Amperage. You need to understand amperage in three different contexts: full load, locked rotor, and service factor.

Full load amps. Also known as "nameplate amps," it's the current you can expect under full load (torque). Locked rotor amps. Also known as starting inrush current, it's the current you can expect under starting conditions when you apply full voltage. Service factor amps. It's the current to expect when you subject the motor to a percentage of overload equal to the nameplate service factor. Many motors have a service factor of 1.15, meaning the motor can handle a 15% overload. The Code letter indicates the inrush current or locked rotor current a motor requires when you start it. The Design letter indicates the shape of the torque speed curve. The most common design letters are A, B, C, D, and E. Design A motors are rare, specialized motors for injection molding applications. The most important characteristic of Design A is the high pull out torque. Design B is the standard industrial duty motor. It has reasonable starting torque with moderate starting current and good overall performance for most industrial applications. Design C is for hard to start loads, due to its high starting torque. Design D, the "high slip" motor, has high starting torque. Its high slip rpm at full load torque means poor full-load efficiency. Design Ds are good for low-speed elevators, hoists, and punch presses. Design E arrived with great fanfare, because of superior efficiency. However, improvements in Design B motors have made the Design E a much less attractive choice than it was originally. Design B efficiencies often match those of Design E, while Design E has lower locked rotor torque. Efficiency is the percentage of the input power the motor converts to work output. Most domestic motors carry an efficiency number on their nameplates.

Frame size. Motors come in various sizes to match the requirements of the application. Generally, the frame size gets larger with increasing horsepowers or decreasing speeds. To promote standardization in the motor industry, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) prescribes standard frame sizes for certain horsepower, speed, and enclosure combinations. Full load indicates the speed the motor will run when putting out full-rated output torque or horsepower. High inertia loads are those with a high flywheel effect. Examples include large centrifuges, punch presses, blowers, fans, and industrial washers. Insulation class denotes the resistance of the insulating components to degradation from heat. The four major classifications, in order of increasing thermal capability are A, B, F, and H. Load types. One of the most critical factors in motor longevity is matching motor to load type. Constant horsepower. This applies to certain types of loads where the torque requirement is less as the speed increases and vice versa. Constant torque defines a load characteristic where the torque required to drive the machine is constant, regardless of motor speed. Variable torque loads have characteristics requiring low torque at low speeds and increasing values of torque required as the speed increases. Poles. This refers to magnetic poles in an energized motor. Poles come in sets of two (a north and south). In an AC motor, the pole quantity works in conjunction with the frequency to determine the synchronous speed of the motor. Power factor (in percent) is a measure of a particular motor's requirements for magnetizing amperage. Service factor. This multiplier indicates the amount of overload you can expect a motor to handle. For example, you can't expect a motor with a 1.0 service factor to handle more than its nameplate horsepower on a continuous basis. But, you can expect a motor with a 1.15 service factor to handle intermittent loads up to 15% beyond its nameplate horsepower.

Slip rpm is the difference between the motor's synchronous speed and the full load speed. When expressing this slip rpm as a percentage of the synchronous speed, it's "percent slip" or just "slip." Most standard motors run with a full load slip of 2% to 5%. Synchronous speed is the speed at which the magnetic field within the motor is rotating. It's also approximately the speed the motor will run under a no load condition. For example, a 4-pole motor running at 60 cycles would have a magnetic field speed of 1800 rpm. The no load speed of that motor shaft would be nearly 1800 rpm (probably 1798 rpm or 1799 rpm). The full load speed of the same motor might be 1745 rpm. The difference between the synchronous speed and the full load speed is the slip rpm. Temperature. We all know heat is the number one cause of motor failure. In fact, 70% of motor failures are from overheating. When thinking of motor temperature, consider these two factors. Ambient temperature is the maximum safe room temperature if you are going to operate continuously at full load. In most cases, the ambient temperature rating is 40DegrC (104DegrF). Temperature rise is the temperature change you can expect, within the winding , from non-operating (cool condition) to full load continuous operating condition. Time rating. The rating you find on most motors is for continuous duty, which means they can operate at full load torque continuously without overheating. Torque is the twisting force exerted by the shaft of a motor. Units for torque include inch pounds, foot pounds, and inch ounces. Full load torque is the rated continuous torque the motor can support without overheating within its time rating. Peak torque. Many loads have cycling torques where the amount of torque required varies per the position of the machine. The maximum torque requirement at any point is the peak torque requirement. Pull out (or breakdown) torque, is the maximum torque available when the motor operates at full voltage and full speed.

