ig-
neous intrusions aud orebodies is longer (typically sevcr.u
kilometers), and the nuids ri sing from the base of the con-
vection cell are subject to greater degrees of water-rock in-
teraction that can mask magmatic effects. There are ruso the
effects of the local epitlnmnal environment, for example,
boiling and mixing, which may cause metal deposition,
changes in the sul6dation state, and influence tile sequence
of mineral precipitation. Consequently, without knowing the
compositions of deep fluids in deta.i1 (specifically COt.. I-hS.
S02, 1'12. Cl, and metal contents), the distinction between ores
whose mineralogy is controlled by igneous intrusion and ores
\...nose mineralogy is controlled by the processes in the ep-
ithermal environment is blurred.
IlllfXlrtant avenues of fuhlre research of epithe rmal de-
include: (1 ) continued application of high resolution
ArpaAr dating to resolve the timing of are fonnation relative
to the age of host rocks. and the history of igneous activity.
and to understand the duration and frequency of mincralizing
events; (2) quantitative detenninatlon of tile compositions
and metal contents of ore-bearing fl uids from microanalysiS
of fluid inclusions as has been used to study fXlrphyry deposits
(e.g . Ulrich et ai ., 2(01); this should lead to a great improve-
ment in understanding epithennal dcposits because of tile
potential to characterize metal cont ents of fluids related to
specific events; (3) sampling and trace metal anruysis of fl uids
in active systems (e.g . Brown and Simmons, 2(03) to resolve
the diversity of fluid types, especially of deep origin, and de-
termine their capacity to transport metals in different geo-
logic settings; this in conjunction with resu1ts from inclusion
fluid analyses \vi]] contribute to quantitative models of mctal
transport and deposition that may increase the understanding
of 110\\1 troce element dispersion hruos relate to ore-fonning
processes; and (4) new exploration techniques (including geo-
chemistry and geophysics) that improve discovery of orebod-
ies conl."e.aled beneath cover rocks: the tops of many large ep--
ithermru dep:>s:its remain to be recognized, and they will be
found both in virgin terri tory and in known districts whose
limits have yet to he defi ned.
Acknowledgments
A number of people generously provided data on epither.
mal deposits. including Regina Baumgartner. Bob Bratll-
waite, Tony Christie, Jillian Exton, Mark Fisher, Tony Longo,
JefT Mauk, Sachilliro Taguchi. and Steve Turner. We thank
Shane Ebert. Patrick Browne, and Bob Brathwaite for their
reviews on an early draft of this manuscript. We especially
thank JefT Hedenquist and John Thompson for their tireless
efforts and tlleir technical and editorial comments on the sub-
sequent drafts, which greatJy improved this manuscript. Mark
Simpson deserves special mention for his help in compiling
ore deposit data and drafting of figures. This work was sup-
ported by II grant from the Foumlation for Science. Research
and Technology to SFS.
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