Etymology and Magic: Yska's Nirukta, Plato's Cratylus, and the Riddle of Semantic Etymologies Author(s): Johannes Bronkhorst

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AND THE RIDDLE OF SEMANTIC ETYMOLOGIES* CRATYLUS, JOHANNES BRONKHORST

Summary Semantic from areto be distinguished historical A hisetymologies etymologies. torical theorigin orearly ofa word. Semantic etymology presents history etymologies do something different. one wordwithone or moreothTheyconnect completely erswhich to elucidate arebelieved itsmeaning. Semantic arepractically etymologies - suchas in pre-modern in somecultures universal and there are treatises cultures, in ancient Ydska's Nirukta in ancient Greece- thatspecifIndia,Plato's Cratylus This article addresses thequestion how modemscholarship icallydeal withthem. shouldtry to understand semantic It is argued that, etymologizing. beinga universal semantic is inneedof a universal phenomenon, etymologizing explanation. Drawing from certain itis proposed tostudy this inspiration phenomphilosophies, pre-modern enoninthelight ofanother ofphenomena that is often called"magical". category

ETYMOLOGYANDMAGIC: PLATO'S YASKA'SNIRUKTA,

1. andPlato'sCratylus Yaska's Nirukta aretwotexts which belongto different cultures and Greece and (India entirely respectively) which withone and the same problem. deal essentially Both tryto bring - notonly order toa phenomenon which is extremely in wide-spread ancient Indiaandearly butinprobably all pre-modern cultures Greece, - thephenomenon ofwhat I willcall "semantic etymologizing". A semantic is to be froma historical etymology distinguished A historical theorigin orearly etymology. etymology presents history of a word;it tellsus, forexample, a wordin a modemlanguage that is derived fromanother wordbelonging to an earlier language,or to an earlier of the same The word militant, stage language. English forexample, is derived from Latinmilitans theintermediary through
* I thank for theeditors ofNumen useful criticism. NUMEN,Vol.48

BrillNV,Leiden(2001) @ Koninklijke

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militant. from of French And theHindipronoun maim'I' is derived Prakrit mae Semantic Sanskrit 1998: (Oberlies, 17). maya through do different. connect one word with one something They etymologies whichare believed to elucidate itsmeaning. The god or moreothers forexample, to theVedictext called has that nameaccording Rudra, (6.1.3.10),becausehe cried(rud-)in one story SatapathaBrahmana that is toldabouthim.Semantic tellus nothing aboutthe etymologies ofa word, butsomething aboutitsmeaning. history Semantic have thesedays. etymologies largely goneoutoffashion Most sensiblepeople have seriousdoubtsaboutthe possibility of of word it with the other, finding meaning just any by comparing moreor less similar words. We tolerate suchsemantic etymologizing from who indulgein it quitefreely, as JeanPiaget(1925) children, and others after himhave shown. We are less tolerant withrespect to adultswho do so; theperson who analyzesthewordcontentment as concerning content with or with tea (content-men-t), is men, being as schizophrenic categorized bymodeminvestigators, perhaps rightly SO.1 in all pre-modem And yetsemantic are wide-spread etymologies cultures. Hereare a fewexamples from somecultures different from andclassicalIndia2: ancient In theSumerian of Enkiand Ninhursag theformer is cured myth whenNinhursag causes deitiesto be borncorresponding to Enki's sick members: "The correspondence between the sick member and thehealing on the ... rests of the ancient scribes; deity etymologizing theSumerian wordforthesickorgan contains at leastone syllable in common with thenameof thedeity. Thuse.g. one of theorgans that theSumerian word forwhich is ka,and painedEnkiwas the'mouth', 1So Werner andKaplan(1963: 259),citing a patient ofMariaLorenz(1961: 604). 2 Severalstudies collectand discusssemantic from Vedicandpostetymologies VedicIndianliterature, 1969;Dange, 1989;Deeg, 1995; e.g. Balbir,1991;Bhavasar, DiksR,1989; Gonda,1955; Kahrs,1998; Kantawala, 1967; 1973; 1993; Mehendale, 1963; Norman, 1980; Schneider, 1954; Shastri, 1997; Simson,1988; Singh,1952; 1991. Singh,1994;Tsuji,1977;Verma,

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created to alleviate the thedeity thispainis calledNinkasi;similarly, alleviate of born to the the the Sumerian word for rib, goddess pain which etc."(Kramer, 1969:37 n. 13). Ninti, ti,is named twopyramids from An ancient text carved inside Egyptian dating "is fullof plays on words"such as: "O Atumthe 24th century of the ben... thou didstarise (weben) as the ben-bird Kheprer, stonein the Ben-Housein Heliopolis."(Wilson,1969: 3). Morenz in Egypt3 to many'word-plays' and ob(1957) refers (Wortspiele) Hochkulturen darf bemerkt serves: "Fir die alt-orientalischen werden, im Hebriiischen und dass im Akkadischen auch im (ddbar) (amrutu), Ausdruck 'Wort'und 'Sache' bezeich(md.t)derselbe Agyptischen net"(p. 24). Sauneron adds further andpoints 133 (1957: f.) examples to givean 'explanation' outthat of 'playson words'wereconsidered theworld. In theHebrew Bible etymologies are common, in conespecially nection withnames:Adamis linkedwithadama 'earth'(Gen. 2.7); from woman, man,ish(Gen.2.23); Cain from isha,is derived qaniti'I havegotten' etc. 1991: 163 (Gen.4.1); f.). (Bohl, Kirk theuse ofetymologies in Greek (1974: 57f.)emphasizes myths "The of the Homeric tradition were and states already (p. 58): poets the resemblance of the name to the verb 'Odysseus' by intrigued is 'I amangry'. . .. Pytho, theold namefor derived odussomai Delphi, toApollo,probably late in theseventh [in theHymn B.C.E.] century from theserpent there and allowed to rot, puthein. destroyed byApollo found it significant that one wordfora bow resembled ... Heraclitus related thenameof thewordfor'life' (bi6s andbios),andAeschylus Helento theidea that she 'tooktheships'(hele-naus), that ofApollo ofZeus tozen,'live'." Similar to apollunai, andthat efforts 'destroy', later at etymologizing characterize Greek antiquity.4 from medieval An example by thesecret Europeis provided spiritualorganization of theFedelid'Amore, whoserepresentatives were
3 See further Sander-Hansen, 1946,esp. p. 19 f. 4 Fora study inHomer, oftheetymologies see Rank,1951;also Kraus,1987:31 f. in Plutarch, see Strobach, 1997: 186 f. listofetymologies For an (incomplete)

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activein France, the 12thcentury onward. and Belgiumfrom Italy, to used a in order their of love hidden They language keep mystery secret. Love forthem is a soteriological the means,and accordingly word amor'love' is interpreted as a-mor'without death':
A senefie ensa partie et mor senefie mort; Sans, Orl'assemblons, s'aurons sansmort.5

Caesariusof Heisterbach of (ca. 1170-ca.1240) givesan explanation theword mors'death'inhisDialogueon Miracles:6

thetransgression of thefirst death entered intotheworld. created, Through Hencedeath received itsname from As soonas man (mors) (morsus). 'biting' bit(momordit) the ofthe heincurred forbidden death andsubjected tree, apple himself as wellas hiswhole toitsnecessity. Death is alsosaidtohave posterity as itis said, come from 'bitterness' nopain inthis life is because, (amaritudine), more bitter than the and Elsewhere of soul. he the word separationbody explains puer'boy':"Puer ('boy')signifies purus ('pure')".7

The Chineselanguage, withits manyhomonyms, is particularly to connect suited that havethesame name;thelink unrelated things withwhatwe call semantic seems obvious.Indeed, etymologizing "Han commentators in their applieda formof correlative thought the meaning of obscure studies, philological frequently explaining characters on the that a sound corby analogy assumption phonetic indicated a semantic relation".8 "Sometimes comrespondence highly circular of life shou emblems or had plex [symbols long immortality] into their a swastika wan),toexpress incorporated design (pronounced ofwanshou, 'tenthousand oflong bya puntheconcept meaning years life'."Similarly: "The endless knot[was] interpreted ... as symbolizing Buddha'sintestines (ch'ang). ...[S]ince its name,ch'ang,made
a pun on the word forlong, the whole figure... symbolized [to the
5 See Eliade, 1986: 112. 6 CitedinZaleski,1988:50. 7 CitedinZaleski,1988:52. 8 Henderson, 1984: 19-20.

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laterChinese]a long life ...,"9 etc. Emperor WangMang "had the of 'screen-walls' of the Wei and theYen tombs the fu-ssu parks pulled not 'think thepeopleshould down,so that again'fu-ssu(of theHan 1949: 126). An examplecloserto our Dynasty)" (Ts'eng Chu-shen, time is found in theweekly Newsweek ofJuly 6, 1987,p. 18: journal new Sir David bowedto loBritish Wilson, governor, "HongKong's cal tradition hisCantonese name, bychanging Ngai Tak-ngai, shortly Its before office last characters were for assuming April. homophones thephrase 'so hypocritical it'sdangerous'; hisnewmoniker, Wai Yikmeans and more shun, 'guardianship' 'trust', conjuring up soothing residents imagestocolony ..." An examplefrom records is thefollowing: ethnographic Among theinhabitants of theTrobriand islandsthewordvatuvi occursin a This wordhas no grammatical it is neither form; magicalformula.10 nounnorverb.Malinowski (1935: II: 249, cf. p. 260-61) observes: "therealetymological ofthis wordwilldefine itas connected identity with ortheprefix andtheword 'toinstitute', 'to vitawo, vitu-, vituvatu, setup', 'to direct', 'to show'.[Ithas] also.... fortuitous, butmagically associations with 'coralreef', andthe vatu,'coralboulder', significant more orlessrealword 'to foment', 'to makeheal'."'1 va-tuvi, has an etymology The word'etymology' itself whichpresents its as that the of 'discourse makes known true a meaning meaning word', from Greeketumos'true'and logos 'word'. In other if we words, had to decidewhichof thetwo,historical or semantic etymologies shouldmostappropriately be called etymologies, there etymologies, can be no doubtthat thehistorical would have to search for linguist another term.
this 1962:98,99-100.I thank Ms. Michble Boinfor andthefollowing 9Cammann, reference. it as themostimportant formula in 10Malinowski (1935: I: 96, II: 257) describes all Omarakana garden magic. thelast association, Malinowski observes va-tuvi, (p. 260-61): "As 11Regarding of fact, a matter one or two natives... gave me thisexplanation of thewordwhen madetheassociation uponthespell."It is notclearwhether anynative commenting with vatuexplicit.

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illustrated raises The omnipresence ofsemantic above, etymologies, whatdo these mean?whatarethey etymologies important questions: do invent them? to and how? why people supposed explain deal withtheseand related Ydska's Nirukta and Plato's Cratylus I will present thepositions of thesetwo texts, beginning questions. I willbriefly After that discusstheissuehowwe,in with theNirukta. deal with the21stcentury, should thesesamequestions. a 'limb of the Veda' Firstthe Nirukta. This textis considered theVeda. one oftheauxiliary sciencesneededto interpret (veddriga), It can approximately be datedonthebasisofthefollowing reflections. Thereis reasonto believethatYdska knewPanini'sgrammar and that musttherefore be datedlaterthan famous (Thieme, grammarian is 1935: *23*-*24*(530-31); Bronkhorst, 1984: 8 f.). The Nirukta knownto Patafijali's and is therefore older thanthat Mahdbhis~ya, themiddle text.12 The Mahabhasyawas composedin or soon after of thesecondcentury before thecommon era (Cardona,1976: 266), and tobelong middle ofthefourth before tothe century appears Pni."ni it(Hintiber, thecommon era,ortothedecennia immediately following in between, we so that 1989: 34-35;Falk, 1993: 304). Ydskamustfit 250 B.C.E., whichis well after most may date him approximately Vedictexts, hadbeen theproseportions calledBrahmanas, including composed. The Nirukta triesto make sense of, and bringorderinto,the is common in theVedicBrihmanas. We semantic that etymologizing will see that in doingso it secularizes and rationalizes thispractice. In order to appreciate we haveto first look at semantic thisprocedure, as we find itin theBrahmanas: etymologizing In etymologizing itin theVedic the as we find Brthmanas following can be observed: features
12Cp. e.g. Limaye,1974:9, 14, 15,93.

