Synopsis

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MICROPROCESSORS

INTRODUCTION: Mic&'p&'cess'&s a&e &ega&ded as 'ne '( the )'st i)p'&tant de*ices in '+& e*e&,da, )achines ca--ed c')p+te&s. Be('&e /e sta&t0 /e need t' +nde&stand /hat e1act-, )ic&'p&'cess'&s a&e and thei& app&'p&iate i)p-e)entati'ns. Mic&'p&'cess'& is an e-ect&'nic ci&c+it that (+ncti'ns as the cent&a- p&'cessing +nit 2$%U3 '( a c')p+te&0 p&'*iding c')p+tati'na- c'nt&'-. Mic&'p&'cess'&s a&e a-s' +sed in 'the& ad*anced e-ect&'nic s,ste)s0 s+ch as c')p+te& p&inte&s0 a+t')'4i-es0 and 5et ai&-ine&s T,pica- )ic&'p&'cess'&s inc'&p'&ate a&ith)etic and -'gic (+ncti'na- +nits as /e-- as the ass'ciated c'nt&'- -'gic0 inst&+cti'n p&'cessing ci&c+it&,0 and a p'&ti'n '( the )e)'&, hie&a&ch,. %'&ti'ns '( the inte&(ace -'gic ('& the inp+t6'+tp+t 2I6O3 and )e)'&, s+4s,ste)s )a, a-s' 4e in(+sed0 a--'/ing cheape& '*e&a-- s,ste)s. 7hi-e )an, )ic&'p&'cess'&s and sing-e chip designs0 s')e high8 pe&('&)ance designs &e-, 'n a (e/ chips t' p&'*ide )+-tip-e (+ncti'na- +nits and &e-ati*e-, -a&ge caches. 7hen c')4ined /ith 'the& integ&ated ci&c+its that p&'*ide st'&age ('& data and p&'g&a)s0 '(ten 'n a sing-e se)ic'nd+ct'& 4ase t' ('&) a chip0 the )ic&'p&'cess'& 4ec')es the hea&t '( a s)a-- c')p+te&0 '& )ic&'c')p+te&. Mic&'p&'cess'&s a&e c-assi(ied 4, the se)ic'nd+ct'& techn'-'g, '( thei& Design 0 4, the /idth '( the data ('&)at the, p&'cess9 and 4, thei& inst&+cti'n set . TT: techn'-'g, is )'st c'))'n-, +sed0 /hi-e $MOS is (a*'&ed ('& p'&ta4-e c')p+te&s and 'the& 4atte&,8p'/e&ed de*ices 4eca+se '( its -'/ p'/e& c'ns+)pti'n. E$: is +sed /he&e the need ('& its g&eate& speed '((sets the (act that it c'ns+)es the )'st p'/e&. ;'+&84it de*ices0 /hi-e ine1pensi*e0 a&e g''d 'n-, ('& si)p-e c'nt&'- app-icati'ns9 in gene&a-0 the /ide& the data ('&)at0 the (aste& and )'&e e1pensi*e the de*ice. $IS$ p&'cess'&s0 /hich ha*e < t' se*e&a- h+nd&ed inst&+cti'ns0 a&e easie& t' p&'g&a) than RIS$ p&'cess'&s0 4+t a&e s-'/e& and )'&e e1pensi*e. Mic&'p&'cess'&s ha*e 4een desc&i4ed in )an, di((e&ent /a,s. The, ha*e 4een c')pa&ed /ith the 4&ain and the hea&t '( h+)ans. Thei& 'pe&ati'n has 4een -i=ened t' a s/itched 4'a&d0 and t' the ne&*'+s s,ste) in an ani)a-. The, ha*e '(ten 4een ca--ed )ic&'c')p+te&s. The '&igina- p+&p'se '( the )ic&'p&'cess'& /as t' c'nt&'- )e)'&,. That is /hat the, /e&e '&igina--, designed t' d'0 and that is /hat the, d' t'da,. Speci(ica--,0 a )ic&'p&'cess'& is >a c')p'nent that i)p-e)ents )e)'&,. A )ic&'p&'cess'& can d' an, in('&)ati'n8p&'cessing tas= that can 4e e1p&essed0 p&ecise-,0 as a p-an. It is t'ta--, +nc'))itted as t' /hat its p-an /i-- 4e. It is a t&+-, gene&a-8p+&p'se in('&)ati'n8p&'cessing de*ice. The p-an0 /hich it is t' e1ec+te?/hich /i--0 in 'the& /'&ds0

c'nt&'- its 'pe&ati'n?is st'&ed e-ect&'nica--,. This is the p&incip-e '( >st'&ed p&'g&a) c'nt&'-@. 7ith'+t a p&'g&a) the )ic&'p&'cess'& can d' n'thing. 7ith 'ne0 it can d' an,thing. ;+&the&)'&e0 )ic&'p&'cess'&s can 'n-, pe&('&) in('&)ati'n8p&'cessing tas=s. T' ta=e acti'n 'n the '+tside /'&-d0 '& t' &ecei*e signa-s (&') it0 a c'nnecti'n )+st 4e p&'*ided 4et/een the )ic&'p&'cess'&As &ep&esentati'n '( in('&)ati'n 2as digita- e-ect&'nic signa-s3 and the &ea- /'&-d &ep&esentati'n.

