!"#$% '(#$)*+(% ,-)%.

/)
hoLosynLhesls ls Lhe planL process of converLlng surroundlng carbon dloxlde and waLer lnLo
glucose and oxygen uslng chlorophyll.
xylem
xylem Lubes carry waLer and mlnerals from Lhe soll.
xylem Lubes are made of dead cells and sLrengLhened wlLh a woody subsLance.
Mlnerals absorbed lnclude phosphorus, poLasslum, nlLrogen, sulphur, calclum, lron and
magneslum from Lhe soll.
hloem
hloem Lubes LransporL food (glucose) LhaL ls produced ln Lhe leaves Lo Lhe sLem and Lhe
rooLs.
hloem Lubes are made from llvlng cells.
vascular 8u ndles
xylem and phloem Lubes are grouped LogeLher ln vascular bundles.
1he xylem and phloem are separaLed by a layer of camblum cells. Camblum cells are able Lo
become new xylem or phloem cells as requlred.
CuLer layer: hloem. Mlddle layer: Camblum. lnner Layer: xylem
Clucose SLorage
Some planLs sLore glucose dlrecLly for lmmedlaLe use when requlred (Lo produce new buds
ln sprlng).
CLher planLs sLore glucose ln Lhe form of sLarch (C
6
P
10
C
3
)
WaLer MovemenL
upwards pressure ln Lhe rooLs push Lhe waLer upwards Lhrough Lhe xylem.
SLomaLa ln Lhe leaves furLher asslsL Lhe flow by sucklng waLer upwards.
llrm/llopplness
SofL parLs of planLs are supporLed by waLer ln lLs cells.
lf uprlghL, lL ls 1u8Clu, and enough waLer ls presenL.
lf drooplng, lL ls lLACClu, and Lhere ls noL enough waLer conLenL ln Lhe cells.
Wood
vascular bundles ln a Lree llnk up Lo form a vascular cyllnder.
hloem sLlll sLays ln Lhe ouLer layer, [usL under Lhe bark.
8lngbarklng removes a layer of phloem cells and wlll qulckly klll a Lree.
Annually, a new layer of xylem ls produced. Cld xylem cells become wood.

!0+%+)-$%0.)1) #$2 3.)*1(#%1+$
PlsLory
van PelmonL carrled Lhe flrsL planL growLh experlmenLs. Concluded LhaL planL converLs
waLer Lo wood and leaves.
1770 - !oseph rlesLly demonsLraLed Lhe lmporLanL of oxygen and lLs producLlon by planLs
!an lngenhousz showed LhaL llghL was necessary for oxygen producLlon
1782 - !ean Senebler found LhaL planLs absorbed carbon dloxlde from Lhe alr
1804 - nlcolas de Saussure showed LhaL waLer was chemlcally lnvolved ln planL growLh
hoLosynLhesls
hoLosynLhesls equaLlon:
6CC
2
+ 6P
2
C - LlghL energy + Chlorophyll - C
6
P
12
C
6
+ 6C
2

hoLosynLhesls ls a complex chaln of smaller reacLlons.
SLage 1 - LlghL 8eacLlon
LlghL energy ls Lrapped and changed lnLo chemlcal energy.
AL Lhe same Llme, enzymes spllL waLer lnLo oxygen and hydrogen.
Lnzymes are caLalysLs - someLhlng LhaL speeds up a chemlcal reacLlon wlLhouL belng used
up ln Lhe reacLlon.
SLage 2 - uark 8eacLlon
Carbon dloxlde and hydrogen from waLer comblne Lo form glucose ln a serles of enzyme-
conLrolled reacLlons.
LlghL ls noL necessary ln Lhls sLage.
ChloroplasLs
ChloroplasLs are found wlLhln Lhe cells of planLs. 1hey conLaln chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll acLs llke a solar cell and Lraps llghL energy and converL lL Lo anoLher form.
Cne planL leaf may conLaln Lens of Lhousands of cells, each conLalnlng 40-30 chloroplasLs.
Clucose
lanLs may use glucose dlrecLly Lhrough resplraLlon
lf excess glucose ls produced, mosL of Lhe glucose ls converLed lnLo sLarch for sLorage. AL
nlghL, Lhls ls reconverLed back Lo glucose, a process known as desLarchlng.
Clucose may be converLed Lo:
o Cellulose Lo bulld planL cell walls
o Sugars for LransporL Lo varlous planL parLs.
o SubsLances used for produclng planL olls and proLelns.
8aLe of phoLosynLhesls
1he raLe of phoLosynLhesls depends malnly on Lhe avallablllLy of carbon dloxlde and llghL.
As llghL lnLenslLy lncreases, Lhe raLe of phoLosynLhesls rlses, as more energy ls avallable.
Cnce Lhe llghL reaches a cerLaln polnL, no furLher rlse occurs. Carbon dloxlde deLermlnes Lhe
maxlmum raLe of phoLosynLhesls. 1oo much llghL and chlorophyll plgmenLs are damaged.
lncreaslng LemperaLure wlll also lncrease phoLosynLhesls raLe. 1he raLe lncreases up unLll 30
degrees Celslus, Lhen decreases. AL Lhls polnL, enzymes no longer funcLlon correcLly.
8esplraLlon
8esplraLlon ls Lhe release of energy from food (glucose).
1hls energy ls avallable Lo cells for many acLlvlLles, such as growLh of cells and LransporL of
subsLances ln and ouL of cells.
Some energy released ln resplraLlon ls glven ouL as heaL.
lor mosL organlsms, resplraLlon requlres oxygen. 1hls ls called aeroblc resplraLlon.
Aeroblc resplraLlon equaLlon:
C
6
P
6
C
6
+ 6C
2
- 6CC
2
+ 6P
2
C + energy
8esplraLlon occurs ln all cells.
8esplraLlon ls a gradual and conLrolled reacLlon, releaslng small amounLs of energy.
Lnzymes
Lnzymes acL as caLalysLs - someLhlng LhaL speeds up a reacLlon wlLhouL belng used up ln Lhe
reacLlon.
1hey speed up reacLlons by up Lo 10 bllllon Llmes.
Comparlng hoLosynLhesls and 8esplraLlon
AlLhough Lhe equaLlons are essenLlally Lhe reverse of Lhe oLher, Lhe Lwo reacLlons are made
of smaller, more complex reacLlons. 1hey used dlfferenL sLeps, dlfferenL enzymes and are aL
dlfferenL locaLlons.

4.#5.)
Leaves
Leaves are Lhe maln locaLlon aL whlch phoLosynLhesls Lakes place.
Leaves are broad and flaL, allowlng maxlmum exposure Lo Lhe sun.
Leaf SLrucLure
CuLer layer ls Lhe one-cell Lhlck epldermls. 1hls ls LransparenL , allowlng llghL Lo reach
lower layers.
Lpldermls ls covered wlLh a waxy, waLerproof cuLlcle. 1hls reduces waLer loss from Lhe leaf
and proLecLs lL from freezlng and fungl/bacLerlal lnfecLlon. uoes noL allow gases Lo pass.
Cases enLer Lhrough sLomaLa, usually locaLed on Lhe underslde of Lhe leaf. 1he slze of Lhe
sLomaLa ls regulaLed by guard cells. When closed, waLer ls noL loss from Lhe leaf.
1he upper layer conLalns pallsade cells, whlch are LlghLly packed and conLaln large amounLs
of chloroplasLs. A large amounL of phoLosynLhesls occurs here.
1he lower mesophyll cells are loosely packed, glvlng lL a spongy appearance. Loose packlng
allows for gases Lo move back and forLh cells and alr spaces.
xylem carrles waLer 1C Lhe leaf and phloem carrles glucose and food AWA? from Lhe leaf.



Leaf lgmenLs
Chlorophyll does noL absorb coloured llghL equally.
Creen ls reflecLed. 8ed and blue ls absorbed mosL sLrongly, wlLh some yellow and orange.
CLher planLs conLaln yellow xanLhophylls and orange caroLenes.
rlor Lo loslng leaves, Lhe planL breaks down chlorophylls and sLores some componenLs,
leavlng Lhe red, orange or yellow accessory plgmenLs behlnd.
AquaLlc lanLs
lanLs ln waLer face problems because waLer absorbs llghL.
MosL aquaLlc planLs are Lherefore found ln Lhe surface layers where llghL ls more avallable.
Some seaweeds (algae) have addlLlonal plgmenLs LhaL allow Lhem Lo absorb more l

67+)-)%./)
LcosysLems
An ecosysLem ls Lhe llvlng organlsms LhaL lnhlblL a speclflc reglon, how Lhey lnLeracL wlLh
each oLher, and Lhe effecLs on Lhem of Lhe non-llvlng envlronmenL around Lhem.
Lcology ls Lhe sLudy of an ecosysLem, Lhe lnLeracLlons of organlsms wlLh oLher organlsms
and Lhe non-llvlng envlronmenL.
Llvlng organlsms lnclude all of Lhe planLs and anlmals LhaL llve or vlslL Lhe reglon.
1he llvlng organlsms make up Lhe communlLy of Lhe ecosysLem.
1he number of each organlsm presenL ls called populaLlon.
1he non-llvlng (abloLlc) envlronmenL lncludes physlcal facLors such as ralnfall, LemperaLure,
wlnd, sunllghL, rock, soll and waLer.
Crganlsm Address
1he 81+)*0.(. ls Lhe broadesL caLegory. lL refers Lo Lhe parL of LarLh ln whlch organlsms can
be found.
81+9.+9(#*017#" reglons are Lhe second level. Lach reglon has lLs own unlque planL and
anlmal llfe. 1he physlcal condlLlons are unlque.
1he 81+/. ls Lhe Lhlrd level. lL refers Lo areas wlLh slmllar cllmaLlc condlLlons. Crganlsms ln
Lhe same Lype of blome share slmllar feaLures.
1he :#;1%#% ls Lhe fourLh level. ln a deserL blome, a hablLaL could be a sand dunes, clay pans,
eLc. ulfferenL blomes would have dlfferenL hablLaLs.
1he <17(+0#;1%#% ls Lhe lasL level. lL may be known as Lhe nlche.
AusLralla's LcosysLem
1he 3 maln evenLs affecLlng AusLralla's ecosysLem are flood, bushflre and droughL.
AlLhough Lhese evenLs may devasLaLe much of an ecosysLem, Lhey can have poslLlve
ouLcomes. lloods can deposlL ferLlle new soll for planLs and flre can Lrlgger germlnaLlon.
llood
lloods can cover exLremely large areas of AusLralla.
AfLer Lhe lnlLlal qulck devasLaLlon, floods can have poslLlve effecLs:
o 8eplenlshmenL of ground and soll waLer
o lncreased breedlng of waLer-dependanL specles, Lherefore lncrease ln numbers
o 8egeneraLlon of long-llng and slow-reproduclng Lrees ln arld blomes.
8ushflre
Many naLlve fauna/flora have developed ways Lo survlve flre and respond Lo lmpacLs.
Some planLs wlll release seeds Lhey need Lo regeneraLe.
Moblle anlmals may be able Lo move away from danger whlle slower anlmals can shelLer ln
burrows/logs.
8ushflre releases nuLrlenLs lnLo soll LhaL allow planLs Lo recover. lL also causes eroslon.
uroughL
uroughL creeps up" over a number of years when ralnfall ls less Lhan normal.
1he effecLs are devasLaLlng. uroughLs can affecL many more ecosysLems Lhan bushflre or
flood.
LcosysLems prone Lo droughL ofLen have a low capaclLy Lo respond, and wldespread deaLh
and famlne ls Lhe resulL. uroughL degrades land and affecLs lLs fuLure usage.
ln AusLralla, lL ls offlclally a droughL when ralnfall over a year ls ln Lhe lowesL 10 ever
recorded.
!0-)17#" =%%(1;>%.) +? #$ 67+)-)%./
AdapLaLlons
CharacLerlsLlcs whlch allow an organlsm Lo survlve ln lLs envlronmenL are called adapLaLlons.
hyslcal adapLaLlons are adapLaLlons an organlsm ls born wlLh and ls parL of Lhe physlque of
Lhe organlsm.
8ehavloural adapLaLlon ls an acLlon or behavlour by an organlsm. 1he can be learnL or
lnsLlncLlve.
o lnsLlncLlve behavlour ls someLhlng LhaL ls done auLomaLlcally.
o LearnL behavlour ls LaughL by a parenL/oLher source and pracLlced Lo be done well
LffecLs of Lhe non-llvlng envlronmenL
AbloLlc feaLures can lnfluence where an organlsm llves.
'./*.(#%>(. can affecL blologlcal process (mosL have an opLlmal LemperaLure range)
:>/121%- - Lhe amounL of waLer vapour ln Lhe alr. An organlsm's waLer loss depends on Lhls.
4190% ".5.") deLermlne Lhe amounL of phoLosynLhesls.
=7121%- - planLs have preferred soll acldlLy, and so do waLer organlsms.
,#"1$1%- - Lhe salLlness of waLer. 1hls affecLs Lhe way organlsms funcLlon.
<1$.(#" )#"%) #5#1"#;1"1%- can deLermlne planL locaLlon, eLc.
@#5. #$2 A#%.( 7>((.$%) affecL waLer organlsms and how Lhey llve
,0."%.( proLecLs organlsms from predaLors and weaLher
@1$2 #$2 #1( 7>((.$%) can affecL planL rooL sLrengLh
LffecLs of Lhe llvlng envlronmenL
8loLlc facLors can lnfluence Lhe lnLeracLlons beLween organlsms
B+/*.%1%1+$ - organlsms compeLe for resources
C1)*.()#" - how an organlsm ls scaLLered LhroughouL an ecosysLem.
!(.2#%1+$ - one anlmal caLchlng and eaLlng anoLher
:>/#$ 1$%.(5.$%1+$ - humans are Lhe mosL powerful/lnfluenLlal bloLlc facLors on an
ecosysLem