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in theVedicage weremorethan mereintellectual 1) Etymologies itwill amusement. them was believed to be Knowing important: them secure those whoknow various advantages. There is a close connection between and myths. 2) etymologies almost without to refer, Etymological exception, 'explanations' deal witha hiddendimension often of linguistic 3) Etymologies hidden of reveal reality: they layers language. is notconfined ofetymologies for eachword tojust 4) The number one.14 Each ofthese couldbe illustrated with thehelpofnumerous features will To I givejustoneortwoexamples examples. keepsthings simple, for each. ad 1) Some passagesare quiteexplicit abouttheimportance and The of knowing certain one advantage etymologies.15 following is from theTaittirtya 1979: 13):16 Witzel, (3.11.8.7-8;tr. Brahmana
fee(daksind). (thecreator god) didnotknowhowtogivethesacrificial Praj~pati He tookit,speaking He put it in his right hand(daksinah). theritual formula fee (daksind).'(mantra):'For fitness (daksa) I take you, the sacrificial Therefore he becamefit(adaksata).The one who knowing thus receives the sacrificial fee(daksind), becomesfit (daksate).

myths.13

This passage clearly that theetymological linkwhichsupindicates the sacrificial fee (daksind), theright hand posedlyexistsbetween
13Oneis here ofstudying reminded method" ofMax Miiller's "etymological myths. See vanden Bosch, 1993: 188 f. In a lecture delivered at theUniversity of Oslo on that 9, 1996,EivindKahrshas suggested February mayhavebeeninfluenced Miiller on divinities ofYiska's Nirukta. likeMiiller's has method bythechapters Something inthepresent still beenusedbysomeauthors see Kraus,1987: 17. century; 14Cf. Deeg, 1995: 397 f. The same is trueforancient Greece;see Lallot,1991: forone word: Atfocusa flammis 137 f. Ovid givesat times twoetymologies et quod tire omnia dictus sonnomdes flammes etdu fait tout"; ("le foyer fouet qu'il r6chauffe ofone andthesamewordare 1991: 155). Various rabbinical Desbordes, etymologies simultaneously presented; B6hl,1991:162. 15Cp. Deeg, 1995:411 f. 16Cf.Gonda,1991: 177.

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Thisknowledge andfitness (daksina), guar(daksa),mustbe known. the sacrificial received becomes that he whoknows, antees fee, having to find the is more a mere intellectual fit. here than help Etymology at all. it is no such more of a Etymolothing meaning word; precisely, between the links between and therefore reveal words, objects they gies itis advantageous toknow. links which denote, illustrates that ad 2) Thepassage explanation justcited etymological to myths. Occasionallyit appearsthat usuallyinvolvesreference This maybe illustrated have givenrise to myths.17 by etymologies both 3.6.1.8-9:"Now,thegodsand theAsuras, SatapathaBrahmana Thenall theplants werecontending. of them from Prajipati, sprung thegods,butthebarley alone wentnotfrom wentawayfrom plants of these The godsthen means them. [barley-grains] prevailed: by they andbecausethey tothemselves all theplants oftheir attracted enemies; are calledyava attracted from therefore (ayuvata, yu) therewith, they 'barley"'(tr. Eggeling). is revealed inSatapatha ad 3) A hidden oflanguage Brahmana layer
6.1.1.2:18 those[other] vitalairsfrom themidst; kindled and Indra, byhispower(indriya),

the kindler heis the kindler inasmuch as hekindled indeed, (indha): (indh), the love the him call'Indra' for they cryptically, gods cryptic.19

notIndra.We learnfrom We learnthat Indra's'real' nameis Indha, thisandmany other that and things persons (including gods) passages to their essence.Thisrealname havea realnamewhichcorresponds It seemsclear is sometimes "forthegods love thecryptic". hidden, andhuman use 'incorrect' forms that boththegodsthemselves beings
17Cf.Devasthali, tobe based certain 1965: 13 f.Also inancient Egypt myths appear see Malaise, 1983. on etymologies; 18See inthis "Les dieuxn'ont Charles Malamoud's article connection pas d'ombre: sur des dieux dans l'Inde ancienne": Malamoud 1989: la remarques languesecrete in 1984 30-31,p. 86-94). 241-252, (Traverses originally published 19Deeg (1995: 406 n. 302) pointsout thatthese'secretive' are not etymologies confined to Vedicexpressions, as had been claimedby Bhavasarin an unpublished dissertation doctoral (Poona, 1969).

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suchas Indra.Sometimes however thegods aresaid touse thecorrect human forms. So at Satapatha forms, only beingsusingincorrect by means Brahmana1.1.4.4:"He takestheskinof a black antelope of [theformula] 'thouartprotection, [a bestower of]bliss(farman)', for is itsnameamong butsarman is that usedamong the carman men, Gonda,1988:248). gods"(tr. ad 4) Different of one and the same word (often etymologies metwith,sometimes a name) are frequently even in one and the A passagefrom same text. the?atapathaBrahmana (10.6.5.5) links thename Aditito therootad. But another the same passage from Br5hmana has an altogether different (7.4.2.7): "Aditi explanation is theearth, forthisearth here."Besides gives(dadate) everything theetymology of Indradiscussedabove (fromindh),the Taittirrya an altogether different one: "No one Brahmana(2.2.10.4) offers in him. That is why he is withstood this power(idam indriyam) called 'Indra'."Twodifferent ofone wordin one andthe etymologies samepassageoccuratSatapatha Brihmana11.1.6.7:"Thegodswere created on entering thesky;andthis is thegodhead ofthegods(deva) that were created on the them, they entering sky(div).Havingcreated there from him(i.e. Prajipati); andthisalso is was,as itwere, daylight ofthegodsthat, thegodhead after there them, was,as itwere, creating for him" (diva) (tr. daylight Eggeling). in theBr5hmanas werebelieved to Summing up: The etymologies to connections between that are hidden. objects bring light normally words can revealthoseconnections. Similarities between Moreoften than nottheseconnections with linktheobjects concerned themythowith a which is not toour accessible realm, i.e., logical reality directly senses.The factthat fora singlewordare fremultiple etymologies met that the connections with their established quently with, suggests than a onetoonecorrespondence. a network rather The helpconstitute ofthese is that allowmantoobetymologies they practical advantage tainknowledge withthehidden This abouttheseconnections reality. itrepeatedly is of great knowledge thetexts emphasize importance:itcan convey ofadvantages tohimwhoknows. a number

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r6sum6 showsthe extent to whichtheetymologies of This short of fit in with other the that theBr5hmanas religion expresses aspects thesetexts. It is notonlythrough that the itself etymologies through links with the hidden realm of And establish mythology. it Brahmanas that is stated toconvey is notonly theknowledge ofetymological links Nor is of a network of numerous the idea connections advantages. In short, where theBrihmanas onlynoticeable etymologies. present in our study all thecharacteristic features thatrevealthemselves of theetymologies are also found in other of the aspectsofthereligion Brdihmanas. areestablished, Similar links noton thebasis ofverbal similarities, buton thebasis ofother similarities as well.20 MichaelWitzel(1979: 11 ff.),following Karl Hoffmann (1975-76: II: 524 f.), speaks of 'noems' and 'noematic to to traits that categories' refer objectsmay have in common, and whichare behindthe"identifications" which are so typical forthesetexts. In thepravargya for ritual, example, theglowing redpot is identified withthesun (Witzel,1979: 2), and thecommon features between thesetwoobjectsare easyto guess.In a morerecent Witzel publication putsit like this(1996: 169): "The matter as follows: ideas,entities maybe summarized anytwoobjects, witheach other can be linked connections of smaller by establishing them. Then or greater between are (bandhu, similarity they nidaina) - at least not onlyregarded as linked 'identical' butas essentially theframework within oftheritual. Whatever is doneto one objector the or affects The identifications cancover ... other. entity homologies a single entities involved (eventhenumber aspectof thetwoorthree
20 which setsthetonefor observation, (1989: 47) following Cp. BrianK. Smith's his bookReflections on Resemblance, Ritual,and Religion:"I wouldsuggest here, and will be at painsto provethoughout theremainder of thisstudy, that there is a center around whichall Vedicthought I willcall resolves. Thatcenter philosophical I believe,underlies and philosophical Vedic religious resemblance. [This]concept, discourse in itsentirety....Universal resemblance, entities, forces, whereby things, cosmicplanes- indeed, all thecomponents oftheuniverse as a wholeactivities, haveessential affinities torelated ourunderstanding ofthe others, helpsus toreform with Vedicpreoccupation andfinding connections." making

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of syllables of thewordsignifying or they can covera bothentities) of suchlinks. To discover them is theaim of muchof number larger in theBrihmana thediscussion text." style The following of Vedicthought in Brian characterization is found K. Smith's on Resemblance, and Religion(1989: Ritual, Reflections the "Connection thus immanent and thetran80-81): bring together in such a way thattheinaccessible is made accessibleby scendent theplayofresemblances, andthemanifest is fulfilled byparticipation in thetranscendent. The universal emitted from theCosmic elements, when onetoanother their actualized linked full, One,attain reality only of origin. and to their Such a composition based on connection point the into a of in which thesimpleand rejoins CosmicOne unity parts - whileremaining in thelimited and limited simple participates thewhole,theunlimited. Each particular 'nameandform' can realize itstrue nature itsplace in thischainof resemblance onlyby finding - or,rather, 'in all ofitscounterparts bybeing placed bondage'with under theumbrella oftheprototype. Universal resemblance keepssepits specific aratewhileit unifies, the economy regulated by avoiding extremes ofidentity andindividuality." inthis Boththenotion of"identification" andthat of"resemblance" connection havebeencriticized Wezler (1996),whodraws byAlbrecht tothefact attention that some"identifications" do notconnect with the the with transcendent. Sometimes also an realm, i.e., explicit mythical is which has to do with but resemblance, given nothing justification all themorewithother such as a causal link,or something factors, else.WhileWezler's observations contribute cautionary mayno doubt of thetextsconcerned, to a fuller there is no reason understanding of these"identifications," likemany of the as yetto doubtthat many a linkwiththetranscendent. establish Indeed,thefact etymologies, such an that resemblance role resemblance) (phonetic important plays - ifsuchwasneeded - in support intheetymologies, is an argument in at leasta considerable ofthe oftheimportance ofresemblance part "identifications."