HISTORY: The (i&st digita- c')p+te&s /e&e 4+i-t in the !#B As +sing 4+-=, &e-a, and *ac++)8t+4e s/itches. Re-a,s had )echanica- speed -i)itati'ns. Cac++) t+4es &eD+i&ed c'nside&a4-e p'/e&0 dissipated a signi(icant a)'+nt '( heat0 and s+((e&ed high (ai-+&e &ates. S')e s,ste)s achie*ed p&'cessing &ates +p t' !0 'pe&ati'ns pe& sec'nd. In !#B<0 Be-:a4'&at'&ies in*ented the t&ansist'&0 /hich &apid-, &ep-aced the *ac++) t+4e as a c')p+te& s/itch ('& se*e&a- &eas'ns0 inc-+ding s)a--e& siEe0 (aste& s/itching speeds0 -'/e& p'/e& c'ns+)pti'n and dissipati'n0 and highe& &e-ia4i-it,. In the !#F s Te1as Inst&+)ents in*ented the integ&ated ci&c+it0 a--'/ing a sing-e si-ic'n chip t' c'ntain se*e&a- t&ansist'&s as /e-- as thei& inte&c'nnecti'ns. The (i&st )ic&'p&'cess'& /as the Inte- B B0 p&'d+ced in !#<!. O&igina--, de*e-'ped ('& a ca-c+-at'&0 and &e*'-+ti'na&, ('& its ti)e0 it c'ntained "03 t&ansist'&s 'n a B84it )ic&'p&'cess'& that c'+-d pe&('&) 'n-, F 0 'pe&ati'ns pe& sec'nd. The (i&st 884it )ic&'p&'cess'& /as the Inte- 8 80 de*e-'ped in !#<" t' &+n c')p+te& te&)ina-s. The Inte8 8 c'ntained 303 t&ansist'&s. The (i&st t&+-, gene&a-8p+&p'se )ic&'p&'cess'&0 de*e-'ped in !#<B0 /as the 884it Inte- 8 8 0 /hich c'ntained B0G t&ansist'&s and c'+-d e1ec+te " 0 inst&+cti'ns pe& sec'nd. B, !#8#0 3"8 4it )ic&'p&'cess'&s c'ntaining !." )i--i'n t&ansist'&s and capa4-e '( e1ec+ting " )i--i'n inst&+cti'ns pe& sec'nd had 4een int&'d+ced. Red+cti'ns in 4'th de*ice siEe and p'/e& dissipati'n a&e essentia- in achie*ing these high densities. S)a--e& de*ice siEes a-s' a--'/ (aste& /itching speeds0 /hich in t+&n pe&)it highe& p&'cess'& c-'c= &ates. Inc&eased densit, a-s' -ets designe&s add ci&c+it&, t' inc&ease the a)'+nt '( /'&= pe&('&)ed /ithin a c,c-e. On )an, 4ench)a&=s0 high8end )ic&'p&'cess'&s a&e t/' '&de&s '( )agnit+de (aste& than the DE$ CAH8 !!6<8 )inic')p+te&0 a pe&('&)ance standa&d in the !#< As. Ke, distincti'ns 4et/een )ain(&a)e and high8pe&('&)ance )ic&'p&'cess'& 4ased s,ste)s '(ten a&e si)p-, ph,sica- siEe0 a4i-it, t' hand-e -a&ge a)'+nts '( I6O0 and s'(t/a&e iss+es. MICROPROCESSOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE: Mic&'p&'cess'&s a&e (a4&icated +sing techniD+es si)i-a& t' th'se +sed ('& 'the& integ&ated ci&c+its0 s+ch as )e)'&, chips. Mic&'p&'cess'&s gene&a--, ha*e a )'&e c')p-e1 st&+ct+&e than d' 'the& chips0 and thei& )an+(act+&e &eD+i&es e1t&e)e-, p&ecise techniD+es. The (i&st step in p&'d+cing a )ic&'p&'cess'& is the c&eati'n '( an +-t&a p+&e si-ic'n s+4st&ate0 a si-ic'n s-ice in the shape '( a &'+nd /a(e& that is p'-ished t' a )i&&'&8-i=e s)''thness. At p&esent0 the -a&gest /a(e&s +sed in ind+st&, a&e 3 )) 2!" in3 in dia)ete&. Ec'n')ica)an+(act+&ing '( )ic&'p&'cess'&s &eD+i&es )ass p&'d+cti'n. Se*e&a- h+nd&ed dies0 '& ci&c+it patte&ns0 a&e c&eated 'n the s+&(ace '( a si-ic'n /a(e& si)+-tane'+s-,. Mic&'p&'cess'&s a&e