D++2 B0#1$) #$2 D++2 @.;E F$%.(#7%1+$) +? 41?.
Lnergy for Llfe
1he sun ls Lhe source of all (mosL) energy on LarLh.
Crganlsms whlch use sunllghL Lo produce food are called 8CuuCL8S or Au1C18CPS.
AuLoLrophs are essenLlal because Lhey provlde oxygen and food for all oLher organlsms.
1he llow of Lnergy
Crganlsms whlch do noL produce Lhelr own food are called CCnSuML8S or PL1L8C18CPS.
Anlmals LhaL eaL planLs are called 8lMA8? CCnSuML8S, or PL88lvC8LS.
Anlmals LhaL eaL herblvores are called SLCCnuA8? CCnSuML8S, or CA8nlvC8LS.
Consumers LhaL eaL boLh planLs and anlmals are called CMnlvC8LS.
lood Chaln
A food chaln ls Lhe nuLrlLlonal sequence where energy ls passed on Lhrough Lhe chaln of
organlsms, each dependlng on Lhe organlsm LhaL comes before lL.
A llnk ln Lhe food chaln ls called a Lrophlc level, and Lhere ls rarely more Lhan 6 llnks.
ln every ecosysLem, several food chalns are lnLerrelaLed as Lhe organlsms have varlous food
sources. 1hls ls known as a food web.
8lodlverslLy
8lodlverslLy refers Lo Lhe number of dlfferenL specles presenL ln a communlLy.
CommunlLles wlLh hlgh blodlverslLy survlve envlronmenLal change beLLer Lhan communlLles
wlLh low blodlverslLy.
Plgh blodlverslLy means LhaL Lhere ls usually an alLernaLlve food source lf one food source ls
desLroyed. lL ensures Lhe sLablllLy of Lhe ecosysLem.
Pumans have reduced Lhe blodlverslLy of ecosysLems by removlng naLural vegeLaLlon and
replaclng wlLh on speclflc Lype of planL, such as wheaL.
llow of Lnergy
Lnergy ln an ecosysLem moves ln one dlrecLlon only.
1he amounL of energy Lransferred from one Lrophlc level Lo Lhe nexL decreases every level.
1hls ls why Lhere are more planLs Lhan consumers.
uecomposers
Crganlc maLLer ls any maLLer Lhan comes from llvlng organlsms. All of lL conLalns carbon.
1he lasL llnk ln Lhe food chaln ls decomposers. uecomposers break down organlc maLLer and
recycle lL, releaslng Lhe nuLrlenLs for planLs Lo use ln Lhelr growLh.
uecomposers lnclude bacLerla and fungl.

8elaLlonshlps beLween Crganlsms
<>%>#"1)/ (Symblosls) - 8oLh organlsms beneflL by Lhelr relaLlonshlp.
B+//.$)#"1)/ - Cne specles beneflLs whlle oLher ls unaffecLed.
=/.$)#"1)/ - Cne specles ls harmed whlle oLher ls unaffecLed.
B+/*.%1%1+$ - Crganlsms flghLlng for resources
6G*"+1%#%1+$ - Cne specles ls harmed whlle Lhe oLher beneflLs
o !(.2#%1+$ - Cne specles kllls anoLher for food
o :.(;15+(- - Perblvores eaLlng planLs, Lhus keeplng lL shorL
o !#(#)1%1)/ - An organlsm (paraslLe) llves off anoLher (hosL). ln mosL cases, Lhe
paraslLe does noL klll Lhe hosL, alLhough causlng severe problems. araslLes whlch
klll Lhe hosL ls called a paraslLold.

6??.7%) +? :>/#$ B151"1)#%1+$ +$ %0. 67+)-)%./
1he lndusLrlal 8evoluLlon
ln Lhe mld-1700s, Lhe lndusLrlal 8evoluLlon began. 8y Lhe mld-1830s, many small vlllages had
become lndusLrlal Lowns.
Machlne made goods were ln demand and rallway was developed Lo LransporL goods.
new wasLes and polluLanLs were produced ln large quanLlLles.
olluLlon
A polluLanL ls anyLhlng LhaL makes Lhe envlronmenL unflL or unhealLhy for Lhe organlsms
LhaL llve Lhere. olluLanLs affecL Lhe aLmosphere, land and waLer.
Some may resulL from naLural causes such as volcanlc acLlvlLy, buL mosL ls from humans.
Alr olluLlon
lndusLrlal acLlvlLy releases a consLanL sLream of polluLanLs lnLo Lhe aLmosphere.
1hls lncludes sulfureL dloxlde, nlLrogen dloxlde, carbon monoxlde, carbon dloxlde, hydrogen
sulphlde, dusL and smoke.
MoLor vehlcles release hydrocarbons, lead, nlLrlc oxlde and carbon monoxlde.
ln sunllghL, Lhese chemlcals reacL Lo form ozone and nlLrlc acld and formaldehyde. 1hls ls
ofLen seen as smog.
Lnhanced Clobal Warmlng
1he greenhouse effecL ls Lhe Lrapplng of heaL by Lhe aLmosphere, keeplng Lhe earLh warm.
1hls keeps Lhe LemperaLure [usL rlghL for llfe.
Creenhouse gases are released whenever fossll fuels are burnL. 1hese are carbon dloxlde,
meLhane, nlLrous oxlde, ozone and waLer vapour.
WlLh Lhe lncrease of greenhouse gases, more heaL ls Lrapped. 1hls ls Lhe enhanced
greenhouse effecL. 1hls can cause floodlng and desLroy many coasLal reglons.
Cver Lhe lasL 100 years, Lhe average aLmospherlc LemperaLure has rlsen 0.6 degrees.
WaLer olluLlon
WaLerways and oceans have been polluLed from a varleLy of sources.
Sewage conLalns deLergenLs, cleanlng agenLs as well as human wasLes.
AgrlculLural run-off ls excesslve nlLrogen and phosphorus ln run-off waLer and ground waLer.
SedlmenL polluLlon ls Lhe maLerlal from large-scale eroslon. 1hls causes sllLlng.
SallnlsaLlon occurs when removal of Lrees cause rlse ln groundwaLer level. 1hls brlngs
dlssolved salLs from Lhe rock surfaces, lncreaslng Lhe sallnlLy of Lhe waLer.
lnorganlc chemlcals are released from lndusLrles. 1hls can fall as acld raln.
Soll olluLlon
Soll polluLlon ls referred Lo as soll degradaLlon.
Cver 63 ls caused by overgrazlng and deforesLaLlon.
Cvergrazlng ls Lhe degradaLlon of land by allowlng more anlmals Lo graze ln an area Lhan can
be susLalned.
ueforesLaLlon ls Lhe large scale removal of Lrees Lo allow for more grazlng land. 1hls causes
sallnlzaLlon of Lhe soll.
AbouL 10 of Lhe LarLh's surface ls reduced Lo deserL (deserLlflcaLlon).
lnLroduced Specles
lnLroduced specles (exoLlc specles) are broughL by early seLLlers. 1hey cause huge problems
for naLlve specles.
Lxamples are feral plg and Luropean carp.
Lndangered specles
Lndangered means LhaL a specles ls ln danger of exLlncLlon.
LxLlncLlon means LhaL Lhe organlsm no longer llves on Lhe planeL.
lacLors LhaL LhreaLen naLlve wlldllfe lnclude
o redaLlon by lnLroduced specles
o CompeLlLlon wlLh lnLroduced specles
o uesLrucLlon of hablLaL for urbanlsaLlon
lrogs
lrogs are consldered Lo be envlronmenLal lndlcaLlons as Lhey are Lhe flrsL Lo be affecLed by
polluLanLs as Lhey breaLhe Lhrough Lhelr skln.
ConservaLlon
ConservaLlon alms Lo keep allve all planLs and anlmals LhaL llve ln a speclflc hablLaL.
1hls ls usually by keeplng Lhe hablLaL undlsLurbed and free of human lnLeracLlon.
8oLh shorL and long Lerm conservaLlon acLlons are ofLen requlred Lo malnLaln blodlverslLy.
ConservaLlon of one specles usually allows Lhe enLlre ecosysLem Lo survlve due Lo Lhe
lnLeracLlon naLure of an ecosysLem.
Pumans rely on Lhe llvlng organlsms around Lhem. lanLs provlde oxygen and food, eLc.
,%#%17 6".7%(171%-
Charges
An ob[ecL ls neuLral lf lL has no overall charge (equal amounLs of e
-
and p
+
)
lf rubbed LogeLher, e
-
may [ump from one surface Lo anoLher.
When an ob[ecL has unequal amounLs of e
-
and p
+
, lL ls charged.
oslLlvely charged - losL e
-
Lo oLher maLerlal
negaLlvely charged - galned e
-
from oLher maLerlal.
Charge refers Lo a slngle p
+
or e
-
, or a group of p
+
or e
-
.
LlecLrosLaLlc force
unllke charges aLLracL.
Llke charges repel.
1hls aLLracLlon and repulslon force ls called elecLrosLaLlc force. 1hls force keeps Lhe elecLrons
orblLlng Lhe nucleus.
LlecLrlclLy ls a collecLlon of charges.
SLaLlc elecLrlclLy ls a collecLlon of charges LhaL remaln sLaLlonary unLll lL dlsslpaLes or leaks.
lnduced charges
When a charged ob[ecL approaches a neuLral ob[ecL, Lhe neuLral ob[ecL may become
charged. 1hls ls called an lnduced charge.
1he charged ob[ecL pushes away Lhe llke charges and aLLracLs Lhe unllke charge, causlng lL Lo
sLlck.
Cood/8ad sLaLlc elecLrlclLy
CarpeL sLaLlc ls caused by frlcLlon beLween your shoes agalnsL Lhe carpeL.
Charges Lend Lo concenLraLe on sharp corners and spread ouL over flaL surfaces.
Alr frlcLlon durlng an aeroplane refuelllng ls dangerous. 1o prevenL Lhls, a wlre connecLs Lhe
aeroplane and Lhe ground, allowlng a paLh for Lhe charge Lo leak
hoLocoplers use sLaLlc elecLrlclLy Lo phoLocopy. uarker areas are charged poslLlvely, Lo
whlch Lhe Loner sLlcks.
1hunder and llghLnlng are Lhe resulL of sLaLlc elecLrlclLy. MovemenL of waLer dropleLs and alr
molecules cause charge. When charges flow Lo anoLher cloud/ground, surroundlng alr
becomes superheaLed and expands rapldly.
llelds
A charge ls surrounded by an elecLrlcal fleld, Lhe lnvlslble force-fleld where Lhe effecLs of
charges Lake place.
1he dlrecLlon of an elecLrlcal fleld ls Lhe dlrecLlon a poslLlve charge would move ln.