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Johannes Bronkhorst
it was statedbeforetriesto make sense of, and

order these How does itdo so? Herewe have into, bring etymologies. to keep in mindthat a Vedic Brahmin, Ydska,beingmostprobably couldnotreject thevalidity of theseetymologies. Theirvalidity was, forhim, how havethey doubt. His question was rather: been beyond arrived at? and,how does one establish new ones? The factthat he asked thesequestionsand looked forgeneralrules underlying the of the no doubt intellectual Yaska's etymologies Brihmanas betrays distance from he tried theetymologies to understand. It is certainly no coincidence thatmost of the fourfeatures which characterize Vedic etymologizing and whichwere enumerated above,no longer characterize Yaska's procedure. His etymologies do not typically establish a linkwiththemythological realm;nor do theyas a rule reveal hidden of are butno longer for secret, layers language. They still theconcrete reasons forthisin theBrahmanas. The one feature given that remains validfor Ydska'setymologies is that there can be several for one word. etymologies It was pointed out above thatthe enumerated of Vedic features wellintoVedicreligion. fitted was very etymologizing Etymologizing one more of the links that to Vedic just way establishing according linkdifferent to thisand religious understanding objectsbelonging theother world. SinceinYdska'setymologies thereligious dimension withthemythological realm;access to a hidden (connection layerof has we that conclude Yaska's language) virtually disappeared, may religiousviews were no longerthose of the Vedic period.This, raisesthequestion what wouldbe for him. however, goodetymologies A number of rulesare formulated in the second chapter of the to helpthestudent Nirukta find on his own.21 The most etymologies important amongtheserulesis no doubttheone thatetymologizing of all, be guided first of thewordconcerned; should, by themeaning considerations role:"One should examphonetic playa less important ine [a word]beingintent with the of upon [its]meaning, help some in function Whennotevensucha simiother (with words). similarity
21Fora fulldiscussion, see Deeg, 1995: 78 f.

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on thebasisofsimilarity ina syllais present oneshould explain larity the of unknown sound"(Nirukta In case ble orin a single words, 2.1). inwhich occur(usually onelooksatthecontext a Vedic therefore, they as totheir so as togeta first hymn), meaning. impression Subsequently to words(they havetobe verbal onelooksforother forms, according to thewordunder theNirukta) whichare moreor less similar study. which comefirst. So a verbal form Semantic however, considerations, toa is lesssimilar butclosertotheexpected is tobe preferred meaning which thedesired more similar verbal form doesnotsupport meaning. which areknown tohaveseveral have Andwords also sevmeanings, eraletymologies. An example is theword wordgo is a name go: '"The for'earth' becauseitgoes(gata) far andbecauseliving beings go (gacon it.Or [itis a name] ofsomething22 which moves chanti) (gati).o [in a is nominal suffix. word is the name ofan aniMoreover, [the go] go] mal(viz. 'cow') for this samereason. is calledgo .... Also a bow-string inmotion ... becauseit setsarrows (Nirukta 2.5). Andif (gamayati)" verbal that resemble theword onedoesnotfind forms tobe explained, notbe discouraged. one should TheNirukta as towhy'etymologies' should be givesno explanation validat all. The explanation which has beenoffered most modem by of the that the tell us text, viz., something 'etymologies' interpreters thehistory about ofthewords is demonstrably incorrect.23 concerned, It appearsthat theauthor of theNirukta did notlook uponlanguage in as something This is notsurprising developing thecourseof time. in theIndiancontext; we knowthat theVeda,and therefore also the in which itis composed, cametobe lookeduponas eternal, language It not thatthisview existed is i.e., without beginning. impossible in thedays of theNirukta, centuries before the i.e., several already for of the era Classical unlike Christian India, (see above). beginning classicalGreece, couldbelievein theexistence of one 'real' example at ofit. all other reflections best, languages being, language, imperfect
22This interpretation of Sanskrit gaterva followsEivindKahrs,1984: ?12; cp. 1998: 115, 132-133. Kahrs, 23Thisis shown inBronkhorst, 1981;Kahrs,1983,1984.

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based of semantic One wayto account forthevalidity etymologies those who this between words(for on thesimilarity validity) accept such would be to claim thatthereare ultimate bearers, meaning as individual soundsor small groupsof them,each withits own this Plato'sCratylus does indeed explore possibility, meaning. specific does not adopt this the Nirukta as we will see below. However, of early Buddhisttexts,while a number Interestingly, position.24 mention theterm to Brahmanic aksaraprabheda referring learning, n. 6) translates Franke which 87 (1913: (Pali akkharappabheda),25 O. that the derSilben";thePali commentators specify "Unterscheidung one of them reference is to two forms of linguistic being analysis, the It that individual that idea sounds seems, therefore, etymologizing. or syllables havemeanings of their thispresumed fact own,and that in not ancient semantic was unknown India, explains etymologies, it. eventhough theNirukta doesnotmention The grammarian B.C.E.), themostauthori(2nd century Patafijali and subsequently on Pinini'sgrammar, considers tative commentator that theproposal individual soundshave meanings.26 Among rejects - following thereasons he adduces hispredecessor whose K5tyiyana, - is thefollowing: In grammatical he comments statements (varttika) and modification derivations there can be transposition, loss,addition of sounds.If soundshad meanings, thesemeanings, too,wouldunandmodification. Suchis nothowloss,addition dergo transposition, is ofparticular forYaska's everthecase. This argumentation interest, Nirukta the same reasons inorder had almost (2.1-2) exactly presented in etymologizing one is freeto transpose, to showthat add remove, that in theopinion of their sounds.Thisproves or modify practi24It does occasionallypresent 'deep' formswhich 'hide' behindthe surface forms;e.g. Nir. 1.1: te nigantavaeva santo nigamandn ucyantaity nighan.tava to Aupamanyava, these [lists of words]are called aupamanyav[ah]"According arequoted(nigamandt)." becausethey being really nigantus nighantus, 25See Bronkhorst, 1989: 129 f. 26Mahabhisya, vol.I p. 30-32. ed. F. Kielhorn, Bombay1880-1885,

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- neither tioners norgrammar couldpossibly arrive at etymologizing of individual sounds.27 meanings This does notmeanthat theidea of "real" meanings to attaching individual soundswas abandoned all in A ancient India. different by attitude and towards in particular, towards sacred utterances language, manifests itselfin the religiousliterature of India. This different in the deeper- some would say: mystical attitude is interested of theseutterances. theVedic textssometimes - meaning Already ascribesignificances to parts of wordsthat have nothing to do with their Forexample, thethree oftheword ordinary meanings. syllables are self' stated to to a threefold division pu-ru-sa 'person, correspond of theself:to be placed in theworldof thesacrificer, in theworld of theimmortal(?) in the and worldrespectively heavenly (Aitareya 3.46 The three of are 'heart' (15.2)). Brahmana syllables hr-da-yam as follows:"hr is one syllable.Bothhis own people and explained othersbring(hr) offerings unto him who knowsthis.da is one syllable.Both his own people and others give (da) untohimwho knowsthis. is one To the worldgoes (eti [pl. yam syllable. heavenly The 36,000 syllables of 1000 brhatr yanti])he who knowsthis."28 as of to a hundred hymns correspond manydays years,according to the Aitareya The seventeen (2.2.4). syllablesof the Aranyaka utterances o iravaya, astusrausat, yaja, ye yajamaheand vausatare theseventeenfold Brahmana 12.3.3.3). (Satapatha god Prajdpati Moredetailed aretwopassages from theChandogya The Upanisad. wordsatyam is said to consistof three 'truth' syllables sa-tf-yam;29 ti themortal, with sa(t) is theimmortal, yamthetwo are restrained ofud-gr(root yam-) (Chandogya Upanisad8.3.5).Thethree syllables
27Anexception must ofcourse be madefor suchverbal roots andother grammatical elements as consist ofjustone sound. 28Brhaddraciyaka Hume. Upanisad5.3; tr. 29tris thedual of ti,as Keith out.The analysis is (1909: 207) pointed sat-ti-yam also found in 2.1.5. For another 5.5.1, Aitareya Upanisad Aranyaka Brhaddranyaka of satyam see Brhaddranyaka (= sat + tyam), explanation Upanisad2.3, KausTtaki further 1995. Kudelska, Upanisad1.6,Taittirtya Upanisad2.6;

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- because tha'chanting oftheSimaveda'meanrespectively 'breath' it one stands - in and 'food' -, 'speech' (gtr), by up (uttisthati) - (Chandogya which all thisis established (sthita) Upanisad1.3.6). The secondofthesetwoanalyses tries to keepcontact with the'real' of the the first one does not even to concerned, syllables meanings try do so. The Brhaddranyaka a story is inter(5.2) that Upanisadcontains context. The gods,menand thedemonsdwelt estingin thepresent withfather as students of sacredknowledge. forinPrajipati Asking uttered thesamesyllable da to each ofthem. The struction, Prajipati understood this as 'restrain the men as datta damyata gods yourself', understood thissame syllable da as dayad'give',whilethedemons hvam'be compassionate'. The divinevoicewhichis thunder repeats thesame:da da da, which is: damyata, Therefore datta, dayadhvam. one should restraint (dama),liberality (dana) andcompassion practice thepassagedoes notexplainwhatis thepoint (daya). Unfortunately ofthisstory, andperhaps one should notattach too muchsignificance to it. It mayhowever be legitimate to surmise thatit attributes three different tothesingle which da, meanings syllable meanings normally themselves the of the words (or express through intermediary damyata dama),datta(ordana) anddayadhvam (ordayd).30 with Concern in theexplanation singlesyllables mayalso be visible of the word sarkara 'pebble' withthe help of the syllablesam 'welfare': sarkarais calledthus, whilewelfare us.31 (dam)befell An early indication that individual sounds were looked speech upon as possessing to Thieme(1985), in powersmaybe found, according thelastverse oftheMaitrayan is also thefirst which verse ya Samrhita, of the?aunakiyarecension of theAtharvaveda. This versereads:32
30Cp. Houben,1997: 70. 31Taittirtya tac charkarandm Brahmana1.1.3.7:Sam val no 'bhad iti/ ,arkaratvam/. 32Maitrayangya ~ 4.12.1 (ed. vonSchroeder Sarmhita p. 179 1. 14 f.) Atharvaveda vilvarupaini pariydnti (Paippalda) 1.6:y9trisaptdih (?aunakiya)1.1 - Atharvaveda tr.Thieme.Doubts bdla tdsamtan(a)v6 'dyddadhatume// bibhratath/ vacdspdtir

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"The thrice seventhatgo around, all the shapes- let the wearing LordofSpeechputtheir into Thieme today." powers mybody's[parts] that'thethrice seven' are thesoundsof languageand shows argues howthey and have a listof can, been,lookeduponas constituting may 21 elements. He then concludes units (p. 565 (938)): "Thebasicsound to ofthesacred the sacred number 'thrice seven', language, amounting are thebasic sacredelements of thesacredlanguage.Being sacred, areloadedwith them thebrahmacTirin they magicpowers. Rehearsing will notonlyobtainthetechnical of correctly and ability repeating what his teacher recites to he him, will, also, appropriate retaining thosemagicpowers:'May theLord of Speechputtheir into powers in at the of (or: mybody)today(i.e., mybody's[parts] beginning my vedicstudies)'." from These examples Vedicliterature33 pointtheway to a much more concern with the ofsmall wide-spread deeper significance groups ofsounds, andevenindividual sounds. It manifests itself in thespeculative ofthesacred andreaches its omandelsewhere, syllable analyses in certain Tantric which attribute a texts, apogee specific metaphysical to every soundof theSanskrit TheseTantric significance language.34
ofthis verse havebeenraisedbyDeshpande Thieme's (1997: regarding interpretation 33 f.). can be found in morerecent literature. The DevTBhagavata examples 33Similar Purana (9.1.6-7; citedand translated in Jacobsen, 1999: 26-27) explainstheword in two ways,thesecondone dividing thewordintothethree prakrti prasyllables "The pra-word meansthemostexcellent sattvaguna, kr meansthe middle kr-ti: is is rajas guna, and ti denotesthe tamasguna. She whose own nature trigun.a, endowedwithpowers. in creating, She is superior therefore she is called prakrti"' ca pra-Sabdo vartate madhyame rajasi kr?ca ti-gabdas (gunesattve prakrste Srutah/ tamasi yd sa ca Saktisamanvita/ pradhnadsrstikarane trigupatmasvarcapa sm.rtah// tena prakrtis kathyate//). 34See Padoux, 1990. These Tantric are not without developments precursors in Vedicliterature. for the thePaiicavimia See, example, following passage from Maha Brahmana) (= Tandiya (20.14.2) and JaiminTya (2.244; Brahmana Brahmahna close to,butnotidentical with alonewas here.Vic alonewas hisown; it): "Prajipati 'Let me sendforth thisVic. She will spread Vic was secondto him.He reflected, He all sent forth She all this.She Vic. forth, forth, pervading this.' spread pervading