Pull up torque is the lowest point on the torque speed curve for a motor while accelerating a load to full speed. Some motor designs don't have a value of pull up torque because the lowest point may occur at the locked rotor point. In this case, pull up torque equals locked rotor torque. Starting (or locked rotor) torque is the amount of torque available when you apply power to break the load away and accelerate up to speed. Effective selection, application, operation, and maintenance of modern motors require a strong working knowledge of rotating-machine basics as well as an in-depth awareness of the latest technical developments. Modern motor application designs have become more complex than ever before because of the emergence of premium efficiency (PE) motors. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) requires that the most frequently used motors - squirrel-cage induction motors - no longer be manufactured after October 24, 1997. As a result, you must give a careful look to any application that calls for the use of such motors because their characteristics are different from those of standard induction motors. Not all induction motors are affected. Specifically, the law applies to general-purpose, Tframe, single-speed, foot-mounted, polyphase NEMA Design A and B, continuous rated, 230/460V, 60 Hz motors in sizes from 1 to 200 hp. These motors are used in 70% to 80% of all motor applications. Although synchronous, wound-rotor, single-phase, DC motors, and special motors are widely used, squirrel-cage induction motors are the focus of this report. Motor application The primary concern when designing a motor circuit is the application at hand, and the type of motor to do the job. A great many factors are involved when selecting a motor; these include horsepower, torque, speed, frequency, load variations, efficiency, and numerous installation considerations such as environment, enclosures, and mounting. Also important are the type of drive, motor starting method, and available voltage. Special concerns. It's important to emphasize early on in your design process that special care be taken where PE motors are involved. You should be sure of the following items:

* The application warrants a PE motor, at least until standard motors are no longer available; * Depending on load, the appropriate NEMA design letter (A, B, C, D, or E) is best for the job; * Locked-rotor, breakdown torque, and starting current (which can be particularly high for the newest NEMA Design E motor) are double checked; * The proper size and type of motor starter are used. You should also check that the slightly higher speed of most PE motors will not affect the application. This is particularly important where adjustable frequency drives (AFDs) may be incorporated, and the load may be a pump or fan. Efficiency considerations The operating efficiency of a motor has become a major factor because of ever-increasing energy costs. More than half of the typical industrial user's power costs is energy consumed by motors. This makes it essential that operating costs be considered versus initial costs when selecting a motor. High-efficiency motors are available having substantially lower losses than standard lines. In recent years, most major manufacturers have standardized on the term "premium efficiency" to define their most efficient motors. These newer motors have improved steel, laminations and insulations, more copper, and rotor fin designs that provide more cooling. Efficiency of a motor is determined by a standard test called for by NEMA in its standard MG-1-1993, Revision 1, Part 12.58. The test technique, called IEEE 112A-Method B, provides a consistent efficiency measurement standard for those who use it. Also, CSA Standard C390 may be used. The resultant efficiency is stamped on the motor nameplate; this nameplate value is a nominal or average efficiency of the motor. In addition, a minimum efficiency value may be determined and used in investment payback calculations to obtain a conservative estimate. The cost of a higher-efficiency motor is usually higher than a standard motor, depending upon the quality of its design. If the motor runs continuously or at least 16 hrs per day or more, this extra cost is usually well justified and will be returned in one to two years. In

some instances, even an 8-hr operation may result in reduced total costs that will justify the initial premium paid for a high-efficiency motor. Motor selection parameters Horsepower. A fundamental first step in selecting an induction motor is to determine [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED] its horsepower rating so that it will drive the load. Sometimes, this is as simple as obtaining the specifications from the nameplate on the driven load. Possibly the rated load can be obtained from the supplier or from other similar loads. The horsepower requirements can also be calculated from known data, or possibly the load can be tested and the required power measured. Ideally, the motor should be sized so the load is 75% to 95% of its rated full load. This assures high efficiency. As a final resort, try driving the load at rated load and voltage with a motor that appears to be about the right rating. Measure the input current and temperature rise of the motor. This will tell if your test motor is too small or too large, and then using common sense, the proper size motor can be determined. Torque and speed. The hp rating of a motor also depends upon the motor rated-load output characteristics of torque and speed. For a particular application, the motor must have a rated-load torque to drive the machine at the required speed. However, there are three other torque characteristics, as shown in Fig. 1, on page 80, that must be considered: * Locked-rotor or starting torque; * Pull-up torque; and * Breakdown torque. The motor must have sufficient starting and pull-up torque to bring the driven machine to operating speeds, and it must be able to overcome peak loads (breakdown torque) without stalling. You should review the Fig. 1 curve and understand it because NEMA has available standard curves, as shown in Fig. 2, to which all NEMA-design motors must adhere. This will enable you to effectively select the right motor for the job at hand. For example, if a Design B motor is used to drive a load that needs a high starting torque, the motor may overheat during starting and trip out prior to reaching, operating speed. When this happens, the operator may decide to defeat the motor protection, causing the