<+51$9 6".7%(171%-
ClrculLs
A clrculL ls a paLh whlch elecLrlclLy flows along.
lour baslc componenLs:
o Lnergy source (baLLery)
o ConducLors (wlre)
o 8eslsLance (globe)
o SwlLch
CurrenL
CurrenL ls Lhe movemenL of elecLrlc charges. A large currenL lnvolves more elecLrons passlng
Lhrough a clrculL each second Lhan a small currenL does.
CurrenL ls measured ln ampere (A).
A currenL would look llke a neLwork of flxed poslLlve nuclel surrounded by a sea of loose
negaLlves. CurrenL flows from Lhe negaLlve Lermlnal Lo Lhe poslLlve Lermlnal.
CurrenL ls measured wlLh an ammeLer.
volLage
volLage ls Lhe amounL of energy avallable Lo push a charge around Lhe clrculL.
volLage ls measured ln volL (v).
volLage ls usually supplled by elecLrlc cells and household power polnLs.
volLage ls measured wlLh a volLmeLer.
Cells and 8aLLerles
A cell ls a slngle unlL and a baLLery ls a group of cells.
A weL cell conslsLs of 2 dlfferenL meLal plaLes placed ln an acld. Cne plaLe beglns Lo dlssolve
ln a chemlcal reacLlon, releaslng elecLrons.
A dry cell conLalns chemlcal pasLe. A chemlcal reacLlon generaLes Lhe charge LhaL wlll flow.
Several cells are ofLen connecLed Lo provlde greaLer volLage.
A phoLovolLalc cell ls made of Lwo layers of semlconducLors. SunllghL sLrlkes Lhe flrsL layer,
glvlng off elecLrons whlch flow lnLo Lhe second layer, creaLlng an elecLrlc currenL.
ConducLors and lnsulaLors
ConducLors allow elecLrlclLy flow. MeLals are good conducLors (Copper, alumlnlum)
lnsulaLors do noL allow elecLrlclLy flow. lasLlc and rubber are good lnsulaLors.
8eslsLance
8eslsLance ls anyLhlng LhaL Lakes energy ouL of a clrculL. lL converLs elecLrlcal energy lnLo
heaL and llghL energy.
nlchrome ls a good reslsLance. lL doesn'L reacL wlLh oxygen or become brlLLle when heaLed.
H)1$9 6".7%(171%-
ClrculLs - Serles
Serles clrculLs are ln a slngle llne. Lach componenL ls parL of Lhe clrculL. lf one componenL
does noL funcLlon, Lhe clrculL ls broken.
1he volLage ls shared beLween globes and Lhe currenL ls Lhe same.
ClrculLs - arallel
ln parallel clrculLs, Lhere are separaLe branches for each componenL. lf one componenL does
noL funcLlon, Lhe clrculL can sLlll flow.
1he volLage ls same for each globe buL currenL ls shared.
Pousehold ClrculLs
A household elecLrlclLy wlrlng ls a blg parallel clrculL. Lach power polnL recelves an equal 240
volLs.
ower sLaLlons supply a house wlLh AC AlLernaLlng currenL. LlecLrlclLy ls supplled as AC
because lL ls easler Lo generaLe and LransmlL Lhan uC.
LlecLrlcal SafeLy
A Llny currenL can cause deaLh. 8ubber soled shoes prevenL leakage Lhrough Lhe ground,
prevenLlng elecLrocuLlon.
uevlces called a safeLy swlLch or resldual currenL deLecLor (8Cu) reduces Lhe rlsk of elecLrlc
shock. lL compares Lhe currenL enLerlng and leavlng Lhe home. lf Lhere ls a dlfference
beLween Lhe Lwo currenLs due Lo leakage, lL swlLches off Lhe maln power swlLch wlLhln a few
LhousandLhs of a second.
!"#$#%&'( *+$,+-%.' /%. 012&-3#'
LlemenLs
An elemenL ls an absoluLely pure subsLance LhaL cannoL be broken down lnLo oLher
subsLances.
1here are 92 naLurally occurrlng elemenLs, and over 20 synLheLlc elemenLs.
MeLals and non-meLals
Cf Lhe 106 known elemenLs, 84 are meLal and 22 are non-meLal.
All meLalllc elemenLs are solld aL room LemperaLure, wlLh Lhe excepLlon of mercury, whlch ls
a llquld.
roperLles:

ALoms
An aLom ls Lhe smallesL plece of subsLance whlch ls sLlll a subsLance.
An elemenL ls [usL many lndlvldual aLoms
Compounds
ALoms usually llnk Lo form small groups called molecules, or larger sLrucLures called laLLlces.
ALomlc forces hold Lhese aLoms LogeLher.
A compound conslsLs of a number of ldenLlcal molecules or a laLLlce conLalnlng dlfferenL
aLoms [olned or bonded LogeLher.
Compounds usually have dlfferenL properLles Lhan Lhe elemenLs whose aLoms Lhey conLaln.
MlxLures
A mlxLure conLalns Lwo or more subsLances (elemenLs or compounds) mlxed LogeLher
physlcally.
1he subsLances are nC1 bonded LogeLher, and no new subsLance ls formed.

456'17/" /%. *5#$17/" *5/%8#
hyslcal Change
A physlcal change occurs when a subsLance changes, buL no new subsLances are formed
hyslcal changes occur when Lhe sLaLe of a subsLance changes, crushed, ground or cuL lnLo
smaller pleces.
Chemlcal Change
A chemlcal change (chemlcal reacLlon) occurs when a new subsLance forms.
lndlcaLlons lnclude Lhe producLlon of heaL and llghL, change of colour, or a drop ln
LemperaLure of Lhe maLerlal.
1ypes of Chemlcal 8eacLlons
SubsLances presenL before Lhe chemlcal reacLlon are called 8LAC1An1S.
SubsLances formed by Lhe reacLlon are called 8CuuC1S.
CCM8lnA1lCn 8LAC1lCn / S?n1PLSlS 8LAC1lCn
o 2 or more reacLanLs comblne LogeLher Lo form one new subsLance.
uLCCMCSl1lCn 8LAC1lCn
o A slngle reacLanL can break down or decompose Lo form Lwo or more new
subsLances. (Lxample: waLer broken down uslng elecLrlclLy)
8LCll1A1lCn 8LAC1lCn
o A solld forms when Lwo soluLlons are mlxed LogeLher. 1hls solld ls called Lhe
preclplLaLe. reclplLaLes are lnsoluble.
CCM8uS1lCn 8LAC1lCn
o SomeLhlng burns or explodes. lL lnvolves reacLlng wlLh oxygen, usually from Lhe alr.
o new (ofLen gaseous) subsLances form and releases heaL and llghL, someLlmes wlLh a
flame or exploslve flash.
Speedlng up 8eacLlons
CCnCLn18A1lCn of reacLanLs
o More molecules are avallable Lo Lake parL ln Lhe reacLlon , so producLs are produced
more qulckly
1LML8A1u8L
o 8eacLanLs move more qulckly aL hlgher LemperaLures and have more energy
avallable Lo break bonds beLween aLoms Lo allow Lhe formaLlon of new subsLances
Su8lACL A8LA
o WlLh more surface area, more reacLanL aLoms are exposed Lo Lhe reacLlon
CA1AL?S1S (helper chemlcals)
o CaLalysLs speed up reacLlons. 1hey are noL used up ln Lhe reacLlon.
o Lnzymes are blologlcal caLalysLs. ulgesLlve enzymes break down large molecules
such as sLarch, lnLo smaller molecules such as glucose.

Word LquaLlons
Symbols (s), (l), (g) are used Lo lndlcaLe sLaLe of reacLanLs.
(aq) - aqueous, lndlcaLes LhaL aLoms or molecules are dlssolved ln waLer
9%'1.# :&+$'
PlsLory
AnclenL Creeks and ualLon supporLs Lhe ldea of aLoms as '+"1. ;/""'<
1homson dlscovers elecLrons. LlecLrons are Lhe flrsL known parLlcle smaller Lhan Lhe aLom
1homson proposes plum puddlng model of poslLlvely charged dough wlLh negaLlvely
charged elecLrons embedded ln lL
8uLherford proposes nuclear model wlLh elecLrons orblLlng a poslLlve nucleus. MosL of Lhe
aLom ls empLy space. ulscovered ln Lhe famous gold foll experlmenL.
8uLherford proposes hydrogen ls Lhe smallesL aLom
8ohr exLends Lhe nuclear model, addlng elecLron shells - reglons conLalnlng elecLrons
8uLherford dlscovers Lhe proLon.
8uLherford proposes Lhe neuLron. neuLron ls dlscovered by Chadwlck.
LmpLy Space
8uLherford experlmenL wlLh flrlng alpha parLlcles aL Lhlnk gold foll. Many of Lhe parLlcles
wenL sLralghL Lhrough. 1hls suggesLed LhaL aLoms were malnly empLy space.
ALomlc sLrucLure
1he model of Lhe aLom used Loday ls Lhe 8uLherford-8ohr model.
1hls model has a cenLral nucleus made up of poslLlvely charged parLlcles, called 8C1CnS,
and neuLral parLlcles, called nLu18CnS.
1he nucleus ls orblLed aL hlgh speed by much smaller parLlcles called LLLC18CnS.
roLons and neuLrons have abouL Lhe same mass, whlle elecLrons are 1/2000
Lh
Lhe mass.
An aLom has an equal number of proLons and neuLrons.
ALomlc numbers
1he /&+$17 %-$;#3 ls Lhe number of proLons ln Lhe nucleus.
1he $/'' %-$;#3 ls Lhe amounL of proLons and neuLrons ln Lhe nucleus.
LlecLron Shells
8ohr explalns how elecLrons orblL around Lhe nucleus.
LlecLrons orblL ln shells around Lhe nucleus.
o Cnly 2 elecLrons can flL ln Lhe lnner mosL shell
o up Lo 8 ln Lhe nexL 2 shells
1he lnnermosL shells are flrsL fllled by elecLrons.

