TOPIC 3 CHEMICAL BONDING

TYPE OF CHEMICAL BONDS

CHEMICAL BONDS

Interatomic Bonds ionic (electrovalent) metallic covalent & dative

Intermolecular Forces van der Waals forces permanent dipoledipole interactions hydrogen bonds

IONIC BONDING

THE IONIC BOND

The IONIC BOND is the electrostatic force of attraction between two oppositely charged ions formed as a result of the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another.

THE IONIC BONDING

Metal atoms have low ionisation energies and tend to lose electrons easily to form positive ions (cations). Non-metallic elements have high electron affinities and tend to gain electrons to form negative ions (anions). The cations and anions formed, being oppositely charged are attracted together by strong electrostatics forces. These forces are called IONIC BONDS.

THE IONIC BONDING

Formation of sodium chloride,NaCl Cation (Na+) Electronic configuration of Na = 1s22s22p63s1 Na atom can attain a full outer shell of 8 electrons by losing an electron from the 3s orbital to form a Na+ ion. Na Na+ + e2.8.1 2.8

THE IONIC BONDING

Anion (Cl-) Electronic configuration of Cl = 1s22s22p63s23p5 Cl atom can attain a full outer shell of 8 electron by gaining an electron from the Na atom to form a Clion. Cl + eCl2.8.7 2.8.8

1s22s22p63s1 2.8.1

1s22s22p63s23p5 2.8.7

1s22s22p6 2.8

1s22s22p63s23p6 2.8.8

An electron is transferred from the 3s orbital of sodium to the 3p orbital of chlorine both species end up with the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas the resulting ions are held together in a crystal lattice by electrostatic attraction

THE IONIC BOND

Formation of Magnesium chloride

e
Cl

Mg

ELECTRON TRANSFER

Cl

e
Mg > 2.8.2 Mg2+ + 2e 2.8 and 2Cl + 2e 2.8.7 > 2 Cl 2.8.8

IONIC BONDING
Animations

SODIUM CHLORIDE

Na

Cl

SODIUM ATOM 2,8,1

CHLORINE ATOM 2,8,7

SODIUM CHLORIDE

+ Na

Cl

SODIUM ION 2,8

CHLORIDE ION 2,8,8

both species now have full outer shells; ie they have the electronic configuration of a noble gas

SODIUM CHLORIDE

+ Na

Cl

SODIUM ION 2,8

CHLORIDE ION 2,8,8

Na
2,8,1

Na+
2,8

e
ELECTRON TRANSFERRED

Cl
2,8,7

Cl
2,8,8

MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE

Cl

Mg

CHLORINE ATOMS 2,8,7

MAGNESIUM ATOM 2,8,2

Cl

MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE

Cl

Mg

2+

CHLORIDE IONS 2,8,8

MAGNESIUM ION 2,8

Cl

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Hard, Brittle (Ionic solid) Reason : powerful electrostatic forces that hold the ions in place throughout the crystal.

Brittle = when the crystal is tapped sharply along a particular plane, one layer of ions is displaced relative to the next and ions of similar charge then come together and repel each other forcing apart the two portions of the crystal.
High melting point & boiling point Reason : freeing the ions from their lattice positions (melting) and vaporising them (boiling) requires large amounts of energy. Do not conduct electricity in the solid state Reason : an ionic solid consist of immobilised ions which the ions are held in fixed positions and are not free to move. ~ when it melts or dissolves in water, the ions are free to move and conduct an electric current. Solubility Insoluble in non-polar solvents but soluble in water

METALLIC BONDING

THE METALLIC BOND

The METALLIC BOND is the electrostatic force of attraction that two neighbouring metal ions have for the delocalised electrons between them.

METALLIC BONDING
Involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons Metal atoms achieve stability by off-loading electrons to attain the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas. These electrons join up to form a mobile cloud which prevents the newlyformed positive ions from flying apart due to repulsion between similar charges.

METALLIC BONDING
Involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons
Metal atoms achieve stability by off-loading electrons to attain the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas. These electrons join up to form a mobile cloud which prevents the newly-formed positive ions from flying apart due to repulsion between similar charges.

Atoms arrange in regular close packed 3-dimensional crystal lattices.

The outer shell electrons of each atom leave to join a mobile cloud or sea of electrons which can roam throughout the metal. The electron cloud binds the newlyformed positive ions together.

METALLIC BOND STRENGTH

Depends on the number of outer electrons donated to the cloud and the size of the metal atom/ion.

Na

The strength of the metallic bonding in sodium is relatively weak because each atom donates just one electron to the cloud.

The metallic bonding in potassium is weaker than in sodium because the resulting ion is larger and the electron cloud has a bigger volume to cover so is less effective at holding the ions together. The metallic bonding in magnesium is stronger than in sodium because each atom has donated two electrons to the cloud. The greater the electron density holds the ions together more strongly.