c'nst&+cted 4, a p&'cess '( dep'siti'n and &e)'*a- '( c'nd+cting0 ins+-ating0 and se)i c'nd+cting )ate&ia-s 'ne thin -a,e& at a ti)e +nti-0 a(te& h+nd&eds '( sepa&ate steps0 a c')p-e1 sand/ich is c'nst&+cted that c'ntains a-- the inte&c'nnected ci&c+it&, '( the )ic&'p&'cess'&. On-, the '+te& s+&(ace '( the si-ic'n /a(e&? a -a,e& a4'+t ! )ic&'ns 2a4'+t . ! ))6 . B in3 thic=0 '& a4'+t 'netenth the thic=ness '( a h+)an hai&?is +sed ('& the e-ect&'nic ci&c+it. The p&'cessing steps inc-+de s+4st&ate c&eati'n0 '1idati'n0 -ith'g&aph,0 etching0 i'n i)p-antati'n0 and (i-) dep'siti'n. In the '1idati'n step0 an e-ect&ica--, n' c'nd+cting -a,e&0 ca--ed a die-ect&ic0 is p-aced 4et/een each c'nd+cti*e -a,e& 'n the /a(e&. The )'st i)p'&tant t,pe '( die-ect&ic is si-ic'n di'1ide0 /hich is >g&'/n@ 4, e1p'sing the si-ic'n /a(e& t' '1,gen in a (+&nace at a4'+t ! I$ 2a4'+t !8 I;3. The '1,gen c')4ines /ith the si-ic'n t' ('&) a thin -a,e& '( '1ide a4'+t <G angst&')s deep 2an angst&') is 'ne ten84i--i'nth '( a )ete&3. Nea&-, e*e&, -a,e& that is dep'sited 'n the /a(e& )+st 4e patte&ned acc+&ate-, int' the shape '( the t&ansist'&s and 'the& e-ect&'nic e-e)ents. Us+a--, this is d'ne in a p&'cess =n'/n as ph't'-ith'g&aph,0 /hich is ana-'g'+s t' t&ans('&)ing the /a(e& int' a piece '( ph't'g&aphic (i-) and p&'5ecting a pict+&e '( the ci&c+it 'n it. A c'ating 'n the s+&(ace '( the /a(e&0 ca--ed the ph't' &esist '& &esist0 changes /hen e1p'sed t' -ight0 )a=ing it eas, t' diss'-*e in a de*e-'ping s'-+ti'n. These patte&ns a&e as s)a-- as .!3 )ic&'ns in siEe. Beca+se the sh'&test /a*e-ength '( *isi4-e -ight is a4'+t .G )ic&'ns0 sh'&t /a*e-ength +-t&a*i'-et -ight )+st 4e +sed t' &es'-*e the tin, detai-s '( the patte&ns. A(te& ph't'-ith'g&aph,0 the /a(e& is etched?that is0 the &esist is &e)'*ed (&') the /a(e& eithe& 4, che)ica-s0 in a p&'cess =n'/n as /et etching0 '& 4, e1p's+&e t' a c'&&'si*e gas0 in a specia- *ac++) cha)4e& In the ne1t step '( the p&'cess0 i'n i)p-antati'n0 a-s' ca--ed d'ping0 i)p+&ities s+ch as 4'&'n and ph'sph'&+s a&e int&'d+ced int' the si-ic'n t' a-te& its c'nd+cti*it,. This is acc')p-ished 4, i'niEing the 4'&'n '& ph'sph'&+s at')s and p&'pe--ing the) at the /a(e& /ith an i'n i)p-ante& at *e&, high ene&gies. The i'ns 4ec')e e)4edded in the s+&(ace '( the /a(e&. The thin -a,e&s +sed t' 4+i-d +p a )ic&'p&'cess'& a&e &e(e&&ed t' as (i-)s. In the (ina- step '( the p&'cess0 the (i-)s a&e dep'sited +sing sp+tte&e&s in /hich thin (i-)s a&e g&'/n in a p-as)a9 4, )eans '( e*ap'&ati'n0 /he&e4, the )ate&ia- is )e-ted and then e*ap'&ated c'ating the /a(e&9 '& 4, )eans '( che)ica-8*ap'& dep'siti'n0 /he&e4, the )ate&ia- c'ndenses (&') a gas at -'/ '& at)'sphe&ic p&ess+&e. In each case0 the (i-) )+st 4e '( high p+&it, and its thic=ness )+st 4e c'nt&'--ed /ithin a s)a-- (&acti'n '( a )ic&'n. Mic&'p&'cess'& (eat+&es a&e