=++.
WaLer
WaLer ls an lmporLanL parL of body cells and makes up 2/3 of Lhe body.
lL ls a reacLanL ln many reacLlons ln Lhe body.
lL ls used Lo dlssolve oLher chemlcals, for easy LransporL around Lhe body. 8lood ls 90
waLer.
Lack of waLer (dehydraLlon) can cause low blood pressure, and become LhreaLenlng.
llbre
llbre ls also called roughage. lL ls found ln Lhe cell wall of planLs (cereals, frulLs, vegeLables,
nuLs, eLc.)
lL lsn'L broken down durlng dlgesLlon.
lL provldes bulk, whlch speed up Lhe movemenL of food Lhrough Lhe lnLesLlne. WlLhouL flbre,
food would spend Loo much Llme ln Lhe large lnLesLlne, resulLlng ln Loo much waLer
absorpLlon
llbre soaks up polsonous wasLes for removal from our bodles.
nuLrlenLs
1here are flve maln nuLrlenLs - carbohydraLes, llplds, proLelns, vlLamlns and mlnerals
CA88CP?u8A1LS
o lncludes sLarches and sugars, and ls our maln source of energy.
o 1hey are made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
o 1he body converLs mosL carbohydraLes lnLo glucose, whlch ls LransporLed Lo cells for
use.
o Lxcess glucose ls converLed Lo body faL and sLored.
LlluS
o Llplds are faLs and olls.
o 1hey are a rlch source of energy, conLalnlng Lwlce as much energy as carbohydraLes
o laLs are sLored under Lhe skln as an energy reserve, and as lnsulaLlon.
o laLs conLaln lmporLanL vlLamlns, and are used for maklng cell membranes and nerve
cells
8C1LlnS
o roLelns are body-bulldlng compounds - Lhe raw maLerlals requlred for growLh and
repalr of worn-ouL Llssues.
o 1hey provlde only 10 of Lhe body's energy
o Lack of proLeln can lead Lo kwashlorkor, malnly affecLlng chlldren from 1-3. Muscle
wasLes away and body flulds accumulaLe ln Lhe skln.
vl1AMlnS
o vlLamlns conLaln no energy, buL are needed ln small amounLs Lo speed up varlous
chemlcal reacLlons ln Lhe body.
o Lack of vlLamlns or oLher nuLrlenLs can resulL ln deflclency dlseases. Lxcess vlLamlns
can also cause problems.
MlnL8ALS
o Mlnerals are elemenLs or oLher chemlcally slmple subsLances LhaL are requlred for
healLhy growLh and Lo avold deflclency dlseases.
o Mlnerals needed ln large amounLs are ma[or elemenLs, and smaller amounLs are
Lrace elemenLs.
o Ma[or elemenLs: calclum, sodlum and chlorlne, phosphorus, sulphur, poLasslum,
magneslum
o 1race elemenLs: boron, cobalL, copper, fluorlne, lodlne, lron, zlnc
8alanced uleLs
Cur bodles need many dlfferenL nuLrlenLs provlded by a range of food. We also need Lo eaL
Lhese foods ln correcL proporLlons.

Lnergy ln lood
We need food for energy.
Lnergy ls measured ln k[.
A mega[oule = 1000k[ = 1 000 000 [oules
LaLlng ulsorders
Anorexla nervosa
o A dlsease whlch Lhe sufferer unreallsLlc percelves LhaL Lhey need Lo lose welghL and
dleL Lo Lhe polnL of sLarvlng Lhemselves.
8ullmla
o lnvolves blnge eaLlng followed by purglng (removlng recenLly eaLen food by vomlLlng
or laxaLlves)
Compulslve LaLlng
o Where a person eaLs large amounLs even when Lhey are noL hungry.
CbeslLy ls when someone ls more Lhan 23 overwelghL. 1here are many causes, lncludlng
overeaLlng and lack of exerclse.
>18#'&1+%
lnLroduclng ulgesLlon
ulgesLlon ls Lhe process ln whlch nuLrlenLs and energy are exLracLed from Lhe food we eaL.
lL occurs ln a 6-7 meLre Lube called Lhe allmenLary canal, dlgesLlve LracL, or guL. 1hls runs
from Lhe mouLh Lo Lhe anus. lL Lakes abouL 24 hours Lo Lravel Lhrough lL.
lood ls broken lnLo smaller, slmpler subsLances LhaL are able Lo be carrled by blood.
MLCPAnlCAL ulCLS1lCn
o Cccurs ln Lhe mouLh, when food ls physlcally broken down or mashed lnLo smaller
pleces
CPLMlCAL ulCLS1lCn
o Cccurs aL varlous sLages along Lhe allmenLary canal, whlch enzymes chemlcally
break down food.
1eeLh
Cur LeeLh cuL and grlnd food Lo make lL easler Lo dlgesL.
AdulLs have 32 LeeLh, wlLh 16 ln each [aw


1ooLh decay ls caused by plaque, whlch ls a Lhln fllm of food, sallva and bacLerla LhaL bullds
up on LeeLh.
1he bacLerla Lransform sugars lnLo acld LhaL weakens Lhe enamel. lf Lhese are noL LreaLed,
Lhey may Lurn lnLo a cavlLy whlch needs cleanlng and fllllng.
uecay may enLer Lhe pulp, where Lhe nerves are. 8acLerla from Lhe cavlLy can cause a palnful
lnfecLlon, and requlres rooL canal LreaLmenL. 1hls ls when Lhe pulp ls removed, dlslnfecLlng
Lhe chamber and fllllng wlLh maLerlal Lo prevenL bacLerla from re-enLerlng.
lluorlde prevenLs LooLh decay by proLecLlng and repalrlng Lhe enamel. Cur waLer supply and
LooLhpasLe conLaln fluorlde.
1he ulgesLlve SysLem
1he dlgesLlve sysLem conslsLs of Lhe dlgesLlve LracL wlLh several aLLached enzyme-produclng
organs.
lL produces 8L of dlgesLlve [ulce every day.
o 8lLL - 0.8L
o SALlvA - 1L
o AnC8LAS - 1.3L
o S1CMACP - 2.3L
o SMALL ln1LS1lnL - 2.6L



MouLh (1 mln)
o ulgesLlon beglns here.
o lood ls ground lnLo smaller parLlcles by Lhe LeeLh, mlxed wlLh sallva and made lnLo a
smooLh lump called a bolus.
o Sallva conLalns waLer, mucus, and Lhe enzyme amylase, whlch beglns breaklng down
sLarch lnLo glucose. WaLer and mucus makes Lhe bolus smooLh.
Cesophagus (3 sec)
o Also called Lhe gulleL. lL ls a 23 cm Lube connecLlng Lhe mouLh Lo sLomach.
o Wave-llke conLracLlons and expanslons of muscles, called perlsLalsls, push food
down. lL ls exLremely sLrong.
o 1he Lrachea branches off Lhe Lop of Lhe oesophagus. A flap called Lhe eplgloLLls folds
over Lo cover lLs enLrance.
SLomach (2-4 hours)
o ! shaped organ wlLh capaclLy of abouL 2L.
o 1he sLomach churns food, helplng lL mlx wlLh gasLrlc [ulces.
o CasLrlc [ulces conLaln Lhe enzyme pepsln, whlch break down large proLeln molecules
and faLs.
o PCL helps Lhe enzyme and kllls harmful bacLerla. Mucus llnlng proLecLs Lhe sLomach
from enzymes and acld.
o LnLrance and exlL are conLrolled by rlngs of muscles called sphlncLers.
o 1he boLLom sphlncLer allows parLly dlgesLed, seml-llquld food (called chyme) Lo
squlrL ouL every mlnuLe or so.
ancreas
o roduces more enzymes LhaL help dlgesL carbohydraLes, faLs and proLelns.
o roduces lnsulln LhaL conLrols Lhe amounL of sugar ln Lhe bloodsLream.
o An alkall whlch neuLrallses Lhe acld ln sLomach chyme.
Llver
o Chemlcal facLory whlch ls lnvolved ln over 300 chemlcal processes. lL ls Lhe largesL
lnLernal organ (1.3kg) and conslsLs of Lwo parLs, wlLh exLenslve blood supply.
o lL concerLs glucose lnLo glycogen, whlch can be sLored ln Lhe llver and muscles, and
converLed back when needed.
o lL sLores vlLamlns and mlnerals.
o lL produces blood-cloLLlng chemlcals.
o lL breaks down polsons.
o lL produces blle, a green llquld whlch helps break down faLs lnLo smaller parLlcles.
o roduces heaL.
Call 8ladder
o SLores blle produced by Lhe llver. Can hold abouL 30 mL of blle.
uuodenum
o SLarL of Lhe small lnLesLlne.
o lL has Lwo small Lubes from Lhe pancreas and llver/gall bladder comlng LogeLher, Lo
allow chemlcals such as blle, and enzymes Lo enLer Lhe small lnLesLlne.
Small lnLesLlne (1-4 hours)
o LongesL parL of Lhe dlgesLlve LracL.
o ConLalns muscles LhaL churn food and produces enzymes LhaL conLlnue dlgesLlon.
o 8roken down foods are able Lo pass Lhrough Lhe wall of Lhe small lnLesLlne and lnLo
Lhe bloodsLream.
o Llned wlLh llLLle bumps called vllll, whlch lncrease Lhe surface area, Lherefore
lncreaslng Lhe raLe of nuLrlenLs passlng lnLo Lhe blood.
o vllll conLaln blood vessels, whlch carry glucose and mlnerals. lL also conLalns lymph
vessels, whlch carry away dlgesLed faL.
Large lnLesLlne (10 hours Lo several days)
o 1.3m long, made up of flve parLs - Lhe caecum, appendlx, colon, recLum and anus.
o undlgesLed wasLe maLerlals pass lnLo here. WaLer and remalnlng mlnerals are
absorbed.
o SLools (lumps of faeces) form, and are expelled vla Lhe anus.
o laeces are made of 60 waLer. 1he bacLerla, mlneral salLs and guL llnlng, and
undlgesLed food ln equal proporLlon.








ulgesLlve Cases
When we eaL, we also swallow some alr.
Some of Lhls alr ls released when we burp, or breaLhe ouL.
8acLerla ln Lhe lnLesLlnes break down undlgesLed food, produclng gases such as sulphur
dloxlde and meLhane.
Acld ln Lhe sLomach produces hydrogen gas, whlch has no odour.
Cas can be released Lhrough Lhe anus when we pass wlnd, called flaLus. Cas ln Lhe lnLesLlnal
LracL ls called flaLulence.
WhaL Pappens nexL?
Clucose reaches body cells vla Lhe blood sLream, provldlng energy.
1he llver converLs glucose lnLo glycogen and sLores ln Lhe llver and muscles. lL can be
converLed back when needed.
Lxcess glucose and glycogen are sLored as body faL.