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of Plato's 'priin a way,theIndiancounterpart present, speculations of the to and names' the sounds' Stoics, be discussed mary 'primary is a major difference. TheseTantric base below.Yetthere speculations which are utterances on so-calledbija-mantras, themselves primarily The metaphysical asmeanings meaning. usuallydevoidof ordinary to contribute to theindividual meant soundsarenot, therefore, signed them. No longer reto themeanings of ordinary wordsthat contain authors strained of ordinary use,theTantric bytheshackles language themeanings lancould establish of all the soundsof theSanskrit guage.35 It willbe clearthat Tantric arefar removed from these speculations We will theetymologies which form thesubject matter of thisstudy. in anydetail. Be ithowever noted that these them not, therefore, study in have the Kabala and Tantric Jewish similar parallels speculations from within removed Yet,though Islam.36 etymologies, developments from them. thesespeculations cannot be completely They separated outcome of theprocessof analysis which are,in a way,theultimate inthoseetymologies. found itsinspiration as to howInWheredoes thisleaveus with to thequestion regard dianthinkers semantic theVedicpeetymologies? During explained riodthevalidity of theseetymologies was notquestioned sincethey not confined to werebased on themoregeneral principle, language, - or even identical - witheach thatsimilar are connected things other. thethen this fellaway, but During following period justification
extended as a continuous stream of water. thesound] off a, he split upwards [Uttering off a third ofit- that becametheearth thesound]ka he split a [second] ... [Uttering - that ho he cast[the third becamethemidregions ... [Uttering thesound] last]third that became the 1994: The context heaven." (tr. 44). Holdrege, upwards provides described. no clue as towhy thesesoundhavetheeffect exactly 35See Padoux,1990: 235 ff.; Ruegg,1959: 108f. 36For theJewish G. Scholem,1983: 55-99 ("Le nom de Dieu ou la see Kabala, la dans du langage"); forSufism, see Schimmel, Kabale;mystique du langage th6orie in Sufiliterature"). Staal (1979: 7) briefly to 1975: 411 ff. refers ("Letter symbolism theparallelism Kabala and theTantric under consideration. between speculations

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on etymologizing. No satisfactory theoretical peoplewent justification was however the idea that worked even constituent out, though syllathemeanbles orsoundssomehow that for account possessmeanings invarious survived forms. ingofthewholeword 3. The situation in ancient Greeceis rather different from India,in that theGreeks successors did notlook upontheir andtheir language as theonlytruelanguage.37 matters This complicated considerably, thatthisfactis partly forthe and it is not impossible responsible was often theproblem relatively suspicious wayin which approached in theWestern Yetthere is a respectable listofthinkers who tradition. it.38 themselves with occupied Plato's Cratylus fullinvestigation is thefirst of 'etymologies' that In this in a discussion has survived. Socrates is engaged with dialogue twoother is and It but characters, Cratylus Hermogenes. possible, not inrealliferepresented that an 'etymologist'; itseems certain, Cratylus however thatthe 'etymological' view have certain of did real point in it,initially Plato'sdialogue, of Socrates i.e., theperson supporters. of seems to support but in the it it, process working out in detail changes position. inthedialogue Thebasicquestion is whether discussed "everything has a right name39 ofitsown, which comesbynature" (383a). Arguing is thecase,Socrates that this is ledtoconclude that theinitial lawgivers knew"howto embody and syllables that in thesounds namewhich is fitted nature for each 'Lord of the object"(389b). Astyanax by city', son the ruler forexample, the name of the of Hector of is being Troy, as he Thisexample (385bf.),true. (392d-e)or, saysearlier appropriate takesus right intotheanalysis of wordsin viewof determining their
37Note thatright of Plato's dialogueof thatname,Cratylus at thebeginning is in names, as holding there is a kindofinherent correctness theview"that presented which all men, andbarbarians" is thesamefor both Greeks (383a). 38See Kraus,1987;Lallot,1991. 39Rijlaarsdam theuse oftheword'name' (6noma). (1978: 65 f.)discusses

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haveto fit theword Thisanalysisdoes nothowever appropriateness. if a letter is addedor subtracted too closely. It doesn'tmatter (393d). that which so names arethe in thesyllables is admissible, "Varieties to theuninitiated, different sameappear just as thephysicians' drugs, to seemdifferent withvarious coloursand perfumes, whenprepared whoconsiders arethesame,butto thephysician, us,though only they seemthesame,and he is notconfused their medicinal value,they by theadditions. So perhaps themanwhoknowsaboutnamesconsiders not is added,transposed, or their valueand is confused if someletter in entirely or evenif theforceof thenameis expressed subtracted, inthenames we were different letters. So, for instance, justdiscussing, and of the the none letters is same, Hector, exceptt, but Astyanax nevertheless havethesamemeaning." (394a-b)."We often they putin . .. andwe change theaccent" the ortakeoutletters, (399a). Originally nature of wordswas moreeasilyrecognizable, butpeopleattach true to than to truth" "moreimportance euphony (404d), theybeautify the sake ofeuphony names(408b),they add sounds for (412e), merely forthetruth, to makethewordsprettier (417e), they"care nothing butonlyfortheshapeof their mouths" words (414d). "The original havebefore nowbeencompletely buried whowished todress bythose for have letters for them added and the sake of subtracted up, they in every andhavedistorted thewords ornamentation euphony wayfor inthelapseoftime" totheoriginal ormerely (414c); "they keepadding until words no human whatin theworld finally beingcan understand "wordsget twisted in all sorts thewordmeans"(414d). In brief, of on theother showsclearly hand, ways"(421d). The ancient language, that "whenanyone thereal sense of words(418b). It is also clear knowsthenature of thename- and its nature is thatof thething - he willknowthething also, sinceit is likethename"(435d-e).It in theNirukta tosee that thefactors as tobe taken is striking specified in etymologising intoconsideration and loss, addition (transposition, modification ofsounds)arefound too. here,

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The Cratylus contains a greatnumber of practical examplesof For our not it is todiscuss 'etymologies'.40 necessary present purposes these indetail. Itis more tosee howPlato, Socrates, interesting through of themultitude faces theproblem of languages. Greekis forhim nottheonlylanguage, norindeedtheonlycorrect, or eventhebest The other creators of are assumed to have language. languages clearly taken careto makenamesin thoseother equallygreat languages'fit' their The ideal names are in respective objects. expressed differently different must notthelawgiver also "Then, languages: mydearfriend, knowhowto embody in thesoundsand syllables that namewhichis fitted foreach object?Musthe notmakeand give all his by nature nameswith his eye fixed or idealname,ifhe is to upontheabsolute be an authoritative ofnames?Andifdifferent do not giver lawgivers it in the same we must not this name ideal embody syllables, forget on that fordifferent smiths do notembody theform in the account; sameiron, for the same instrument the same though making purpose, butso longas they thesameideal,though itbe in different reproduce is as it shouldbe, whether it be madehere iron,stilltheinstrument in or foreign lands... On this basis,then, youwilljudgethelawgiver, hebe here orina foreign whether so longas hegivestoeachthing land, theproper form of thename,in whatsoever to be no worse syllables, hereor anywhere whether else" (389d-390a).The result of lawgiver, this is that the'etymological' method canbe applied toother languages too: "ifforeign namesareexamined, themeaning of each of them is "if should to demonstrate (400b-c).However, we equallyevident" try thefitness of [foreign] in accordance with words theGreeklanguage, andnotin accordance with thelanguage from which arederived, they we should admits trouble" however (409e). Socrates youknow getinto that he finds where ithardto understand word its a and 'etymology', he appliesthecontrivance ofclaiming ittobe offoreign (416a). origin Thediscussion ofthis deviceinduces to take Socrates hisinvestigationevenfurther than anditis thiscontinued heretofore, investigation whichprovides himwithone of thearguments becauseof whichhe
40 inGaiser,1974:54-57. andsystematized Theyhavebeencollected

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in theend against'etymologies'. turns His train of thought runsas follows: "If a person asksaboutthewords means of which names by are formed, and again aboutthoseby meansof whichthosewords wereformed, andkeepson doingthis he whoanswers his indefinitely, will at lastgiveup... Now at whatpointwill he be right questions in giving Willit notbe whenhe reaches thenames up and stopping? whichare theelements of theother namesand words? For these, if are the can no to be elements, they longer rightly appear composed ofother names"(421d-422a).Thisgivesrisetoa question: "How can theearliest which are not as based make names, yet uponanyothers, clearto us thenature of things, so faras that is possible, which they do ifthey must aretobe namesatall?" (422d-e).Theanswer proposed is that "thename-maker with hisletters and syllaby Socrates grasps blesthereality ofthethings named andimitates their essential nature" admits that "itwillseemridiculous that are (424a-b).Socrates things mademanifest imitation in letters and (425d); yet through syllables" there is no alternative, unlesswe wereto believethat thegods gave theearliest we gottheearliest namesfrom somefornames,or that are moreancient thanwe are,or resort eignfolkand theforeigners to someother evasivetactic(425d-e).Socrates therefore to proceeds to individual it wouldtakeus too farto give letters; assignmeanings a detailed account ofhis results, buttheprinciple is simple:thephonetic nature ofa soundcorresponds to theobjectitdenotes, theactive soundrho,forexample, these indiexpresses activity. By combining vidualletters, thelawgiver makesby letters and syllables a namefor eachandevery and from these names he all therest thing, compounds (427c). byimitation reached thisfar, Socrates discovers an insufficiency in the Having viewpropounded, whichhe uses as one of his arguments it: against "If thenameis likethething, theletters of which theprimary names aretobe formed must be by their nature likethethings" (434a). very But notinfrequently a wordcontains soundswhich have no right to be there, suchas thesoundlambda, whichexpresses in the softness, wordskler6tis 'hardness' One of that course this (434d). might argue is an added soundwhichdoes not reallybelongin thisword,but

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howit gotthere. The answer can onlybe 'by thisraisesthequestion or 'byconvention', butthis us backtotheposition which custom' takes to be refuted in thefirst therelationship was intended place,viz.,that andtheir is determined convention. between words Socrates objects by thetheory thatnamesare, so faras is concludes:"I myself prefer but like the forceof named; things reallythis attractive possible, and we are compelled likeness is, as Hermogenes says,a poorthing, thiscommonplace to to employin addition convention, expedient, ofnames"(435c). establish thecorrectness inthis is thedesire toidentify Oneofthethings tobe noted dialogue oflanguage andtheir theultimate elements Socrates Indeed, meanings. the of his turns because to against position Cratylus precisely attempt connect theprimary nameswith thethings denoted does notsucceed. In contrasting withtheNirukta theCratylus and withIndianetyin general, severalimportant differences deserveour atmologising It has already beenpointed outthat theGreeksdid notlook tention. as theonlytrue To thismust be added language language. upontheir that beencreated a or several Platospeaksaboutwordsas having by as hissupervisor"; is in thedialectician ("with 390d),which lawgivers total contrast with theIndianconception ofthings. thegramIndeed, marian and opposite, (introduced above) madethefamous, Patafijali observation that no one whois in needofwords wouldgo to a grammarian thewaysomeone in needofa potgoesto a potter to haveone or superhumade.41 The idea ofwords made human being byanyone, in India.ForPlato,on theother man,was totally hand, unacceptable Whatis more, theoriginal were orit is fundamental. no name-givers is madethat he who gave (401b), and thesuggestion dinary persons thefirst namestothings thesingular is used)is more than human (here aresometimes calleddemiourgos (431 (438c). The name-givers le), and Platolookedupontheoriginal as it is notimpossible that name-giver theDemiurge, ofthisworld close to,oridentical themaker menwith, This link is in someother tioned Timaeus). dialogues (esp. particularly with inthat itconnects a connecinteresting cosmology, etymologising
41Mahabhdsya, vol. I p. 7-8. ed. F. Kielhorn, Bombay1880-1885,

