Consider the integral :

à
1
âx
1 - x2
We can solve the integral by trigonometric substitution :

1
x

Θ
1 - x2

Let Cos@ΘD = 1 - x2
Sin@ΘD = x
Cos@ΘD d Θ = d x

Then the integral becomes

à â Θ = à â Θ = Θ + C = ArcSin@xD + C,
-Cos@ΘD
Cos@ΘD

and we have the anti - derivative.

2 Arc Trig Analytic Continuations.nb

On the other hand, we can write the original integral in a different way :

á
1
âx
1 + HäxL 2

We can, once again, use trigonometric substitution here :

1 + HäxL2
äx

Θ
1

Let Tan@ΘD = äx
-iTan@ΘD = x
-iSec@ΘD2 d Θ = d x
1
Cos@ΘD =
1 + HäxL2
 Arc Trig Analytic Continuations.nb 3

Then the integral becomes

à -äSec@ΘD Cos@ΘD â Θ = -ä à Sec@ΘD â Θ

2

= -ä Log@Sec@ΘD + Tan@ΘDD + K

= -ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF + K

Which gives us another formula for this integral. However,

the two must be equivalent, giving us the identity

ArcSin@xD + C = -ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF + K

But, taking x = 0 we obtain

0 + C = -ä Log@1D + K
C=K

So that in general

ArcSin@xD = -ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF

We can use the same analysis on the integral

à
-1
âx
1 - x2
4 Arc Trig Analytic Continuations.nb

to show that

Π
ArcCos@xD = ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF +
2
These analytic continuations for the arcsine and arccosine functions can be used
to derive the analytic continuations for the sine and cosine functions as well. If

ArcSin@xD = -ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF,

then solving for x in the equaiton

Θ = -ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF

will give us the sine function, x@ΘD = Sin@ΘD.

ãäΘ = 1 - x2 + äx
HãäΘ - äxL2 = 1 - x2
ã2 äΘ - 2 äxãäΘ - x2 = 1 - x2
ã2 äΘ - 1 = 2 äxãäΘ
ãäΘ - ã-äΘ
Sin@ΘD =
2ä

Which is, indeed,

the analytic continuation of the sine function. We can do the same thing with the arccosine function :
Π
Θ = ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF +
2
äΠ
-äΘ + = LogB 1 - x2 + äxF
2
 Arc Trig Analytic Continuations.nb 5

-äΘ + = LogB 1 - x2 + äxF

2
Π
ã-äΦ = 1 - x2 + äx; for convience here we can let Θ - =Φ
Hã-äΦ - äxL2 = 1 - x2
2

ã-2 äΦ - 2 äxã-äΦ - x2 = 1 - x2
ã-2 äΦ - 1 = 2 äxã-äΦ
ã-äΦ - ãäΦ
=x
2ä
äΠ äΠ
ã-äΘ+ 2 - ãäΘ- 2 äΠ
Cos@ΘD = ; by Euler' s identity ã 2 = ä, and simplifying we have
2ä
ãäΘ - ã-äΘ
Cos@ΘD =
2

Which is the formula we expected.

You may also be curious about how one goes

about evaluating the log of an imaginary number : i.e., why is

ArcSin@xD = -ä LogB 1 - x2 + äxF

a useful formula?
To evaluate the log of an imaginary number, we write the argument of the log in its exponential form;
in this case we find the Λ and the Ω for which 1 - x2 + äx = ΛãäΩ,
a value that we know exists since all complex numbers take that form. Then
LogB 1 - x2 + äxF = LogAΛãäΩE = Log@ΛD + äΩ

We can see that this has an imaginary part, äΩ, and a real part, Log@ΛD.
1
As an example, take x = . Then
2
+ F= .
3 ä Π 3 ä äΠ
ΛãäΩ = + , so that Ω = and Λ = 1. Thus LogB
2 2 6 2 2 6