ulgesLlve ulsorders
ulA88PCLA
o 1he body geLs rld of unwanLed bacLerla by movlng maLLer Lhrough Lhe dlgesLlve
LracL more qulckly, Lo be expelled vla anus.
o 1here ls less Llme for large lnLesLlne Lo remove waLer from Lhe dlgesLed food.
o CreaLer rlsk of dehydraLlon and wasLe has hlgher waLer conLenL.
PLA818u8n
o Cccurs when excess acld ls produced ln Lhe sLomach. 1hls acld may rlse lnLo Lhe
oesophagus (e.g. when burplng), causlng a burnlng sensaLlon.
o AnLacld medlclnes can be used Lo neuLrallse sLomach aclds.
o Can also occur when sLomach sphlncLers noL worklng correcLly.
vCMl1lnC
o lnfecLlons, paln, or sLress can resulL ln messages from Lhe sLomach wall belng senL Lo
Lhe braln. 1hls Lrlggers reverse perlsLalsls.
o lood ls pushed up and ouL of sLomach.
o vomlL conslsLs of parLly dlgesLed food, blle, acld and enzymes.
S1CMACP uLCL8S
o Cccurs when mucus llnlng of sLomach becomes damaged.
o Caused by Lhe bacLerlum PellcobacLer.
ALnulCl1lS
o Appendlx may become lnflamed, causlng severe paln and sympLom such as nausea
and vomlLlng.
o lL may be removed ln an operaLlon called an appendecLomy.
LlvL8 ulSLASL
o Llver may be damaged by excesslve alcohol consumpLlon, or by dlseases such as
hepaLlLls.
o Alcohol damage may lnlLlally lnvolve a bulld-up of faL ln llver cells. 1hls leads Lo
clrrhosls, ln whlch scar Llssues form. LvenLually, llver fallure may resulL.
?"++. /%. *137-"/&1+%
8lood
8lood carrles waLer, oxygen and Lhe nuLrlenLs obLalned from dlgesLlon Lo cells around Lhe
body. lL removes carbon dloxlde and wasLe maLerlal from cells, and malnLalns body
LemperaLure. Average of 3.3L of blood ln Lhe human body.
8Lu 8LCCu CLLLS
o Are made ln bone marrow.
o no nucleus, allowlng Lhem Lo carry haemoglobln.
o Paemoglobln aLLracLs and carrles oxygen, and conLalns lron. 1hls glves Lhe red
colour.
o 8lood conLalnlng oxygen ls brlghL red, whlle wlLhouL ls duller. LasLs for 100 days.
WPl1L 8LCCu CLLLS
o 8lgger Lhan red blood cells, and have a nucleus.
o Cur body has fewer cells Lhan red ones. Cnly 3000 per drop.
o 1hey rld Lhe body of harmful bacLerla and vlruses by surroundlng and desLroylng
Lhem, or produclng chemlcals Lo klll Lhem.
LA1LLL1S
o 8roken up blood cells produced ln bone marrow. no nucleus.
o 1rlgger formaLlon of flbrln sLrands, whlch helps blood cloL.
LASMA
o Clear, yellow llquld ln whlch everyLhlng ls suspended.
o 90 waLer, resL ls dlssolved food, wasLe producLs and hormones.
o 8egulaLes LemperaLure by Lransferrlng heaL.
8lood 1ypes
8lood Lype.
o 8lood conLalns aL mosL 2 Lypes of anLlgen. AnLlgens are chemlcals lnvolved ln
flghLlng mlcroorganlsms ln Lhe blood.
o 1ype A conLalns A, 8 conLalns 8, A8 conLalns boLh, and C conLalns nelLher.
o MosL common Lype of blood ls C poslLlve.
8hesus facLor
o 8hesus ls a Lype of anLlgen.
o 8lood conLalnlng rhesus anLlgen ls rhesus poslLlve, or 8P poslLlve.
o 8lood wlLhouL rhesus anLlgen ls rhesus negaLlve.
lor a Lransfuslon Lo be safe, Lhe donor blood musL noL conLaln any anLlgens LhaL are noL
already ln Lhe paLlenL's blood. 1hls may resulL ln blood cells clumplng and formlng blockages.
8hesus facLor musL maLch.
1he PearL
1he hearL pumps blood around Lhe body, beaLlng aL 90-120 bpm for chlldren and 70 for
adulLs.
nerve lmpulses generaLed wlLhln Lhe hearL Lrlgger each beaL.
Made of cardlac muscle, and pumps on average 4.3L each mlnuLe.
A18luM ls where Lhe blood enLers
vLn18lCLL ls where blood ls pumped ouL.
o Wall ls Lhlcker Lo wlLhsLand greaLer pressure
valves sLop blood flowlng or leaklng back Lhe wrong way
8lood vessels
A81L8lLS
o Carry blood away from Lhe hearL Lo organs, and Llssues.
o 1hlck elasLlc walls Lo wlLhsLand Lhe greaLer pressure.
CAlLLA8lLS
o Cne cell Lhlck Lubes whlch lle close Lo body cells
o Allows nuLrlenLs and oxygen Lo pass ouL and lnLo nearby cells.
o WasLe producLs from cell pass back lnLo caplllarles
o MosL numerous Lype of blood vessel, servlclng every Llssue.
vLlnS
o Allows blood Lo reLurn Lo Lhe hearL.
o Low pressure
o valves sLop blood flowlng back Lhe wrong way

8rulses are caused by blood leakage from rupLured blood vessles. lL gradually fades from
purple Lo noLhlng as haemoglobln ls broken down and leaked blood ls cleared away.

Plgh blood pressure, or hyperLenslon, lncreases Lhe rlsk of hearL aLLack.
o S?S1CLlC blood pressure - when Lhe hearL conLracLs
o ulAS1CLlC blood pressure - when Lhe hearL relaxes








ClrculaLory SysLem
1he hearLs and blood vessels comblne Lo form Lhe clrculaLory sysLem.
1ransporLs oxygen, carbon dloxlde, dlgesLed food, chemlcals and heaL around Lhe body.
Coronary hearL dlsease
Coronary arLerles branch off Lhe aorLa and supply Lhe hearL lLself wlLh blood.
8ulld-up of faL and cholesLerol can narrow Lhese arLerles. 1hls reduces blood flow.
AnClnA - Lhe lnsufflclenL supply of oxygen and glucose Lo Lhe hearL.
SympLoms lnclude pressure-llke chesL paln
When a coronary arLery becomes blocked, Lhe reglon lL supplles dles - Lhls ls called hearL
aLLack. SeverlLy depends on Lhe slze of Lhe area affecLed and condlLlon of oLher arLerles.
MLulCAL 8CCLuu8LS
o Wldened by lnflaLlng a speclal balloon ln Lhe affecLed area
o 1lLanlum alloy sleeve (sLenL) lnserLed Lo keep Lhe arLery wall aparL
o Laser beam desLroylng Lhe blockage
o 8lockage bypassed by connecLlng a secLlon of veln Lo Lhe arLery (alLernaLe paLhway)
PearL 1echnology
PLA81 vALvLS
o PearL requlres all four valves operaLlng properly Lo funcLlon normally
o PLA81 Mu8Mu8 - hearL valve becomlng defecLlve and noL allowlng enough blood
Lo flow when open, or allowlng blood Lo leak back Lhe wrong way.
o Can be replaced by arLlflclal valves, or valves from deceased humans or plgs.
o roblem: arLlflclal valves Lend Lo cause blood cloLs. AnLlcloLLlng drugs have been
developed Lo overcome Lhls problem.
ACLMAkL8S
o acemaker cells ln Lhe wall of Lhe rlghL aLrlum creaLe Lhe hearLbeaL. 1hese cells
produce elecLrlcal lmpulses LhaL spread Lo Lhe aLrla and venLrlcles Lo cause Lhe
conLracLlons.
o lmpulses can be shown on an elecLrocardlogram (LCC).
o lrregular hearL beaL can be LreaLed by lmplanLlng an arLlflclal pacemaker, whlch
sends lLs own lmpulses.
!273#&1+%@ A#&&1%8 31. +B C/'&#'
LxcreLlon ls Lhe removal of wasLe from Lhe body.
1hls lncludes breaLhlng and sweaLlng.
urea ls a wasLe producL produced by Lhe llver afLer proLeln dlgesLlon. Lxcess proLeln ls
broken lnLo slmpler subsLances, Lhe maln one belng urea.
urea passes lnLo Lhe bloodsLream, where lL Lravels Lo Lhe kldney Lo be fllLered ouL.


kldneys
kldneys are red-brown, bean-shaped organs abouL Lhe slze of a flsL.
lllLers 1.3L of blood every mlnuLe.
kldneys conLaln over a mllllon Llny fllLraLlon unlLes called nephrons.
urlne
Cne mL of blood per llLre ls fllLered ouL as urlne, produclng aL Lhe raLe of one drop per
mlnuLe. 1-2L a day.
93 waLer, 3 urea, as well as small amounLs of salLs and oLher subsLances such as blle.
urlnary SysLem
urlne Lravels down 20cm long Lubes called u8L1L8S, Lo Lhe 8LAuuL8, whlch has a maxlmum
capaclLy of abouL one llLre.
Cnly 300mL ls enough for Lhe nerve sensors ln lLs walls Lo send messages Lo Lhe braln LhaL
resulL ln Lhe urge Lo urlnaLe.
1he urlne ls dralned from Lhe bladder ouL of Lhe body Lhrough Lhe u8L1P8A.









kldney SLones
ConcenLraLed subsLances ln urlne may crysLalllse lnLo small, solld parLlcles called kldney
sLones, wlLh Lhe kldneys, ureLers, or bladder.
LxLremely AlnluL.
CfLen, kldney sLones wlll pass ouL of Lhe body, buL surglcal procedures (uslng sound) are
used.
o uL18ASCunu - sLones are broken up and removed by Lhe dlrecL appllcaLlon of
ulLrasound waves
o Lx18ACC8C8LAL SPCCk-WAvL Ll1PC18lS? (LSWL) - sLones are shaLLered and
are passed ouL of Lhe body ln Lhe urlne.
urlnklng aL leasL 1L waLer every day reduces rlsk of kldney sLones.
kldney lallure
We can llve wlLh one healLhy kldney.
lf Lwo fall, Lhe slLuaLlon ls llfe-LhreaLenlng due Lo Lhe bulld-up of polsonous wasLes ln Lhe
blood.
CpLlons lnclude kldney LransplanL or dlalysls. 1ransplanL ls mosL llkely Lo be successful lf a
close relaLlve donaLes a kldney.
ulalysls ls Lhe fllLerlng of blood by a machlne, and musL be performed regularly (usually 3
Lypes per week for abouL 8 hours).
D#',13/&+36 E6'&#$'
1he resplraLory sysLems, conslsLlng of Lhe lungs and assoclaLed sLrucLures, provlde Lhe blood
wlLh oxygen, and expel carbon dloxlde.
Lach breaLh exchanges abouL 300 mL of alr.
1he maxlmum amounL of alr you can exhale afLer Laklng a deep breaLh (lnhale) ls called Lhe
vl1AL CAACl1?. normally 4300 mL, buL may be as hlgh as 6300 mL.
ComposlLlon of lnhaled and exhaled alr varles, because gases are exchanged beLween lungs
and bloodsLream.
9%5/"#. /13 !25/"#. :13
F1&3+8#% 79.0 79.3
G268#% 21.0 14.0
*GH 0.04 3.6
C/&#3 I/,+-3 varles lully saLuraLed

8esplraLory SysLem
Alr enLers Lhrough Lhe mouLh, or nose. ln Lhe nose lL ls fllLered, warmed and molsLened.
o nosLrll halrs fllLer ouL larger parLlcles and cllla Lo Lrap flne parLlcles.
o Llned wlLh mucus glands LhaL produce sLlcky mucus Lo Lrap dusL parLlcles.
o 1he mucus and Lrapped parLlcles move Lo Lhe back of your nose and lnLo Lhe
PA8?nx.
18ACPLA
o A Lhln walled Lube wlLh Lhe dlameLer as a garden house.
o LlCLC11lS sLops food from enLerlng Lhe Lrachea.
o LA8?nx also helps sLop food enLerlng.
o Coughlng and sneezlng are reflexes Lo furLher proLecL Lhe Lrachea.
88CnCPl
o 1rachea branches lnLo Lwo maln bronchl, whlch branch lnLo smaller and smaller
Lubes.
o SmallesL of Lhese Lubes are 88CnCPlCLLS.
o LnLlre sysLem of Lubes are llned wlLh cllla, whlch send forelgn maLerlal back Lo Lhe
pharynx Lo be coughed ouL or swallowed.