Mg

METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals are excellent conductors of electricity

For a substance to conduct electricity it must have mobile ions or electrons. Because the ELECTRON CLOUD IS MOBILE, electrons are free to move throughout its structure. Electrons attracted to the positive end are replaced by those entering from the negative end.

MOBILE ELECTRON CLOUD ALLOWS THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY

METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals can have their shapes changed relatively easily

MALLEABLE DUCTILE

CAN BE HAMMERED INTO SHEETS CAN BE DRAWN INTO RODS AND WIRES

As the metal is beaten into another shape the delocalised electron cloud continues to bind the ions together.

Some metals, such as gold, can be hammered into sheets thin enough to be translucent.

METALLIC PROPERTIES
HIGH MELTING POINTS
Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate the individual particles. In metals it is a measure of how strong the electron cloud holds the positive ions. The ease of separation of ions depends on the... ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE PERIODS m.pt b.pt Na (2,8,1) 98C 890C Na+ < Mg (2,8,2) 650C 1110C Mg2+ < Al (2,8,3) 659C 2470C Al3+

MELTING POINT INCREASES ACROSS THE PERIOD THE ELECTRON CLOUD DENSITY INCREASES DUE TO THE GREATER NUMBER OF ELECTRONS DONATED PER ATOM. AS A RESULT THE IONS ARE HELD MORE STRONGLY.

METALLIC PROPERTIES
HIGH MELTING POINTS
Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate the individual particles. In metals it is a measure of how strong the electron cloud holds the positive ions. The ease of separation of ions depends on the... ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE GROUPS m.pt b.pt Li (2,1) 181C 1313C Li+ < Na (2,8,1) 98C 890C Na+ < K (2,8,8,1) 63C 774C K+

MELTING POINT DECREASES DOWN A GROUP IONIC RADIUS INCREASES DOWN THE GROUP. AS THE IONS GET BIGGER THE ELECTRON CLOUD BECOMES LESS EFFECTIVE HOLDING THEM TOGETHER SO THEY ARE EASIER TO SEPARATE.

COVALENT BOND

HYDROGEN

H
atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond

Hydrogen atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell

A hydrogen MOLECULE is formed Another hydrogen atom also needs one electron to complete its outer shell

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

H H

COVALENT BOND
A Covalent Bond is the electrostatic force of attraction that two neighbouring nuclei have for a localised pair of electrons shared between them.

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Cl
atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond Chlorine atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell

Hydrogen atom also needs one electron to complete its outer shell

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

H Cl

Cl

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

METHANE

H
Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to complete its outer shell

H C H
H

C
A carbon atom needs 4 electrons to complete its outer shell Carbon shares all 4 of its electrons to form 4 single covalent bonds

H
H
H

H C H

AMMONIA
WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

H
Each hydrogen atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell

N
H

H
H H

Nitrogen can only share 3 of its 5 electrons otherwise it will exceed the maximum of 8 A LONE PAIR REMAINS Nitrogen atom needs 3 electrons to complete its outer shell

H N H H

WATER
WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE Each hydrogen H atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell H

H
H O H
Oxygen can only share 2 of its 6 electrons otherwise it will exceed the maximum of 8 2 LONE PAIRS REMAIN Oxygen atom needs 2 electrons to complete its outer shell

HYDROGEN

both atoms need one electron to complete their outer shell

atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond

DOT AND CROSS DIAGRAM

H H

METHANE H H H H H
atom needs four electrons to complete its outer shell

C
H
each atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell

C
H

Carbon shares all 4 of its electrons to form 4 single covalent bonds

H
DOT AND CROSS DIAGRAM

H H C H

H C H H

AMMONIA

H H

N
atom needs three electrons to complete its outer shell each atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell

N
H

Nitrogen can only share 3 of its 5 electrons otherwise it will exceed the maximum of 8 A LONE PAIR REMAINS

H N H H

N
H

WATER

O
H
atom needs two electrons to complete its outer shell each atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell

O
H

Oxygen can only share 2 of its 6 electrons otherwise it will exceed the maximum of 8

TWO LONE PAIRS REMAIN

H O H

O H

OXYGEN

each atom needs two electrons to complete its outer shell

each oxygen shares 2 of its electrons to form a DOUBLE COVALENT BOND

COVALENT BOND

Dative bond (or Co-ordinate Bond)

a covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons) in which both electrons come from the same atom.

COVALENT BOND

Sigma bond
Formed when the orbitals of two atoms have head to head overlapping.

COVALENT BOND

Pi bond
Formed when the p orbitals of two atoms have side to side overlapping.