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Platonic of later tionthat cameto playa rolein thethought thinkers, as we willsee below. ofsemantic I willnotpursue thefurther development etymologizing theAlexanas did TheStoicsactively in classicalEurope. it, practiced in Europeanantiquity The situation driantradition of grammarians. the fact thatsomeideas about came to be somewhat by complicated one came to be acthedevelopment of one language out of another of as havingderived was often thought cepted.Latin,in particular, of thefounders from suchas theone abouttheorigin Greek.Myths, this belief(Strobach, 1997: 85). When, ofRome,supported therefore, he may Latinwords from Greek an author derives likePlutarch words, ofthewords as histories conintend tobe understood hisetymologies in thismanaretobe understood cerned. all hisetymologies Whether nerremains Therecan however be no unclear 1997:55 ff.). (Strobach, dealwith doubt that texts likePlato'sCratylus semantic etymologising, notwith historical etymologies. I think to concludefrom the above observations we are entitled Indian thinkers wereawareof some that and classical early European The author of of thedifficulties semantic etymologies. surrounding therulesthat obtain valid tries to formulate us to theNirukta permit butdoes notfeelfreeto doubttheir semantic etymologies, validity. at The author on theother arrives the conclusion oftheCratylus, hand, that thevalidity of semantic almostinescapably etymologies implies that individual soundshave each their own meaning. Since he finds of such thisdifficult to accept,he raises doubtsas to the validity etymologies. 4. thevalidity of semantic is Forus,modern researchers, etymologies an are not valid. Neino longer issue: semantic etymologies generally norPlato's speculations as to themeanings ther Ydska's method of areacceptable tous. We arenevertheless confronted individual sounds did withtheproblem that many people apparently accepttheseetyis tomakesenseofthat. as valid,andourproblem mologies

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Two directions are open to us. On the one hand, we can try to understand semantic thebackground of their etymologies against inother Indiansemantic areto cultures; words, respective etymologies in be explained interms ofIndian Greek semantic culture, etymologies terms ofGreek andso on.Alternatively, we can see insemantic culture, not linkedto any a universal phenomenon, inherently etymologies andtherefore lookfora universal The culture, particular explanation. in the should have left no doubt adduced examples preceding pages is indeeda universal which that semantic etymologizing phenomenon, is inneedofa universal before to However, explanation. turning itwe willhavetopayattention totheoneserious that hasbeenmade attempt tounderstand Indiansemantic as an Indian etymologies phenomenon. called IndianSemantic EivindKahrs' recent Analysis:The study a new and interesting 'nirvacana'tradition (1998) presents hypothein classicalIndia,notprimarily sis concerning semantic etymologies Vedicetymologies. ForKahrs, arepart oftheIndianunietymologies verse ofdiscourse. Thatis to say,etymologies arepart ofthemethods itstexts. The study in usedinIndian culture tointerpret ofetymologies of a Indiais therefore theinvestigation systematically appliedmeans are ofinterpretation here that over 9). (p. By finding patterns repeated andover one detect certain basic features of Indian classical again, may "Forthepresent Kahrs traditions. states on p. 11 investigation" and theindigenous "itis precisely theconstant factors interpretations in time which are ofthem at various of interest". points as faras etymologizing Kahrs' study is concerned, concentrates, on theNirukta, and on some Saiva textsfrommedievalKashmir. as a consciousdevice. Briefly These textsuse etymologizing put, Kahrsclaims (p. 174) that"it is possibleto arguethatultimately all nirvacanas(= semantic JB) are to be understood etymologies, to a substitutional model". according 4 universe of Y5iska") deals in great detailwith the Chapter ("The in theNirukta. various nirvacanas are presented The waysin which Kahrsargueson thebasis of copious mostimportant ones of these, a genitive case ending. The most use essentially material, perfect way the which of presentation is of satah, literally typemeghomehatiti

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means:"megha suchthat one ('cloud') is ofsomething really existing can say [ofit]:mehati 'itrains'." finds The genitive ending expression in theword'of' ofthetranslation. The nextquestion is: whatis theexactmeaning of thisuse of the What doesitmeantosaythat the word is ofsomething genitive? megha of whichone can say 'it rains' (mehati)? The moststraightforward interpretation mightseem to be thatthe word meghabelongsto onecan saythat itrains. Thiswould viz. a cloud,ofwhich something, seem to makeperfect sense. Yet Kahrsdoes not seriously consider thispossibility. He rather translates like in this the phrases following manner: is in themeaning whichreally existsso that "megha of that one says[ofit]: 'itrains"'(p. 162; myemphasis). to Ydska,according a genitive toindicate a substitution as well Kahrs, employs procedure as to indicate that which is signified a word and thus its by ultimately The substitutional mentioned is thus basedon model, earlier, synonym. a particular of the Is a this interpretation genitive. regular interpretation ofthegenitive in Sanskrit? Kahrsclaimsit is. Thiskindofuse ofthegenitive is called ending inSanskrit literature. Kahrs believes that itis grammatical sthanasasthr in rooted Sanskrit He comes to the conclusion firmly ordinary (p. 234). "thattheusage of thesthanasasthr is a well established feature of "It is evident" he states on the same (ibid.). ordinary language" page - "that from theSanskrit youcouldgettheusageofthesthanasasthr itself'.Andagain,one page earlier language (p. 233): "Sucha usage ofthegenitive is in accordance with established Sanskrit usage." This all soundsrather favourable to Kahrs'smainthesis. All that remains to be done, one would think, is cite some passages from classicalorVedicliterature showthat that sucha usageofthegenitive is indeedwell established in Sanskrit. No attempt is however made to provethe point,so often that the substitutional of use repeated, thegenitive is well established Sanskrit usage.The reasonis easy to The of substitution not wellestablished guess. genitive may be all that in Sanskrit. An exception has to be made forgrammatical literature. Pdinini's in particular, uses the genitive in thisway. Kahrsrightly grammar,

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out that"to interpret a genitive as a substitutional is points genitive remarkable in Sanskrit literature" grammatical nothing (p. 236). Then, he continues: "Noris there ... which such restricts however, anything a usageofthegenitive togrammatical texts." Thisis far from obvious. in is a The substitutional technical device which, genitive grammar devicesof grammar, likemostother technical is mostunlikely to be valid anywhere else. uses a number of technical grammar P.nini's terms and devices,which are properly and whichclaim introduced, no validity thisgrammar. The specialuse ofthegenitive isjust outside institra oneofsuchdevices. Itis introduced 1.1.49(sasthrsthdneyogd), in Bi0htlingk's which translation: "Der Genitiv in einemSatra means, an dessen Stelle Etwas treten bezeichnet soll." The use of dasjenige, in Piinini's is therefore thegenitive grammar special,and shouldnot, one wouldthink, be used to elucidate theuse of thegenitive in other works. Kahrsdoes notagree.He discusses in detailtheportion ofPatafion stitra this of as well Pdnini, (theMahabhasya) jali's commentary as thesubcommentaries and finds there an argument thereon, which, in his opinion, "wouldnotwork werenottheuse of thesthanasasthr in theusage of ordinary rooted Sanskrit" firmly (p. 234). This,and himconclude makes "that theusageofthesthanasasthr is an this, only feature of ordinary which is established This conclusion, language". vitalto Kahrs'sthesis, noton an attestable feature therefore, depends oftheSanskrit on the but correct of a scholaslanguage, interpretation ticargument, andon nothing else. Whichis the argument whichleads Kahrs to his conclusion? It is essentially this.Patafijali out that the case genitive ending points can have"one hundred or as many as there are,"and that meanings, stitra for therefore themeaning of 1.1.49restricts, grammar, Painini's in theplace of which thegenitive to thesinglemeaning "that ending will be substituted" that something (p. 197). Kahrsis of theopinion in thismanner, can onlyrestrict themeaning ifthemeaning thesiltra willbe substituted" "that intheplaceofwhich doesalready something to thegenitive thegenitive Normally ending. expresses belong ending

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as wellas all theother this ofstitra 1.1.49 ones,butas a result meaning this remains. only meaning Sincethis ofPatafijali's comments - which follow a virttika part by - setsthetonefor thethen itis imdiscussion, Kitydyana following tounderstand itcorrectly. to Kahrs thesecomments portant According that thegenitive ofitsown, thesubstitutional meancovers, presuppose From a of view he is ing. purely logicalpoint right. Logically speaking, thesubstitutional must be one of the hundred "or meaning meanings, as many as there tothegenitive case ending. are",that Patafijali assigns But thisis notthesameas concluding thesubstitutional that genitive is a wellestablished feature ofSanskrit in general. The general meanof the case in is relation moreprecisely: ing genitive ending general, that remains after the of case everything specifying meanings theother itas follows (P. 2.3.50: sasthr fese).Kahrsdescribes endings (p. 237): 2.3.50 teaches that a case sasthf ese genitive ending "A[stadhydyT] is introduced to denote'therest'(Sesa). According to theKasikaivrtti thisrestis anyrelation, whichis nota karaka-relation sambandha, anddifferent from themeaning ofthenominal stem. In other a words, case suffix is introduced to denote sustained begenitive anyrelation tween that is to non-verbal relation in such entities, say,any general, as father-son, etc.Thefact that twoentities master-servant, part-whole, aremutually related their in a context is by appearance given expressed case.Buttheparticular of is relation not bythegenitive type specified." includes an enormous lot.It includes, for the This,ofcourse, example, sense"uncleof', andincertain circumstances the Sanskrit exceptional of"John is ofMary" or"John toMary"willhaveto equivalent belongs be interpreted as meaning "John is Mary'suncle".Thisis nothowever thesameas saying that themeaning "uncleof" forthegenitive case is a wellestablished feature oftheSanskrit The situending language. ation is notdifferent, as faras I can see,for thesubstitutional meaning of thegenitive case ending. Thereis just no evidence that thismeanfeature of Sanskrit. Thisdoes notchangethefact that ingis a regular this like the "uncle is somehow included in the of", meaning, meaning hundred or more cases covered bythegenitive.