ALvLCLl
o Sacs wlLh walls only one cell Lhlck, where gas exchange ln and ouL of Lhe blood Lakes
place.
o Around 300 mllllon wlLh surface area of abouL 80m^2.
o lnslde Lhe alveoll, oxygen moves across Lhrough Lhe Lhln walls of Lhe caplllarles and
lnLo Lhe blood. Cxygen ls dlssolved lnLo haemoglobln.
o AL Lhe same Llme, dlssolved wasLe gas (CC2) comes ouL of Lhe caplllarles back lnLo
Lhe alveoll.
8reaLhlng
1he lnLercosLal muscles and dlaphragm cause us Lo breaLhe.
88LA1PlnC ln
o lnLercosLal muscles conLracL, dlaphragm conLracLs. ressure decreases
88LA1PlnC Cu1
o lnLercosLal muscles relax, dlaphragm relaxes.
CLher 8esplraLory SysLems
Successful exchange or movemenL of gases ln and ouL of blood depends on several facLors.
o A hlgh, surface area for Lhe exchange
o A Lhln, molsL surface for efflclenL exchange
o A sysLem of LransporLlng gases Lo and from cells
o A means of proLecLlng Lhe exchange surface from damage and dehydraLlon
CLher anlmals meeL Lhese needs by
o unlcellular organlsms exchange gas dlrecLly wlLh Lhelr waLer surroundlngs Lhrough
Lhelr cell walls or membranes
o MosL aquaLlc anlmals use gllls.
o llaLLened, worm-llke anlmals ofLen use Lhelr body surface for exchange.
o MosL alr-breaLhers have lungs, buL fronLs also use Lhelr skln for addlLlonal exchange.
o lnsecLs use a sysLem of alr-fllled Lubes for gas exchange.
Puman skln also breaLhes buL accounLs for only 0.06 of our LoLal gas exchange.
C5/& 1' / 0173+;#J
Mlcrobe ls a mlcroorganlsm.
Slngle celled llvlng organlsms LhaL are usually Loo small Lo be seen wlLh Lhe naked eye.
A non-llvlng ob[ecL such as a pln LhaL can carry dlsease-causlng mlcrobes ls called a lCMl1L.
SclenLlsLs classlfy mlcrobes lnLo flve groups: bacLerla, fungl, proLozoa, algae and vlruses.
MeasuremenLs
1 mlcromeLre = 0.000001m (1/1 000 000) = 0.001mm (1/1000)
1 nanomeLre = 0.000000001m (1/1 000 000 000) = 0.000001mm
AlLhough mlcrobes can be very small, many fungl such as mushroom are large enough Lo be
seen easlly wlLh Lhe naked eye.
Mlcroscopes
1yplcal llghL mlcroscopes are capable of magnlfylng 40 Lo 400 Llmes.
LlecLron mlcroscopes are used Lo vlew ob[ecLs smaller Lhan 0.2mm. 1hey magnlfy 10 000 Lo
100 000 Llmes.
o roblem: 8lack and whlLe lmages, llve speclmens cannoL be vlewed.
8acLerla
Slmple cell LhaL ls made up of a cell wall, cell membrane and cyLoplasm.
no nucleus.
Some bacLerla have Lalls, or flagella, for movemenL.
1hree shapes
o Coccl (spherlcal)
o 8aclllus (rod-shaped)
o Splrllla (splral)
lungl
Mushroom and LoadsLools are fungl. Some are edlble, whlle oLhers are polsonous.
Mould ls also a fungus, growlng on decayed food and damp surfaces.
?easL ls used Lo make food and drlnks llke bread and alcohol.
lungl feed on dead and decaylng maLerlal, helplng Lo reLurn nuLrlenLs Lo Lhe naLural cycle of
Lhe envlronmenL.
roLlsLs (also called proLozoa)
Slngle-celled organlsms LhaL llve ln waLer and areas of hlgh molsLure.
Some proLlsLs (such as euglena) are planL-llke because Lhey conLaln chlorophyll and make
Lhelr own food.
o Luglena move uslng Lhelr flagella.
CLher proLlsLs caLch and eaL Lhelr own food ln Lhe waLer around Lhem (such as amoeba and
parameclum)
o arameclum have cllla on Lhelr ouLslde LhaL beaL back and forLh, allowlng Lhem Lo
move.
o Amoeba exLends a parL of lLs cell body ouLwards. 1he cell conLenLs flow lnLo Lhls
parL of Lhe cell. 1he exLenslon of Lhe cell ls called a false fooL, or pseudopod.
Clardla and crypLosporldlum are Lwo proLlsLs LhaL can cause dlarrhoea, vomlLlng and severe
lllness. 1hey are commonly LesLed ln drlnklng waLer. Chlorlne klll Lhese proLlsLs.
vlruses
LaLln word for polson. vlruses cause many lllnesses.
Much smaller Lhan oLher mlcrobes and musL be vlewed under elecLron mlcroscope.
SLrucLure conslsLs of a proLeln coaL surroundlng unA or 8nA, chemlcals LhaL conLaln
lnsLrucLlons for bulldlng a new vlrus.
roLeln coaL ls able Lo Lake on many shapes. olyhedral shape ls common.
D#,3+.-7&1+% 1% 0173+;#'
8acLerlal 8eproducLlon
8eproduce by cell dlvlslon, or blnary flsslon.
uoes noL requlre females and males.
arenL cell dlvldes Lo become Lwo ldenLlcal daughLer cells.

Some bacLerla undergo blnary flsslon ln as llLLle as 20 mlnuLes, buL mosL Lake 1-3 hours Lo
reproduce. uaughLer cells dlvlde [usL as qulckly.
8apld reproducLlon only occurs when condlLlons are rlghL.
o MolsL, warm envlronmenLs (many flnd 37c human body LemperaLure ldeal)
o CorrecL food sources.
AnLlbloLlcs are chemlcals or drugs LhaL klll bacLerla, usually by desLroylng Lhelr cell walls.
o Any survlvlng bacLerla wlll probably be reslsLanL Lo Lhe anLlbloLlc. lL wlll conLlnue Lo
breed and lnfecLlon conLlnues. 1hls ls a new sLraln of bacLerla developlng.
lungl 8eproducLlon
lungl (mushrooms and moulds) someLlmes are made up of Lhread-llke subsLances LhaL have
a furry appearance, called hyphae. (Mushrooms hyphae are underground). Pyphae grow
lnLo Lhe food and dlgesL nuLrlenLs for growLh.
1wo ways for hyphae reproducLlon
o A plece of fungus made up of hyphae breaks off and beglns Lo grow
o 1he hyphae produce spores, formlng ln a capsule called a sporanglum LhaL grows
upwards from Lhe hyphae. MaLure sporanglum bursLs open, releaslng spores lnLo
Lhe alr. Spores are able Lo exlsL for long perlods of Llme, unLll Lhey flnd a rlghL place
Lo grow. Slmllar Lo seeds of a planL. Mushrooms are a blg sporanglum.
?easL can reproduce by buddlng.
o 1he parenL cell forms a bud on lLs ouLer surface and a copy of everyLhlng ln Lhe cell
ls moved lnLo lL. A cell wall forms beLween Lhe bud and Lhe parenL cell, and Lhe bud
breaks away.
8eproducLlon of roLlsLs
Llke bacLerla, proLlsLs are able Lo reproduce by blnary flsslon.
8eproducLlon of vlruses
A vlrus ls only able Lo reproduce lnslde a hosL cell. A hosL cell ls any cell LhaL Lhe vlrus
lnvades and Lakes over.
When a vlrus comes lnLo conLacL wlLh a hosL cell, lL hl[acks lL, forclng lL Lo become a vlrus
facLory. When Lhe hosL cell ls full of new vlruses, lL bursLs open, releaslng Lhe vlruses whlch
can go on Lo lnfecL more cells.
vlruses can remaln dormanL for many years wlLhouL a hosL cell.
AnLlbloLlcs do noL work on vlruses. Cur bodles produce anLlbodles Lo desLroy anLlbodles.
?our body bullds anLlbodles Lo flghL every Llme a new vlrus enLers. Cnce you have anLlbodles
for a cerLaln vlrus, lL ls ready Lo flghL agaln aL anoLher lnvaslon.
vacclnaLlons lnfecL you wlLh someLhlng slmllar Lo a vlrus - modlfled vlrus or harmless sLraln.
1he body produces anLlbodles LhaL can proLecL you from Lhe real dlsease.
All vlruses muLaLe, maklng sllghLly dlfferenL verslons. Cne anLlbody made for one verslon,
may noL flghL anoLher verslon of Lhe same vlrus.
A++. /%. ?/. 0173+;#'
8acLerla uecomposlLlon
8acLerla help Lo break down organlc maLLer. 1hls decomposlLlon occurs everywhere.
uecomposlLlon ls lmporLanL for 2 reasons
o lL reLurns nuLrlenLs Lo Lhe soll LhaL can be reused by planLs
o lL rlds Lhe LarLh of dead planLs, anlmals and Lhelr wasLe.
8acLerla are used ln Lhe LreaLmenL of sewage.
uecomposlLlon, however, can ruln food lf you leave lL ouL of Lhe frldge for Loo long. 1hey can
also produce Loxlns (polsonous chemlcals). lood polsonlng may resulL.
8acLerla lood
?oghurL, yoghurL drlnks and cheese all need bacLerla ln Lhelr producLlon.
?oghurL: bacLerla are added LhaL use Lhe sugar ln mllk as food, Lurnlng Lhe mllk sour.
Cheese: rennln ls added Lo mllk, causlng lL Lo cloL and form curds and whey. 1he curds are
rlpened by Lhe addlLlon of bacLerla or fungl, glvlng lL Lhe flavour.
8acLerla Medlclnes
8acLerla can be used Lo produce hormones for medlcal purposes, and some drugs such as
lnsulln. 1hey can also lnLroduce reslsLance Lo dlsease ln planLs.
AnLlbloLlcs can cure many dlseases caused by bacLerla. Powever, bacLerla may become
reslsLance and even more deadly.
lungl
1he mould, penlclllln, was Lhe flrsL anLlbloLlc and now used Lo LreaL bacLerlal lnfecLlons.
1here are also dlfferenL anLlbloLlcs.

?easL ls a useful fungus ln Lhe producLlon of bread and alcohol.
o ?easL makes energy Lhrough aeroblc resplraLlon (requlrlng oxygen)
glucose + oxygen - carbon dloxlde + waLer + energy
1hls occurs ln Lhe maklng of bread. 1he bubbles of CC2 produced cause Lhe bread Lo
rlse and glve lL a spongy look.
o Anaeroblc resplraLlon occurs ln Lhe absence of oxygen. under Lhese condlLlons,
yeasL wlll feed on glucose, maklng alcohol as a producL. Any Lype of frulL, vegeLable
or graln can be used. lL ls also called fermenLaLlon
glucose - alcohol + carbon dloxlde + energy.
o CC2 produced by yeasL causes Lhe bubbles ln beer and champagne.
lungl can also cause fungal dlseases. Lxamples lnclude LhrusL, Llnea (aLhleLe's food) and
rlngworm. lungal dlseases are usually easlly LreaLed wlLh anLlfungal powder/cream.
vlruses
lf humans, anlmals or planLs geL slck, lL ls usually due Lo vlrus.
lnfluenza ls an example of a common dlsease caused by vlrus.
8eneflclal uses for vlrus are belng lnvesLlgaLed. ln a medlcal breakLhrough, a vlrus was
ln[ecLed lnLo a braln Lumour ln a human. 1he vlrus kllled Lhe cancerous cells, reduclng Lhe
slze of Lhe Lumour, and Lhe person survlved.