Shape of Simple Molecules Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR)

1.Electrons pairs (bond pairs and lone pairs) repel each other and move as far apart as possible. 2. Lone pairs of electrons repel more than boding pairs.

3. The repulsion between electron pairs is increased by the increase in electronegativity of the central atom.

Electronegativity
The ability of an atom to attract the pair of electrons in a covalent bond to itself. Pauling Scale - a scale for measuring electronegativity - values increase across periods - values decrease down groups - fluorine has the highest value INCREASE

INCREASE

H
2.1

Li
1.0

Be
1.5

B
2.0

C
2.5

N
3.0

O
3.5

F
4.0

Na
0.9

Mg
1.2

Al
1.5

Si
1.8

P
2.1

S
2.5

Cl
3.0

K
0.8

Br
2.8

Polar Covalent Bond

Non-polar bond - similar atoms have the same electronegativity they will both pull on the electrons to the same extent the electrons will be equally shared Polar bond - different atoms have different electronegativities
One will pull the electron pair closer to its end it will be slightly more negative than average, The other atom will be slightly less negative, or more positive, + a dipole is formed and The bond is said to be polarised (has a dipole) Greater the electronegativity difference, the greater the polarity

Example: hydrogen fluoride, HF, F(4.0), H(2.1)

POLAR MOLECULES
A molecule is polar (has a dipole moment) if its bond is polarised & it is not symmetrical
Occurrence - not all molecules containing polar bonds are polar overall - if bond dipoles cancel each other out the molecule wont be polar - if there is a net dipole the molecule will be polar

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

TETRACHLOROMETHANE

WATER

NET DIPOLE - POLAR

NON-POLAR

NET DIPOLE - POLAR

 Determine whether the following molecules are polar or non-polar: NH3 AlCl3 CH3Cl CO2

Intermolecular Forces

Introduction
Other than the covalent bonds in the molecule, there are also forces holding the molecules together

Intermolecular Forces between Covalent Bond

There are 3 general intermolecular forces:
Van der Waals forces Dipole-Dipole Attraction Hydrogen Bonds

Van der Waals Forces

forces of attraction between non-polar molecules, which arise due to induced (temporary) dipole attraction.

Van der Waals Forces

Also known as Temporary Dipole-Dipole Forces, Dipole-Induced Dipole Attraction, London Forces or Dispersion forces Momentary dipoles occurring due to uneven electron distributions in neighbouring molecules as they approach one another This gives rise to a temporary dipole (induces dipole in neighbouring molecules)

Van der Waals Forces

are very weak forces of attraction The strength of van der Waals depends on: - Number of electrons in the molecule (No. of e- , stronger forces) - Shape of the molecule ( Branching reduces the strength of the forces) e.g penthane vs 2,2-dimethylpropane The strength of the van der Waals forces increases with the total number of electrons in the molecule.
Boiling points of hydrides
Mr Boiling point C -161 -117 -90 -50 Boiling point increase when the number of electrons increases

CH4 SiH4 GeH4 SnH4

16 32 77 123

Dipole-Dipole Attraction
Due to the difference in the electronegativity occur between molecules that have permanent dipoles - polar molecules partial positive charge on one molecule is electrostatically attracted to the partial negative charge on a neighbouring molecule stronger intermolecular forces than van der Waals Example: HCl

Hydrogen Bonding
When a hydrogen atom is covalently attached to a very electronegative atom (N, O and F), the hydrogen atom can form a hydrogen bond with another very electronegative atom, which has a lone pair of electron The strongest intermolecular force The molecules which have this extra bonding are:

Hydrogen Bonding in Ammonia

Hydrogen Bonding in Water

. ______

Hydrogen bonding

Covalent bonding

http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/hydr ogenbonds.html

HYDROGEN BONDING in ICE

hydrogen bonding

ice has a diamond-like structure

Hydrogen Bonding in Hydrogen Fluoride

d
F H

d d+ d
F

d
H

F H

d+ d
F

d+
H

hydrogen bonding

BOILING POINTS OF HYDRIDES

100

H2O
The higher than expected boiling points of NH3, H2O and HF are due to intermolecular HYDROGEN BONDING HF

BOILING POINT / C

0 50 100 140

Mr

NH3

GROUP IV GROUP V GROUP VI GROUP VII

-160

Properties of Hydrogen Bonding

Solubility in water - form H bond with water soluble - more H bond more soluble Unusually high boiling point - more energy is needed to overcome the strong H bond Anomalous relative molecular masses - Mr found by measurement in the vapour phase or in organic solvents, Mr are twice large than expected. Reason : Dimerisation take place Intermolecular & intramolecular H bond e.g 2-nitrophenol (214C) vs 4-nitrophenol (279C)