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It is interesting, but also somewhat puzzling,thatKahrs seems He cites (p. 238 ff.) the example to agree withthis conclusion. "Devadatta's where theidea is devadattasya yajiiadattah Yajfiadatta", thatYajfiadatta He compares is theson of Devadatta. thiswiththe rule(2.4.52) asterbhaih "of as, bha". Thenhe remarks grammatical what ... can not be known from "Just the relation is (p. 238): aster bhah alone, anymore thanone knowsfrom the statement the statement obtains devadattasya yajiiadattah just what relation between Devadatta andYajfiadatta. ButifyajWiadattah is replaced byan obvious relational term suchas putrah inquestion is 'son', therelation understood: Devadatta's son. Now,in thecase of aster immediately the relation bhah,wherebha itselfis no obvious relational term, marked is determined sthane which by thegenitive by theexpression defines thegenitive rule aster Pinini's then, [in [The bhah,] grammar]. teachesthatbha occursin thesthanaof as in certain contexts..." Kahrsevenrefers toNigeia's position, to which sthanais according not a meaningof the genitive conditions therelation case; it rather which is themeaning ofthegenitive case (pp. 241 f.).He concludes on 248: think it to what which andNigesa say, "I p. proper accept Kaiyata also Annambhatta the sthana is a called sambandha'relation' says: is because it a fortherelation in condition metaphorically, necessary I haveaccepted Notethat whatmostPininiyas question. say,namely that thesthdnais not itself a sambandhaand thusnot something directly conveyed bythegenitive ending..." (myemphasis). Andyet, in theEpilogue(p. 268-269)theold position is backinto in interpreting is nothing remarkable a genitive as a place: "... there in the context of substitutional relations between elgenitive linguistic in thediscussions ements. ... Nor is there of A[sfdhydy-] anything and the 1.1.49sasthT which sthaneyoga pronirdidyamana-paribhasa withinor withoutthe boundariesof hibitssuch an interpretation use of the genetive is partof the vydkarana. .... the substitutional so that in a suitable Sanskrit context couldbe language anygenitive in such a way"(myemphasis). interpreted It shouldbe clearthatit is possibleto have seriousdoubtswith that all Indiansemantic tothethesis are regard ultimately etymologies

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to be understood to a substitutional model.Kahrshimself according has suchdoubts. Towards theendofhisbookhe makesthefollowing remarks framework of the (p. 278): "In the lightof the technical Nirukta it is ofcoursealso possibleto adopta different modelfor the of nirvacanas. the-tehand -ehforms On theviewthat interpretation are ablatives one would simply face statements thatsingleout the verbal element which underlies the formation andidentify grammatical theactionor event thereasonfora particular considered name.This is a possibility also ifthey are considered anditis no forms, genitive crucial to determine which case we are with." He longer ending dealing then addsthat this modelandthesubstitutional model areboth perhaps valid. but one cannot the avoid conclusion that simultaneously Perhaps, theproblem oftheIndian semantic is notdefinitely solved etymologies with thehelpofthesubstitution model. 5. It appears, that semantic is a universal then, (human) etymologizing whichis in need of a universal In order phenomenon explanation. to makeprogress in thisdirection, we may observethatthere is a shared element between semantic and so-called etymologies magical acts whichare of almostuniversal occurrence in humansocieties.42 Both may be looked upon as expressions of the analogical mode of thought, to borrow a term from theanthropologist S.J.Tambiah. Bothin etymologies and in magicalacts(or whatare often referred to as such) similarity a role. frequently plays determining It must suffice hereto cite Evans-Pritchard's remark (1976: 177) following
theuse of the Smith,1989: 36 f.) objectagainst wordmagic, that thisterm indicates utter and difference ofthe claiming foreignness activities that itdistinguishes them from that itemphasizes concerned, proper religion, their etc. None of thisis hereintended. No claimis heremade nature, problematic that is sucha thing there as magic, or that theterm has been,or can be, meaningfully used.Theword hashowever often beenusedinacademic literature inconnection with activities thatshow some kindof similarity withtheetymologies we are studying. The term is heremerely used forconvenience, without or anyclaimas to theunity coherence oftheactivities covered byit. 42Some authors (e.g. BrianK.

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abouttheAzande:"Thehomoeopathic is so evident in many element in rites much and of the materia medica that there is no need magical to give examples. It is recognized by theAzande themselves. They 'We use such-and-such a it is like a because such-and-such say, plant theobjecttowards whichtheriteis directed." Similar thing,' naming are here into as similar connection, words,or objects brought just in traditional It maybe etymologies. partsof words,are connected to see whatexplanations and believers offer interesting practitioners for of acts. thepresumed efficacy magical that thepeopleconcerned do notthink It appears often muchabout in thisquestion. cited 1979: 284; 157-58), Hallpike Hallpike(1972: to any kindof forceor thatthe Konso neverrefer e.g., maintains of their supernatural powerto explaintheirbeliefin the efficacy observesthat (1981: 44-45), similarly, symbolism. Ohnuki-Tierney the Ainu materia medica without the involvement of alone, among a spiritual is considered sufficient to effect a cure: beingor a ritual, thephysical characteristics of [the]beings "[T]he analogybetween usedin materia medica andtheillness... generates thepowerofwhat Frazer once called 'sympathetic magic'."AmongtheNuer- Evansobserves Pritchard substances havean efficacy (1956: 104)- magical inthemselves anddo notderive their from power Spirit. Yetthere arecasesdocumented where do the about people speculate work. reasons or should Thesereasons canbe whytheir magicworks, somespecific or involvement the of The EvansAzande, spirits. power, Pritchard "do notthink (1976: 177) observed, verymuchaboutthe "see the action of medicines that is unlike theaction matter", yetthey of empirical is something andthat there about techniques mysterious itthat has to be accounted for."43 In thecase of vengeance-magic, for thembisimo "saythat ngua,'thesoul ofthemedicine', example, they
43The attitude oftheAzandetowards witchcraft is notdissimilar: "Butevento the of Azandethere is something about the action witchcraft. ... peculiar Theyknowthat it existsand works haveto guessat themanner in whichit works..... evil,butthey know:that thesoul ofwitchcraft and goes bynight Theyonlyknowwhattheothers devours thesoulofitsvictim." 1976: (Evans-Pritchard, 31).

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Theserationalizations hasgoneouttoseekitsvictim." themselves lead is sometimes to other activities: "The virtue of a medicine of spoken torisein steam and smoke whenitis being as itssoul,andis believed in the so thatthe cooked.Therefore their faces steam people place intothem. Azandesay that when Likewise, magicalvirtue mayenter the cook soul of the medicine vengeance-medicines they goes up in thesmokefrom and from on highsurveys thefire theneighbourhood forthe witchit goes forth to seek." (Evans-Pritchard, 1976: 200). Malinowski that "are (1922: 423) observed amongtheKula thespirits notagencieswhichgetto workdirectly the In Trobriand [in magic]. themagician does notcommand the spirits to go and demonology, setto work. The work is doneby theagencyof thespell,assisted by theaccompanying and performed The ritual, by theproper magician. in thesamerelation, stand as theperformer does,tothemagical spirits whichalone is active.Theycan helphimto wieldit properly, force, butthey can never becomehis instruments." On p. 427 Malinowski states that"magic... is a specific ... an inherent of power, property certain uttered with the of certain actions... The words, performance wordsand acts have thispowerin their own right, and their action and notmediated is direct other Here the of by any agency." efficacy with thehelpof certain forces thanspirits. rather magicis explained "Muchof the 'sympathetic to the magic' [said underlie] 'Black Art' of the Malays seems to workby control of spirits", to according Endicott This is true to the extent that the (1970: 174). manipulation of wax figures has beensaid to serve thepurpose ofgiving thespirits an exampleof whatis expected of them 1906: (Wilkinson, 73). The oftheZulu thesympathetic ofwhich associations with 'medicines' the desiredeffects is often 1976: 352 "are f.) plain (Berglund, believed to contain amandla, is, however, power"(id.,p. 256), which nottraced to anyparticular source (p. 257). These examplesshowthat theeffectiveness of magicalactsis not for in taken and not therefore all cases beyond the always granted, need of some form of explanation in the eyes of thosewho carry themout. Yet the explanations offered in these by the performers cases seem completely to etymologies. This does not inapplicable

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mean thatthereare no similarities. We have seen thatthe Vedic refer without toa mythical and etymologies virtually exception reality, that sometimes a myth under theinfluence tohavebeencreated appears In cases a is postulated ofthe concerned. both hidden reality etymology in order toexplain theeffectiveness ofmagical actsandofthevalidity ofetymologies respectively. Atthis itwillbe interesting toconsider thetheories ofNeoplapoint in thewords ofR.T. Wallis(1972: 70), Plotinus tonism. Thisis what, "In these(i.e., about (204-270C.E.) thought paranormal phenomena: like all his Plotinus, virtually paranormal phenomena) contemporaries, - by thethird atheists and materialists exceptthemostdetermined A.D. a very rarespecies- firmly believed. Where he differed century from ofthem toaccommodate was in attempting suchphenommany ena to a rational, of the world. The of his explanaview basis orderly tionis theStoicdoctrine of 'cosmicsympathy', theviewthat, sincethe in world is a living it whatever one of must organism, happens part proin every duce a sympathetic other It is by studying reaction and part. that the relevant forces their effects." One applying magicians produce citeherePlotinus' EnneadsIV.4.40:"Buthowdo magicspells might work? is a natural and bythefactthat there concord of By sympathy that arealikeandopposition ofthings that aredifferent, .. ." (tr. things 1984: Armstrong, 261). Plotinus use the term'theurgy'.44 after Neoplatonists frequently Wallis(1972: 107) observes: "Themethods oftheurgy wereessentially thoseofritual itsaimtheincarnation ofa divine force either in magic, a or in a human a material such as the result statue, object, being, being a state Itsjustification, ofprophetic trance. most in clearly expounded is the Proclus'little the Hieratic On of Art, essay magical'Principle that each part of theuniverse theidea,first mirrors Correspondence', other and and more that the whole every secondly, part, important, material world is themirror ofinvisible divine invirtue hence, powers; of thenetwork of forces to of image archetype, manipulation linking
tookas itsauthoritative Oracleswhich datefrom the basistheChaldean 44Theurgy mid-second see 1997. Johnston, C.E.; century

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intocontact with thetheurgists material theappropriate brings objects thedeities represent."45 they someNeoplatonotethat itis interesting Forourpresent purposes theseideasbeyond extended Proclusand others, tonists, amongthem and between words is a There field of to the similarity language. magic which exists between sametype as thesimilarity which is ofthe objects durch "Wiedie Konsekrationskunst a godandhisstatue: gewisse Symihnlich macht denGt*ttemrn Zeichendie Standbilder bole undgeheime als Standdie W6rter ..., so bildetauch die Gesetzgebungskunst... Laute andere sie balddurch derDinge,indem bilder solchebalddurch inas thedemiurgic Andagain:"Just die Natur derDingeabbildet."46 first of the matter into existence in the tellect very appearances brings ofeternal initself, Forms itcontains beings, images temporal produces arereand from which divisible beings beings, imagesof indivisible in ofshadow, havetheconsistency imageswhich allybeings produces ourscientific thesame way,I think, also, whichtakesas knowledge of the makesby meansof itsmodeltheproductive Intellect, activity of the realities and particularly of all theother discourse similitudes that our names it the in ... Since then way, produces godsthemselves: as images of them inthis ultimate scientific degree knowledge presents and ofthegods, infact itproduces eachnameas a statue divine beings; of the with a view the invoked as gods generous goodness just theurgy so also intellecof statues to theillumination constructed, artificially anddivisions to divine tiveknowledge related beings, bycomposition thehidden reveals ofarticulated sounds, beingofthegods."47
45 Notethat does nothesitate todescribe a Christian likePseudo-Dionysius author of divine Here "[t]hebreadand wine are representations theeucharist as theurgy. For are 1991: in that divine names 'statues"' the same 370). (Janowitz, way power divine see below. namesas 'statues', ed. G. Pasquali,Leipzig commentaria, 46Procli diadochiin PlatonisCratylum 12. 12 Tr. 1979: 19 1. ff. Hirschle, 1908,p. 47PlatonicTheology Paris 1968 f.) bk. 1, and L.G. Westerink, (ed. H.D. Saffrey 1991: 368-369.See also Shaw, 1995: 179 ff. chap. 29, pp. 123-124.Tr.Janowitz, theGods"). ("Naming