!"#$% '(#$)*+(% ,-)%./)
1. WhaL ls phoLosynLhesls?
2. WhaL do xylem Lubes carry?
3. WhaL are xylem Lubes made of
4. WhaL do phloem Lubes carry? WhaL are Lhey made of?
3. Pow ls Lhe LransporL Lubes grouped?
6. Pow ls glucose sLored?
7. WhaL ls Lhe force LhaL moves waLer ln a planL?
8. WhaL supporLs Lhe sofL parLs of a planL? WhaL ls uprlghL/drooplng?
9. WhaL ls wood made of?
10. WhaL ls Lhe equaLlon for phoLosynLhesls?
11. WhaL are Lhe sLages ln phoLosynLhesls? WhaL happens ln each sLage?
12. WhaL are chloroplasLs?
13. Pow do planLs sLore excess glucose?
14. WhaL usable subsLances can glucose be converLed Lo?
13. WhaL affecLs Lhe raLe of phoLosynLhesls?
16. WhaL deLermlnes Lhe maxlmum raLe of phoLosynLhesls?
17. WhaL facLors, lf lncreased Loo hlgh, wlll decrease/sLop Lhe process of phoLosynLhesls?
18. WhaL ls resplraLlon? WhaL ls Lhe equaLlon for lL?
19. WhaL are enzymes?
20. Compare phoLosynLhesls and resplraLlon.
21. WhaL are leaves? WhaL ls Lhelr funcLlon?
22. WhaL ls Lhe epldermls?
23. WhaL ls Lhe cuLlcle? WhaL are lLs properLles?
24. WhaL are Lhe sLomaLa, lLs funcLlons, and properLles?
23. WhaL cells are ln Lhe upper layer of Lhe leaf? WhaL happens here?
26. WhaL cells are ln Lhe lower layer of a leaf? WhaL happens here?
27. WhaL ls Lhe funcLlon of Lhe LransporL Lubes ln relaLlon Lo Lhe leaf?
28. WhaL are some oLher leaf plgmenLs? WhaL are Lhelr colours?
29. WhaL are ways aquaLlc planLs overcome problems of waLer absorblng llghL?
01+)-)%./)
1. WhaL ls an ecosysLem?
2. WhaL ls ecology?
3. WhaL does Lhe Lerm 'llvlng organlsms' lnclude?
4. WhaL ls Lhe communlLy?
3. WhaL ls populaLlon?
6. WhaL ls Lhe abloLlc envlronmenL?
7. WhaL ls Lhe blosphere?
8. WhaL ls Lhe blogeographlcal reglon?
9. WhaL ls a blome?
10. WhaL ls a hablLaL?
11. WhaL ls a mlcrohablLaL?
12. WhaL are 3 maln evenLs affecLlng Lhe AusLrallan ecosysLem?
13. WhaL are Lhe poslLlve effecLs of droughL and bushflre?
14. Why ls droughL so devasLaLlng?
13. WhaL ls an adapLaLlon?
16. WhaL ls a physlcal adapLaLlon?
17. WhaL ls a behavloural adapLaLlon?
18. WhaL are examples of A8lC1lC feaLures LhaL can lnfluence Lhe envlronmenL?
19. WhaL are 8lC1lC facLors LhaL lnfluence Lhe lnLeracLlons beLween organlsms?
20. WhaL ls Lhe source of all (mosL) energy on LarLh?
21. WhaL are organlsms whlch produce food uslng sunllghL called? Why are Lhey essenLlal?
22. WhaL are organlsms whlch do noL produce Lhelr own food?
23. WhaL are anlmals who eaL planLs called?
24. WhaL are anlmals who eaL planL eaLers called?
23. WhaL are anlmals LhaL eaL boLh planL and anlmals called?
26. WhaL ls a food chaln?
27. WhaL ls a llnk ln Lhe food chaln called?
28. WhaL ls a food web?
29. WhaL ls blodlverslLy? Why ls lL favourable?
30. WhaL ls Lhe funcLlon of decomposers?
31. WhaL are - muLuallsm (symblosls), commensallsm, amensallsm, compeLlLlon and
explolLaLlon?
32. WhaL are Lhe 3 Lypes of explolLaLlon? Lxplaln Lhem.
33. WhaL were Lhe effecLs on Lhe envlronmenL of Lhe lndusLrlal revoluLlon?
34. WhaL ls a polluLanL? Are lLs causes naLural or arLlflclal?
33. WhaL are examples of alr polluLlon?
36. WhaL ls Lhe (enhanced) greenhouse effecL? WhaL are lLs effecLs?
37. WhaL are examples and effecLs of waLer polluLlon?
38. WhaL are examples and effecLs of soll polluLlon?
39. WhaL are lnLroduced specles? WhaL are Lhelr effecLs? Lxamples?
40. WhaL ls an endangered specles? WhaL can cause Lhls?
41. WhaL ls conservaLlon? Why do lL?
0".1%(212%-
1. WhaL are charges? WhaL ls Lhe dlfference beLween negaLlve and poslLlve?
2. WhaL ls a neuLral ob[ecL?
3. uo unllke charges aLLracL or repel? uo llke charges aLLracL or repel?
4. WhaL ls Lhls aLLracLlon/repulslon force called? Pow does Lhls affecL Lhe aLom?
3. WhaL ls elecLrlclLy?
6. WhaL ls sLaLlc elecLrlclLy?
7. WhaL ls an lnduced charge?
8. WhaL are examples of good sLaLln elecLrlclLy? Lxamples of bad?
9. WhaL ls an elecLrlcal fleld?
10. WhaL ls Lhe dlrecLlon of an elecLrlcal fleld?
11. WhaL ls a clrculL?
12. WhaL are Lhe componenLs needed for a clrculL?
13. WhaL ls a currenL?
14. WhaL ls Lhe dlfference beLween a large and small currenL?
13. WhaL ls currenL measured ln? WhaL ls lL measured wlLh?
16. Whlch dlrecLlon does currenL flow ln?
17. WhaL ls volLage?
18. WhaL ls lL measured ln, and whaL ls lL measured wlLh?
19. WhaL usually supplles volLage?
20. WhaL ls a cell? WhaL ls a baLLery?
21. WhaL ls a weL cell?
22. WhaL ls a dry cell?
23. Pow can cells be used Lo provlde greaLer volLage?
24. WhaL are phoLovolLalc cells?
23. WhaL ls a conducLor? WhaL are good conducLors?
26. WhaL ls an lnsulaLor? WhaL are good lnsulaLors?
27. WhaL ls reslsLance?
28. WhaL ls a serles clrculL? Pow ls volLage/currenL shared?
29. WhaL ls a parallel clrculL? Pow ls volLage/currenL shared?
30. WhaL ls Lhe clrculL ln a household elecLrlclLy wlrlng sysLem?
31. WhaL ls AC currenL? Why ls lL supplled lnsLead of uC?
32. Pow dangerous ls elecLrlclLy?
33. WhaL ls an 8Cu or safeLy swlLch? Pow does lL funcLlon?

!"#$%&'() +",-.-#/ 0#1".
!2#3&2-.&1-#/ ls Lhe breakdown of LradlLlonal barrlers beLween naLlon sLaLes allowlng Lhe
movemenL of goods, caplLal, people and lnformaLlon
45#/#6-5 $2#3&2-.&1-#/ refers Lo Lhe breaklng down of Lhe walls LhaL separaLe naLlonal
economles from each oLher. CloballsaLlon leads Lo Lhe developmenL of a global markeLplace
or a slngle world markeL for a wlde range of goods and servlces.
!2#3&2 ,-22&$" ls a world where any lndlvldual can Lalk Lo any oLher, anywhere ln Lhe world. lL
ls Lhe lnLerconnecLlvlLy of Lhe world.
78218%" ls Lhe body of bellefs, aLLlLudes, skllls and Lools by whlch communlLles sLrucLure Lhelr
llves and lnLeracL wlLh Lhe envlronmenL.
78218%&2 -/1"$%&1-#/ ls Lhe blendlng of dlfferenL culLures where communlLles adapL Lo and
absorb exLernal lnfluences.

urlvers of CloballsaLlon:
o 1echnology
o CovernmenL
o llnanclal markeLs
o Clobal consumers
o 1ransnaLlonal corporaLlons (1nCs)

45#/#6-5 9","2#'6"/1 refers Lo Lhe lncrease ln Lhe sLandard of llvlng. lL ls Lhe developmenL
of an economy from a low-lncome economy Lo a modern, hlgh Lech economy. lL leads Lo
lmprovemenL ln llvlng raLes, llfe expecLancy and poverLy raLes. lL ls measured uslng Lhe Pul
and Lakes lnLo accounL Lhe way goods and servlces are produced.
45#/#6-5 $%#:1( refers Lo Lhe lncrease of Cu. lL only measures Lhe quanLlLy of Lhe
producLlon of goods.
;/1"%/&1-#/&2 5#/,"%$"/5" ls when 2 or more counLrles come LogeLher on a cerLaln lssue. lL
usually refers Lo Lhe globallsaLlon of sLandards.

1he human developmenL lndex (Pul) shows Lhe developmenL ln counLrles.
o Plgh human developmenL: 0.8-1.0 Pul. Llfe LxpecLancy average: 77 years
o Medlum human developmenL: 0.3-0.8 Pul. Llfe expecLancy average: 67 years
o Low human developmenL: 0.0-3. Llfe expecLancy average: 49 years

<(" :#%29 1#9&) (&. 3"5#6" .6&22"% due Lo Lhe Llme lL Lakes Lo communlcaLe or Lravel
beLween places. new Lechnology has allowed Lhe Lravel from one counLry Lo anoLher a
relaLlvely shorL Lrlp and communlcaLlon a Lhlng of ease.

1here are boLh wlnners and losers ln globallsaLlon.
o Wlnners are Lhe global companles LhaL use Lhe world's resources Lo make large
proflLs, and Lhe global consumers who use Lhelr producLs.
o Losers are Lhe people ln Lhe poorer counLrles LhaL have been explolLed Lo produce
o Cheap goods for sale ln rlcher counLrles. Chlld labour and low wages are a resulL.
<47=0>?>!@
Advances ln communlcaLlon Lechnology have made Lhe communlcaLlon beLween counLrles
fasL, rellable and cheap.
CommunlcaLlon neLworks lnclude:
o 1he flbre opLlc cable neLwork - Lhey are lald all over Lhe world and can handle hlgh
volumes of dlglLal lnformaLlon over long dlsLances.
o SaLelllLe communlcaLlons - saLelllLes are used for communlcaLlons, weaLher
forecasLlng, Lelevlslon, radlo, lnLerneL, defence, as well as CS.

1echnology adapLs very qulckly lnLo Loday's socleLy. lor example, Lhe radlo Look 40 years Lo
reach 30 mllllon users. 1he C Look 13 years Lo reach 30 mllllon users. 1he lnLerneL Look only
4 years before 30 mllllon users were regularly onllne.

1he lmpacL of lC1 and oLher Lechnology ls noL even. norLh Amerlca has 3 of Lhe world's
populaLlon buL has 60 of Lhe world's lnLerneL users.
very few people ln developlng counLrles can afford Lhls Lechnology. Powever, some
communlLles now provlde access Lo Lelephones, compuLers and lnLerneL aL LelecenLres and
lnLerneL cafes.
<+A0B0A<;>0A? 7>+C>+A<;>0B
A 1nC ls a large buslness organlsaLlon LhaL has a home base ln one counLry and operaLes ln
oLher counLrles. lL ls Lhe hlghesL level of lnvolvemenL ln global buslness. 1hey are one of Lhe
mosL powerful economlc and pollLlcal enLlLles.
MoLlves for 1nCs lnclude growLh, escape from proLecLlon pollcles and prevenLlon of
compeLlLlon.
1nCs Lyplcally operaLe ln developlng counLrles and Lake advanLage of low labour cosLs Lo
maxlmlse proflLs.

Lxamples of 1nCs are:
o nlke, MoLorola, Mcuonalds, ualmlerChrysler (now Chrysler Croup LLC), LxxonMobll,
Shell, MlcrosofL and Apple.

1nCs ofLen use Lhe cheap labour avallable ln developlng counLrles Lo produce sporLs
equlpmenL, shoes and sporLs cloLhlng. 1he facLorles are known as sweaLshops due Lo Lhe
poor worklng faclllLles and low wages pald Lo Lhe workers.
Some 1nCs are gullLy of human rlghL abuses. 1hese lncludes paylng less Lhan mlnlmum
wages Lo workers, employlng chlld labour, lncorrecL paymenL or fallure Lo pay for overLlme,
harassmenL of workers by managemenL as well as poor envlronmenLal, safeLy and healLh
condlLlons.
1o lmplemenL code of conducLs ls a dlfflculL Lask as governmenL campalgns for low wages Lo
lnvesL forelgn lnvesLmenL.

7D?<D+A? ;ECA7<
CloballsaLlon moves Lhe world Lowards one glanL global culLure. 1nC are largely responslble
for Lhls movemenL. 1hese changes are hard Lo ldenLlfy due Lo Lhe slow raLe lL happens aL.
McuonaldlsaLlon refers Lo how norLh Amerlcan 1nCs are exLendlng Lhelr lnfluence Lo many
counLrles of Lhe world. Some blg brands ln food are Mcuonalds, klC< Subway, SLarbucks and
Clorla !eans.
LnLerLalnmenL, Lelevlslon, movles and muslc have also spread across counLrles. 1hls ls
known as pop culLure. owerful global medla organlsaLlons spread pop culLure. 1hese
lnclude ulsney and Sony.