s' s)a-- and p&ecise that a sing-e spec= '( d+st can dest&', an enti&e die. The &'')s +sed ('& )ic&'p&'cess'& c&eati'n a&e ca--ed c-ean &'')s 4eca+se the ai& in the) is e1t&e)e-, /e-(i-te&ed and *i&t+a--, (&ee '( d+st. The p+&est '( t'da,Js c-ean &'')s a&e &e(e&&ed t'0 as c-ass !0 indicating that the&e is n' )'&e than 'ne spec= '( d+st pe& c+4ic (''t '( ai&. MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS: 7hen )ic&'p&'cess'&s appea&ed0 the, /e&e (i&st +sed in c')p+te& s,ste)s ('& a negati*e &eas'n. In the ea&-, !#< As the&e /e&e (e/ s+pp'&t chips and )ic&'p&'cess'&s /e&e p&'g&a))ed t' pe&('&) (+ncti'ns that a&e n'/ d'ne 4, a /ide *a&iet, '( ha&d/a&e chips. ;'& this &eas'n asse)4-ing a c')p-ete )ic&'p&'cess'&84ased s,ste) &eD+i&ed 4'th ha&d/a&e and s'(t/a&e e1pe&tise. On-, (i*e ,ea&s -ate& in !#<F c')panies &ea-iEed that )ic&'p&'cess'&s c'+-d 4e +sed t' 4+i-d ine1pensi*e pe&s'na- c')p+te&s. It then t''= se*e&a)'&e ,ea&s t' )an+(act+&e c')p+te&s that /e&e adeD+ate ('& 4+siness and p&'(essi'nap+&p'ses. Yet the techn'-'g, had 4een the&e a-- a-'ng. 2Nat+&a--, /ith ti)e c'sts ha*e di)inished and integ&ated ci&c+its ha*e 4een i)p&'*ed3. Man, '( the ea&-, )ic&'p&'cess'&

app-icati'ns ('+nd )a&=ets 4, accident &athe& than 4, design. Ne/ p&'d+ct de*e-'p)ent had gene&a--, 4een a di&ect &es+-t '( the disse)inati'n '( technica- in('&)ati'n. In the ea&-, !#< s the necessa&, c')4inati'n '( ha&d/a&e and s'(t/a&e e1pe&tise /as &a&e-, ('+nd '+tside the c')p+te& )an+(act+&ing ind+st&,. This /as n't pe&cei*ed as a p&'4-e)0 4eca+se /hen )ic&'p&'cess'&s /e&e int&'d+ced0 the c')p+te& esta4-ish)ent sa/ the) 'n-, as -'/8c'st p&'cess'&s ('& si)p-e c'nt&'- app-icati'ns. In (act0 the (i&st 884it )ic&'p&'cess'&0 the Inte- 8 80 /as designed ('& di&ect c'nt&'- '( a $RT disp-a,. Mic&'p&'cess'&s a&e n'/ +sed ('& c'nt&'--ing *i&t+a--, e*e&, c')p+te& pe&iphe&a- that d'es n't &eD+i&e 4ip'-a& speeds. Initia--,0 s+ch app-icati'ns /e&e -i)ited 4, the &e-ati*e-, -'/ speed '( ea&-, )ic&'p&'cess'&s. B+t n'/0 /ith the (aste& )ic&'p&'cess'&s c'+p-ed /ith specia-iEed pe&iphe&a- c'nt&'--e& chips0 s+ch as $RT and (-'pp, dis= c'nt&'--e&s0 it is p'ssi4-e t' c'nt&'- (ast de*ices s+ch as $RTAs and dis=s. 7ith )ic&'p&'cess'&s0 /e ha*e n'/ ente&ed the e&a '( dist&i4+ted s,ste)s. In dist&i4+ted s,ste)s0 inte&c'))+nicati'n 4et/een a n+)4e& '( p&'cess'&s is &ed+ced t' a )ini)+) 4eca+se the, d' n't inte&act in &ea-8ti)e 4+t e1change data /'&ds '& 4-'c=. Each p&'cess'& is then a di&ect p&'cess c'nt&'--e& that c')p-ete-, c'nt&'-s a p&'cess. S+ch net/'&= )a, in*'-*e )+-tip-e )ic&'p&'cess'&s. T&aditi'na--,0 a )+-tip&'cess'& s,ste) is 'ne in /hich se*e&a- p&'cess'&s inte&act /ith each 'the& in &ea-8ti)e ('& c'nt&'- p+&p'ses. M'st s,ste)s in*'-*ing net/'&=s '( )ic&'p&'cess'&s d' n't inte&act s' c-'se-, and the&e('&e d' n't D+a-i(, as m !"i mi#$op$o#%sso$ sys"%ms.