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wordsimitate their one can arrive at a knowlSince,then, objects, of words, i.e., edge objects through especially through etymologizing, theconstituent of thewords(Hirschle, 1979: 20).48 through syllables Be it notedthatProclusdistinguishes three kindsof words:divine, and human. Divinewords areclosestto their daemonic, they objects, are 'coexistent' with daemonic words less and human words them, so, haveonly limited with their human words similarity objects. Obviously are leastcapableof consequent The situation etymological analysis. is quitedifferent withthe secretnamesof gods, whose efficacy is of specially theresult efficacious combinations of sounds.49 Hirschle attention to certain secret (1979: 27-28) drawsin thisconnection namesof godsfound in Greek from which bemagicalpapyri Egypt, "Es sindscheinbar Nalong to no known language: bedeutungslose nichts als anderes bizarre die bis zu und 100 men, Lautkombinationen, mehr Buchstaben umfassen The parallelism with themeankinnen". of is Tantrism in India and in the Both inglessbrjamantras striking. itappears, Hellenistic for theelementary thesearch constituents world, oflanguage went handinhandwith thepostulation ofhigher levelsof in which areno longer language, ordinary meanings present. This is of coursenottheplace fora general ofNeoplaexposition tonic as a whole, ofwhich theaboveideasabout philosophy magicand For our it to retain are suffices present etymologizing part. purposes thefollowing observation: both theeffectiveNeoplatonism explained ness of magicalrites and therevealing of with potential etymologies thehelpofone mechanism, that ofcosmicsympathy. Cosmicsympacreates a network that links similar and similar to words, objects, thy
48This interest in non-historical is all the morestriking in view of etymologies thefact that someone likeVarro, before centuries seems to havemade Proclus, many whathe considered werehistorical cf. 1957: 1980; Barwick, (Pfaffel, etymologies 66 f.;Desbordes, 1991:150). Regarding Plotinus' see Heiser, viewson etymologizing, tomakeonPlato'sproject himself hasnocomment intheCratylus, 1991:20: "Plotinus is not to andhisoccasionaluse of a Platonic indicate his viewof enough etymology thematter." 49According the seven vowels were connatural withthe seven to Iamblichus, f. 185 1995: gods;Shaw, planetary

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share features. Cosmic forces with which andtohigher eachother, they the is a world is because organism. living sympathy possible 'natural role in the a ideas magic' that Neoplatonic played major in Renaissance exerted muchinfluence 1958; Yates, Europe(Walker, 1964; cf. Hadot,1982). This magic- as ThomasM. Greenepoints theassumption that there is an inherent out (1997: 262) - requires its not an between and if object,that identity sign correspondence It comes as thereis a natural languageand a naturalsemiotics.50 of critics no surprise thatsixteenth magic emphasizethe century of language, whichis theexactoppositeof the conventional nature of magic (ibid. p. 255 f.). maintained the upholders by position For Petrus in etymology.51 Ramus The same periodhas an interest it to not the one lookedin "meansthat discover, original etymology of of but the intrinsic and, letters, words, meanings syllables, properties is similar whole words"(Foucault,1966: 35). The situation finally, of texts "in theNeoplatonic and cabalistic and exegesis analysesof in Pico or Fabio Paolini.You have a language,such as one finds intostillsignificant a text... which can be analysed whole, significant thenyou go a stagefurther words(or propositions); and try parts, of thesignificance of thewholein singleletters..., to find elements 1958: 118). The interest wherein facttheydo not exist."(Walker, in etymologies on Hebrew, the first but centered initially language, thenextended as well to other 1991; Dubois, (Maillard, languages critical of theidea of an original 1970: 80 f.). Even Leibniz,though B6hme called came toaccept"a modified as the it, mystic 'Ursprache', ofthenature oflanguage: 'Forlanguages form ofthePlatonic doctrine of from the with the havea certain natural sounds agreement origin, which theappearances ofthings ofthemind [or'affects'], dispositions
50Cp. Vickers, does notrecognize tradition 1984:95: "The occult [the]distinction and are and literal Words words and between [between things metaphorical language]: andcan be substituted for as ifthey areequivalent tothings treated them." 51The term hasbeenused (Gerl,1982) to describe thechanged 'paradigm-change' Bruni Patrizi viewson language between Leonardo (1529(1370-1444)andFrancesco 1597).

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excitein themind. Andthisorigin I believeoccursnotmerely in the but also in that have in later primal language, languages grown up from theprimal andin part from thenewusageofmen language part over the 1969: 88).52 dispersed globe."'(Aarsleff, 6 in "magical"actswas already The importance of similarities noted in the last We shall here consider some of byanthropologists century.53 thewaysinwhich these andtheir successors havetried anthropologists tomakesenseofthis with ultimate aim of the observation, discovering extent can helpus toexplain towhat their theories etymologies. Sir Edward (1865: 124; 1891: 115 f.),followed by SirJames Tylor thefrequent of similarities in actsof magic ascribed Frazer, presence to a confusion between associations and connecthought objective of taking forreal connec"ideal connections tions,to the mistake tions".Frazer(1922: 14), in particular, twoprinciples distinguished ofthought on which theLaw ofSimimagicis based; he calledthem and the Law of or These two Contact Contagion. larity giverisetoHoor Imitative Magic and Contagious moeopathic Magic respectively.54 as "misapplications of theassociaFrazerexplained theseprinciples tion ofideas" (p. 15). In spiteofthis, thesetwoprinciples constituted, forFrazer, a faith, thefollowing as is clearfrom citation (p. 63-64): in "Wherever occurs its unadulterated form, pure sympathetic magic
52Closely similarideas are foundin ancientChina (Needham,1956: 253 f.). Needham at theconnection with Frazer's'law of similarity' points (p. 280) andwith thecorrelations to acceptedin Renaissance Europe (p. 296 f.). It is notnecessary believethat theseideas in different of theworldmust be explained parts by mutual to think. it appearsthat as Needham theidea that influence, Rather, (p. 297 f.) tends act is a similar similar rather rationalization the on obvious of things things presumed andrelated effectiveness ofcertain 'facts'. magical 53Fora recent see Cunningham, 1999. survey, 54The discussion in thesecondedition of magicwas introduced of The Golden in 166 which came see 1987: f. out 1900; Ackerman, Ackerman, Bough, referring calls thisanalysis of magic"Frazer'ssinglemostimportant to E.E. Evans-Pritchard, ofreligion". contribution to theanthropology

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another andinitassumes that in nature one event follows necessarily or without the intervention of anyspiritual personal agency. variably with that ofmodemsciThusitsfundamental is identical conception thewholesystem is a faith, butrealandfirm, ence;underlying implicit The Law of Similarity he dein theorder and uniformity of nature." as "that like or that an rescribed theprinciple effect like, produces itscause",theLaw of Contact or Contagion sembles as theprinciple which haveoncebeenincontact "that with eachother continue things to act on each other at a distance after thephysical contact has been severed" "theprimitive reflects magician... never (p. 14). However, in With on theabstract involved his actions. him... logicis principles "he tacitly notexplicit"; assumes that theLaws ofSimilarity implicit, andContact areofuniversal and are notlimited to human application actions" (p. 15). been criticized Tylorand Frazerhave frequently by morerecent one of the most criticisms "Perhaps devastating anthropologists.55 is equally toFrazer) levelled is hisnever (that against Tylor appropriate the would mistake ideal connections whyprimitives posing question forreal ones in one domainwhenthey do not do so in their other As Evans-Pritchard it and in this activities. he and Malinowski puts standtogether -: 'The error herewas in not recognizing thatthe associations aresocialandnotpsychological and that stereotypes, they occurtherefore ritual which situations, onlywhenevokedin specific arealso oflimited duration..."'56 Frazer's'laws', too,havebeen severely criticized. forexBeattie, observed in their sensescouldpossibly (1964: 206): "Nobody ample, all things believethat that sharesomecommon and all things quality, haveonce beenin contact, that arecontinually one another; affecting
55Cp. Douglas, 1978. Ackerman (1998: 129) observes:"By the late 1960s the of Frazer as low as [it]couldbe. Whenever about an anthropol.] [was] reputation[.. in the of to consider interested of the idea bothered history ogist 'primitive' religion he was as in intellectual Frazer, value,thevery regarded wholly lacking redeeming modelofhownotto do anthropology orthink about religion". 56Tambiah, 1990: 51, with a quotation from 1933:29. Evans-Pritchard,

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wouldall thetime ina world so conceived almost be affecteverything be almost and all would chaos.""57 Tambiah else, (1968: everything ing "... Frazer'sprinciples... lead to absurd in37) remarked, similarly: ferences aboutthelogicofmagic." Here it is to be recalledthatFrazerdid nothimself subscribe to he attributed it thisconception of theworld.Quite on thecontrary, are no and believein magic.Frazer'scritics to thosewho practise in most and their do not doubt that followers right thinking magicians butsayingthat"nobody in their entertain sucha conception, senses believe" initcertainly too have a couldpossibly far. We seen that goes toideasvery schoolofphilosophy, adhered respectable Neoplatonism, and was similar to thoseformulated Frazer, by capable of inspiring centuries thinkers research that Indeed,recent many suggests later.58 his theories under thedirect Frazermayhaveformulated or indirect of Renaissance In fact, ourpreceding influence thought.59 exposition has shownthatalso thosewho tried to give a rational explanation, and justification, of the use of etymologies at views not arrived to the ones whichFrazer ascribedto his "primitives". dissimilar Whilemanyanthropologists criticized Frazer have,no doubtrightly, theamount of commonsense in thepeople he forunderestimating no one seems to raised theequallyvalidcriticism that have describes, their ortendency, tocreate he overestimated rational of desire, systems thought. It is of coursepossibleto maintain that Frazer'sclassification, as leaves to be is desired. This John classification, Skorupski's position, whoin his Symbol and Theory instead thefollowing (1976) proposes and contagious classification: identification modified transsymbolic
57See further 1976: 138 f. Skorupski, 58Similar ideas existed in China,too; see Henderson, 1984: ch. 1 ("Correlative in China"). thought early 59Cp. Hanegraaff, 1998: 266: "[Frazer's]sympathetic magiccan be dividedinto and a distinction which (imitative, mimetic) contagious magic; maywell homeopathic in have itin from Researches could found havebeentaken who, turn, straight Tylor's of Renaissance De occulta and thegreat magic:Agrippa's philosophia" compendium in Primitive ibid.n. 47: "Tylor Culture". quotesAgrippa repeatedly

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in thefirst ofthese twois emphafer. ofidentification The importance it sized: "The symbol in somesenseis, or participates in,thereality to see that this 1976: 144). It is notdifficult represents." (Skorupski, in the identification modified and classification, particular symbolic in a part of so-called which Skorupski recognizes magicalacts,areas usefulas Frazer'sLaw of Similarity, if notmoreso, to makesense ofetymologies. David Freedberg, aboutimagesinparticular, speaking that from Frazer'slaws of similarity and manytheories, maintains6? to more of notions identification, contagion sympathy, contemporary of ideas,evocative association resonance of symsymbolic linkage, between thesymbol bols, or whathave you,assumethedisjunction - between and thesymbolized andreality. Butthisis representation is at the and what not level of our emotional precisely given cognitive to images.Hence he says (Freedberg, 1989: 436): "we will response morefully the if we acknowledge response onlycome to understand thedisjunction... we stand inthepresence waysin which lapseswhen ofimages." Once againitis possiblewithout to transfer this difficulty totheunderstanding ofsemantic etymologies. A moreserious criticism wouldbe to doubt thebeliefoftheactors in theefficacy ofmagicalacts.Gilbert Lewisputsitas follows (1994: for an If as of belief. 568): "Take, example, sorcery example magical we assumea man's trueand literal beliefin his sorcery, theneither will seem to be ways to harmhis enemy. violenceor the sorcery The sorcery substitute fortheviolence.But if we slacken the might ofhisbelief, less of theliteral to his statement, then certainty impute hissorcery action become that much more of an act which stands may for violent he wouldliketodo butwhich he doesnotwholly something and not a substitute, to out. It is buta dare, perhaps really desire, carry one.Anditbecomesinpart tothemanhimself." This partial symbolic which of seems to be the of position, representative majority present60As presented in Sharf, ownconcern 1999:85. Sharf's is primarily with Buddhist formless" and do notrepresent or and purposes, relics,whichare "forall intents For a presentation of the differences betweenFreedberg's and anything. signify see Freedberg, 1989:274 ff. Skorupski's positions,