!?>FA?;BA<;>0 >G BC>+<
CloballsaLlon has changed how sporL ls vlewed and played. SporL ls broadcasL llve around
Lhe world. 1he global audlence has also rlsen, glvlng opporLunlLy Lo promoLe dlfferenL sporLs
aL a global level.
1nC beneflLs from sporL Lhrough adverLlslng and manufacLure of sporLs equlpmenL.
As a sporL becomes popular aL Lhe global level, money can be made.
o 1nCs buy Lhe broadcasL rlghLs Lo sporLlng evenLs, whlch provlde lncome for Lhe
sporLlng organlsaLlon LhaL runs Lhe sporL. 1hls lncome ls used Lo develop Lhe sporL
furLher aL a global level.
o Clobal sporL sLars are pald Lo wear 1nC equlpmenL. lL becomes popular, and Lhe 1nC
makes proflL whlch ls used Lo furLher fund Lhelr lnvolvemenL ln sporL.
!?>FA? ;04HDA?;<;4B IJJJ !KC C4+ 7AC;<A JJJL
H8&2-1) #M 2-M" ls measured uslng Lhe Pul.
o 3 conLlnenLs wlLh Lhe hlghesL Pul - Lurope, norLh Amerlca and AusLralla
o LowesL ranklng conLlnenL ls Afrlca
o Plgh Pul ls caused by wealLhy populaLlons, resources and lndusLrles.
o Low Pul ls caused by very poor famllles, wldespread famlne and no Lechnology.
?-M" "N'"51&/5) ls Lhe average age a newborn would llve Lo lf Lhe paLLerns of morLallLy
remalned Lhe same.
o ConLlnenLs wlLh hlgh llfe expecLancy - Lurope, norLh Amerlca and AusLralla.
o Plgh llfe expecLancy ls relaLed Lo developmenL and medlcal enLlLles.
o Plgher Pul generally means a hlgher llfe expecLancy.
o Powever, rapld urban growLh can lead Lo decrease ln llfe expecLancy
;/M&/1 6#%1&2-1) ls Lhe probablllLy of dylng beLween blrLh and one year of age, expressed as
deaLhs per 1000 llve blrLhs.
o CounLrles wlLh hlghesL lM8 (1997) were nlger, Angola and AfghanlsLan.
o 8easons for hlgh lM8 were low access Lo docLors, famlne and low quallLy of llfe.
o CounLrles wlLh lowesL lM8 were !apan, llnland, norway, Slngapore and Sweden.
o 8easons for low lM8 were sufflclenL access Lo docLors, supplles and quallLy of llfe.
o 1he more access Lo docLors ln a counLry, Lhere ls a lower lM8 ln Lhe same counLry.

A55".. 1# .&M" 9%-/O-/$ :&1"% &/9 M##9 .8''2)
o naLlons wlLh 83-100 of Lhe populaLlon wlLh safe drlnklng waLer are 8arbados,
Canada, uenmark, llnland, lrance, neLherlands, SL klLLs, nevls, Slngapore,
SwlLzerland, 1uvalu and Lhe uk.
o 1he conLlnenLs where 49.9 or less of Lhe populaLlon has safe drlnklng waLer are
Asla and Afrlca.
o 1he naLlons wlLh Lhe pooresL access Lo drlnklng waLer are AfghanlsLan, LrlLrea,
Mlcronesla and Chad.
K-MM"%"/1 2-M" #''#%18/-1-". M#% :#6"/
Women, ln mosL cases, are worse off Lhan men. Mllllons of women are dlscrlmlnaLed agalnsL
due Lo gender. Many opporLunlLles lle ouL of reach for poor, rural, uneducaLed females ln
developlng counLrles.
G"6&2". 6&O" 8' PQR #M 1(" STU 3-22-#/ '"#'2" 2-,-/$ -/ &3.#281" '#,"%1)T 1he ma[orlLy of
poor people ln Lhe world are women. Cver 730,000 mllllon women llve on less Lhan $1 a
day. 1hls ls referred Lo as Lhe femlnlsaLlon of poverLy.
Women ofLen 2&5O &55".. 1# %".#8%5". LhaL may help Lhem geL ouL of poverLy. 1hese lnclude
educaLlon, land, credlL, lnherlLance or a say ln Lhe governmenL.
1here are poor women ln &22 developlng counLrles.

1here are 4 maln causes LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo female lnequallLy.
o ?&5O #M #:/"%.(-' of resources/lower lncome.
o Lack of &55".. 1# "985&1-#/
o B#5-&2 58.1#6. and Lhe role of women
o Lack of opporLunlLy due Lo 9-.5%-6-/&1-#/T

B#281-#/. for female lnequallLy lnclude
o lmprovlng educaLlon opporLunlLles
o Lncourage and/or enforce equallLy

B1&1-.1-5.
o Women do 30 + work buL recelve less Lhan 10 lncome.
o 1hey own 1 of Lhe world's properLles.
o Women bear more chlldren Lhan Lhey wanL. Average number of chlldren per women
ls 7. Some have more, e.g. 12 or 13.
o Palf mllllon women around Lhe world dle of chlld blrLh.
o 1here ls 11 Lrllllon dollars whlch ls noL pald.

LducaLlonal opporLunlLles for women are scarce. Many secondary schools only accepL boys.
1o sLudy, glrls musL move Lo Lown, whlch ls culLurally unaccepLable.

!?>FA? >+!A0;BA<;>0B
Clobal organlsaLlons reduce global lnequallLles and promoLe ecologlcal susLalnablllLy.
ADBA;K
AusAlu ls Lhe AusLrallan Agency for lnLernaLlonal uevelopmenL.
lL manages Lhe AusLrallan governmenL's offlclal overseas ald program.
1he maln ob[ecLlve of AusAlu ls Lo reduce Lhe gap beLween rlch and poor counLrles by
helplng developlng counLrles reduce poverLy and achleve susLalnable developmenL.
AusAlu works closely wlLh AusLrallan buslnesses, nCCs (world vlslon and care AusLralla) and
lnLernaLlonal agencles (un, 8ed Cross)

AusAlu helps Lhrough forelgn ald - Lhe Lransfer of money, food and servlces from developed
Lo developlng counLrles.
AusAlu also responds Lo humanlLarlan and emergency rellef slLuaLlons.
AusAlu deals wlLh lssues such as Plv/AluS, lllegal drug Lrade and small arms and lllegal
lmmlgraLlon.
Ma[or areas of ald:
o PumanlLarlan and emergency rellef
o 8ural developmenL
o MulLlsecLor
o Covernance (resLorlng democracy)
o LducaLlon
o lnfrasLrucLure
o PealLh
D0;<4K 0A<;>0B
1he un ls a global organlsaLlon made up of member counLrles. More Lhan 30 oLher agencles,
known as Lhe un sysLem, work wlLh Lhe un.
1he un came lnLo Lhe exlsLence on 24 CcLober 1943.
1he goals of Lhe un are
o MalnLaln peace and securlLy
o Lncourage frlendly relaLlonshlps among naLlons
o Pelp solve economlc, soclal, culLural and humanlLarlan problems around Lhe world
o romoLe respecL for human rlghLs and baslc freedoms.
rlnclple organs of Lhe un:
o Ceneral Assembly - a parllamenL of naLlonal represenLaLlves
o SecurlLy Councll - responslble for keeplng peace/securlLy ln Lhe world
o Lconomlc and soclal councll - examlnes economlc and soclal lssues, develops
recommendaLlons and encourages work Lo lmplemenL Lhem.
o 1rusLeeshlp Councll - supervlses places ln Lhe worlds LhaL are 1rusL 1errlLorles
o lnLernaLlonal CourL of !usLlce - responslble for lnLernaLlonal law and [usLlce
o SecreLarlaL - responslble for Lhe un's admlnlsLraLlve work

Mlllennlum developmenL goals were made ln SepLember 2000. 1hey are based on Lhe way
was ln 1990 and are Lo be achleved by 2013.
ln order Lo achleve Lhese goals, rlcher naLlons were expecLed Lo glve supporL Lo poorer
naLlons ln 3 maln ways:
o rovlde ald Lo poorer counLrles
o Allow free Lrade by removlng resLrlcLlons such as subsldles and Larlffs
o rovlde debL rellef Lo poor counLrles who owe rlch counLrles large sums of money
Coals:
o 1 - LradlcaLe exLreme poverLy and hunger
o 2 - Achleve unlversal prlmary educaLlon
o 3 - romoLe gender equallLy and empower women
o 4 - 8educe chlld morLallLy
o 3 - lmprove maLernal healLh
o 6 - CombaL Plv/AluS, malarla and oLher dlseases
o 7 - Lnsure envlronmenLal susLalnablllLy
o 8 - uevelop a global parLnershlp for developmenL

1he Cverseas uevelopmenL AsslsLance (CuA) goal ls 0.7 of Cul.
CounLrles whlch meeL Lhls are norway, Luxembourg, uenmark, Sweden and Lhe
neLherlands.
AusLralla offers 0.23.
V>+?K V;?K?;G4 GD0K
1he WWl ls a non-governmenL organlsaLlon. lL promoLes ecologlcal susLalnablllLy Lo help
meeL Lhe needs of Lhe presenL wlLhouL compromlslng Lhe ablllLy of fuLure generaLlons Lo
meeL Lhelr own needs.
1he WWl uses a dlverslLy of meLhods Lo lnfluence Lhe global communlLy Lo conLrlbuLe
flnance Lo lLs pro[ecLs and encourages people Lo follow a susLalnable llfesLyle. 1hey lnclude
envlronmenLal educaLlon, advlslng governmenLs on envlronmenLal pollcy and organlslng
lnLernaLlonal campalgns.
WWl focuses on slx ma[or areas for long-Lerm conservaLlon - foresLs, fresh waLers, oceans
and coasLs, cllmaLe change, Loxlc chemlcals and specles.
rograms
o CllmaLe Change
o 1oxlc Chemlcals
o loresLs for llfe
o Llvlng waLers
o Lndangered seas
o Lndangered specles.
Coals:
o 2030 8lodlverslLy goal - blodlverslLy and naLural beauLy ls conserved
o 2030 looLprlnL goal - Lhe global fooLprlnL sLays wlLhln LarLh's susLalnablllLy.
8ecenL ro[ecLs
o klkorl 8asln ConservaLlon, Savlng Lhe Amazon.
A8.A;K 7AB4 B<DK;4B
8anda Aceh Lsunaml rellef
o 8oxlng uay 2004, a Lsunaml caused mass desLrucLlon up Lo 6-7km lnland of 8anda
Aceh, lndonesla.
o AusLrallan governmenL provlded lmmedlaLe ald -
food, waLer and medlcal ald were prlorlLles
o MlllLary personnel asslsLed Lhrough clean up, brlnglng supplles
o 1ralnlng people was lmporLanL - Leachers, pollcemen, vlllage chlefs
Solomon uocLors - Ponlara
o Ponlara ls Lhe caplLal of Lhe Solomon lslands
o SunllghL causes many caLaracL relaLed healLh problems such as bllndness
o uocLors from AusAlu perform surgery around Lhe area Lo resLore slghL
o asslng on advlce Lo local medlcal sLaff
o lunded by AusAlu.
vleLnam WaLer - Panol
o ln Lhe weL season, Lhe Mekong 8lver rlses slgnlflcanLly, causlng floodlng.
o Much of Lhe waLer ls undrlnkable.
o AusAlu provldes fresh waLer and sanlLaLlon servlces.
o Women are LaughL llfe-savlng and C8 skllls