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in thisdomain, day thinkers impliesforhomeopathic magicthatits think that similar are related to each other. actors do notreally things in this A parallelism withsemantic is hardto maintain etymologies case. intheabovepassage("itbecomes himself Lewisexpresses carefully to the man himself') and further down in part symbolic softens in thenextparagraph.61 He does nottotally his position rejectthe some of sometimes believe that idea that practitioners magic perhaps is after between thesubstitute there all somekindof connection and For an analysisof the situation, we must the object it represents. and the scope of consider S.J. Tambiah's Magic, science,religion, After and Tambiah turns Frazer, (1990). rationality discussing Tylor viewson magic, andobserves toMalinowski's (p. 73):
Malinowski hadtwo into the internal structure andconstitution insights specific ofTrobriand rites. Thefirst wasthat both words they exploited simultaneously andacts, and both and the of manipulation objects substances, speech thereby theproblem mediain ritual forhis of thelogicof use of multiple posing so-called successors toponder over. his ofthe Secondly 'ethnographic theory word' some which and foreshadowed magical illuminating insights proposed in Austin's notions of England 'linguistic performative anticipated philosophical' acts force that created carried both acts, is,howspeech byspeech illocutionary andperlocutionary effects conventional of being acts;and in this by virtue Burke's ofthe ofmotives'. Kenneth discussion 'rhetoric JB], [= U.S.A., country

Yet Tambiahis not completely happywithMalinowski's position. "itwouldseemthat we cannot that exorcize yetcompletely Observing and Frazer", theghostsof Tylor he concedesthatmagichas a dual structure (p. 82-83):
itseems action On theonehand, toimitate the logicoftechnical/technological nature world ofnatural and manifestations. that seeks totransform orthe things andperformative Onthe other itsstructure is alsotransparently rhetorical hand, toaccepted that it consists of acts to create effects on human actors (in according and Frazer fastened first socialconventions). on the Tylor exclusively equation
61Lewis,1994:568: inhowthey viewthetruth of differ "Peoplemust individually in their and in common with Emotion whatthey assert others feeling community... andconviction..." assertion as wellas reason enter intothelinkbetween

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andsaidit was bad science; Malinowski theforce ofthesecond appreciated andsaidthat wasconstituted ofspeech actsin a performative equation magic andpersuasive andthat therefore were reasonable. mode, they pragmatically .... Thenowpuzzling of magic willdisappear when we succeed in duality only in a more ofhuman lifein which the of embedding magic theory ample path ritual is seen as anindispensable action mode for man andeverywhere anywhere ofrelating toandparticipating inthe life ofthe world.

of 'theother side' ofmagicwouldseemtobe a Tambiah's recognition forward with to his ownearlier studies major step regard (e.g.,Tambiah Tambiah this idea further 1968,1973) andthoseofothers.62 develops two to 'orientations the which he callsparworld', by distinguishing andcausality. He then 'causaticipation explains (p. 108): "Although tion'and 'participation' seem or different contrastive orientations may to theworld, theanalyst must maintain that bothare projected on the and of the same modaliexperiential symbolizing capacities sensory
ties of man -

andaffective communication andthe emphasizes participation sensory ofemotions, stresses therationality ofinstrumental language causality actionand thelanguageof cognition. But theseare ideal typeexag62See, e.g., Kilani, 1989: 126: "La un mode magieest un langagesymbolique, de communication d'un actemagiqueconsiste dansle fait de sociale,... L'efficacitd diredes chosessurl'individu ou un groupe d'individus qui sonten train d'accomplir une actiondonnde. La magie a une efficacit6 cas sociale,elle peut dans certains se transformer en moyende mobilisation sociale." Similarly Kilani, 1983: passim. on the otherhand,recognizesthe objectiveconnections thatare Waardenburg, 1986: 196: "Wesentlich bei supposedto underlie magicalacts; see Waardenburg, diesenVoilkern ist eine Grundanschauung von Zusammenhlingen, die es zwischen denDingengibt." ofthisbook(1990: 203) speaksof"verbanden (The Dutchversion en samenhangen... die wij in hetWesten nietkennen" and connections ('relations whichwe in theWestdo notknow').)H.E. Brekle, thepoint from of view speaking of 'popular observes sortes (1990: 42): "Ce qui estessentiel linguistics', pourtoutes d'activitds Al'aide de moyens c'est la foi ou la croyance dans magiques langagiers, les effets de certains motsou de certaines formules. produits parla seulednonciation Cela implique et 'victimes') (exdcuteurs que ces 'croyants' prennent pourassurd qu'il existe des rapports et causaux,voiredes rapports n6cessaires entre le nom d'identitd, d'unechoseetla choseelle-meme, ou l'dnonciation d'uneformule et l'dtat de choses formule." dvoqud parcette

the modalities of touch, taste,hearing,seeing. ... If

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and neither can excludethedevicesof theother." In other gerations, at least some the of of do not exwords, practitioners magic totally cludetheidea that on theintended or magichasa causaleffect person object. The idea of multiple to the worldis plausible,and orientations whichsupport it.Thisdoes a number of Tambiah arguments presents in some respects notchangethefactthathis position remains very close to the one of Tylorand Frazer.These scholarshad claimed of taking ideal connections thatmagic made the mistake forreal connections. rather of an or of Tambiah orientation, ordering speaks inwhich inthe causalefficacy ofcommunicative reality, peoplebelieve acts.In both is a mistake cases there And regarding objective reality.63 in bothcases thismistake in thesubjective finds its origin realm.64 It appears, that Tambiah's latest in of its obvious then, attempt, spite
63In spiteof claimsto the wouldseemto admit thesame in contrary, Freedberg thefollowing the of in this 1989: use 'elide' and 'elision' 276; passage(Freedberg, does not have in of the enumerated the and to Webster's passage appear any meanings theNewShorter the Oxford index states under 'Elision of dictionaries; English image andprototype': "See also Fusionofimageandprototype" we see the (p. 524)): "When we elideitwith theliving itrepresents... Thistendency resembling image, prototype to elisiondoes nothappenby somekindof magicalprocess.It is partof cognition andit lies at therootof thebeliefin theefficacy of 'magical'images.Awareof the to abstract and makers of defamatory or magical differentiate, supervening tendency the and set out the to to move differentiation." elision, images encourage preempt such as the 64This, of course,opens the way to psychological explanations, one offered which the work C.R. draws on of Piaget: by Hallpike(1979: 429), with the in which literature is of replete examples "Ethnographic way primitives mental andbodily treat andprocesses, andqualities conditions ofphysical properties andphysical of society as well as conditions suchas ill luck,sin, objects, processes, ill health, as entities which andgeneral can be transmitted from manto nature, from onenatural and natural to in to from an enormous object another, objects man, variety The true is notso much itis a ofways. ofthis that significance cognitive phenomenon case ofFrazer's 'like as of of the like', homeopathic producing magic, pre-operatory them to isolateparticular and treat as bounded entities which propensity phenomena absolute and an inner can be detached from their context with physical properties their in is of own. The reification of a notable example dynamism process particular to provide an evolutionary of mind..." For an attempt of thisproclivity explanation

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theghosts ofTylor notbeenable to exorcise sides,has indeed strong andFrazer.65 theone is notvery different from In a wayTambiah's latest position in work mentioned earlier. in a already 1976, by Skorupski presented therelationship between too,discusses magicand perforSkorupski, While in this connection of actions. he mative acts; speaks operative viewofsymbolic he concedes theidentificationist magic, emphasizing if that can be within theory it is intermagic operative incorporated a consequential that is as "a way as a wayoftriggering action, preted it" of signalling whatis beingdone and thereby doing (Skorupski, tonote 1976: 153; cp. Cunningham, 1999: 84). It is further interesting to hold an antithat L. Wittgenstein, who often expressive, appears "themostpersuasive instrumental elsewhere viewof magic, provides what his own so that anti-instrumental arguments objections, against inconwe haveis morea matter of genuine ambivalence thansimple sistency."66 Letus nowreturn semantic toourmainsubject matter, etymologies. Does theabove discussion aboutmagicalacts helpus to understand It does ifwe assume- with with theseetymologies better? Tambiah, atleastincertain casesmagical Frazer that and,yes,with Skorupski acts are believed"to transform nature or theworldof natural things In other are accepted and manifestations" words,things (Tambiah). - to be related - in specific circumstances to or identical perhaps which resemble. This does nothaveto with certain other they things
in thepsychology of disgust, see of thetwolaws of sympathetic magicas observed 1997: 378 ff. Pinker, 65One may also wonder - as did Sharpea quarter ago (1975: 94) century with thetimeis now approaching whenfashionable whether impatience "[p]erhaps will a of hiscontribution to comparative Frazer religion giveplace to soberestimate in its anthropological rather than aspect.He maythenproveto have been greater, than we smaller, thought." on making 1998: 155-182("Wittgenstein homeopathic magicclear"); 66Cioffi, on p. 156. quotedsentence

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tooridentical all things arerelated with that meanthat they everything has been maintained even this belief resemble, occasionally though widemagic),as we have seen.The apparently (e.g. in Renaissance or that can relatedness conviction indicate spread similarity identity allows us to make sense of semantic betweenthings etymologies. are meantto revealthe connections thatexist These etymologies thewordsconcerned, and consequently between thethings between denoted them. by We must be careful notto attribute convictions ofthiskind explicit This toall thosewhouse semantic as mistaken would be etymologies. as attributing similar ideastothosewhopractice (orimhomeopathic was for which he this Frazer's has mistake, itative) magic; repeatedly as we haveseen.Mostusers beenchided, ofsemantic will etymologies world viewthat their assumed nothaveanysystematic validexplains In thisrespect contrast with thoseusersof magicwho often ity. they thepresumed of magicalactswiththehelpof noefficacy "explain" ofthekind. tions ofspirits orsomething Anexception is constituted by as we thinkers have elaborated a view certain who, seen, Neoplatonic oftheworld inwhich a central also between words, similarities, played role. of magicalactsthat we havedisHow abouttheother explanation andpersuasive cussed?Is thenotion of 'speechactsin a performative forsemantic This is mode' able toaccount Seetymologies? unlikely. are notperformative actsand haveno persuasive mantic etymologies far as I can and classical as don'tin early see; they certainly validity, aimappears tobe tobring Indian literature. Their tolight conexisting oridentities or that nections connections identities are (i.e., presumed toexist), aboutnewconnections ortopersuade others. nottobring This leads us to thefollowing conclusion. Semantic etymologies the acts of so-calledsympathetic sharewithmany magic underlying beliefthatsimilar can be related to, or even identical with, things Thisbeliefis notnormally each other. (withsomerare systematized formulated. It is forthisreason and indeedit is rarely exceptions), rather as a consciously tospeakofitas an intuition than better perhaps are heldbelief. There is no claimthat all similar to each things related

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to other(again withsome rareexceptions), and it may be difficult than rather others in each particular case whycertain discern things does notonlyaccount connected. Thisintuition tobe thus areassumed butalso for of for thealmost universal occurrence sympathetic magic, use ofsemantic theequallyquasi-universal etymologies.
JOHANNES BRONKHORST

de langues etcivilisations orientales Section Lausanne de Universit6 BFSH 2 CH-1015Lausanne REFERENCES

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