motor to burn out. Or, someone may decide to install a larger motor, which will cost more initially and, because it's oversized, will operate inefficiently. The differences of the curves shown in Fig. 2 are due primarily to the differences in rotor resistance and reactance introduced during design. The curves for any specific design also vary according to motor size. Output torque values drop as rated hp increases at any given synchronous speed. The Design B motor is perhaps industry's workhorse for general-purpose across-the-line starting duty. It has a "normal" or relatively high starting torque for accelerating highinertia loads, and can handle short-duration overloads to 200% full-load torque or more before reaching the breakdown point. Where the load duty-cycle has a peak in excess of the Design B breakdown torque, a Design A motor may be used. This type has a starting torque very close to the Design B motor but develops a higher breakdown torque and will have a higher starting current. The Design C motor is characterized by a low starting current and high starting torque. It's suitable for loads requiring a high starting torque and rather rapid accelerating loads, such as conveyors and compressors. For extremely heavy starting conditions, the Design D motor is available. Characteristics of the Design E motor have just been introduced by NEMA, and related data is available in the 1996 NEC. This high-efficiency motor is just coming onto the market and appears to be best suited for fan or pump applications because its breakdown torque is somewhat lower than Design B, and it has high starting current. Characteristics of NEMA design motors and their appropriate applications are shown in Table 1, on page 82. Load variations. Where the load varies with time, a horsepower-versus-time curve will help you determine the peak horsepower required. Calculation of the root-mean-square horsepower will indicate the proper motor rating from a heating standpoint. In case of extremely large variations in load, or where shutdown accelerating or decelerating periods make up a large portion of the cycle, the horsepower may not give a true indication of the equivalent continuous load. In situations like this, the motor manufacturer should be consulted. Where the load is maintained at a constant value for an extended period (varying from 15 min to 2 hrs, depending upon the size), the horsepower rating usually will not be less than

the constant value, regardless of other parts of the cycle. If the driven machine is to operate at more than one speed, the horsepower required at each speed must be determined. Selecting the right motor and speed can sometimes avoid the necessity of using a speedcontrol device. Constant-speed motors operate at a practically uniform speed during normal operations. Induction motors are available from 514 rpm to 3600 rpm in the smaller sizes. Synchronous speed ratings of integral-horsepower motors are given in Table 2. Multispeed motors are available for use on loads that can be most effectively operated at two or more specific speeds. A multispeed motor can be of the single-winding type with two independent speeds or special 2-speed, single winding motor with flexible ratio of low-tohigh speed. Multispeed motors can be selected as either variable torque (for fans and centrifugal pumps); constant torque (for conveyers, compressors, and positive-displacement pumps); and constant horsepower (for winches and machine tools). Where the application requires speed adjustment over a range, the DC drive, variablefrequency AC motor drive, or mechanical speed changer can be provided. Service Factor. Service Factor is defined as the permissible amount of overload a motor can handle within defined temperature limits without overheating. When voltage and frequency are maintained at nameplate rated values, the motor may be overloaded up to the horsepower calculated by multiplying the rated horsepower by the service factor shown on the nameplate. However, locked-rotor torque, locked-rotor current, and breakdown torque are unchanged. NEMA service factor values range from 1.00,1.15 (standard for open motors), and 1.25. Insulation and temperature rise. The insulation of motor windings is subject to thermal aging, and degradation of dielectric capability allows shorting to occur between conductors and causes failure. There is a specific temperature rise that is permitted by standards based upon the capabilities of the insulating material. A rule-of-thumb says that for every 10 [degrees] C rise above the limit, insulation life is halved. The total allowable temperature for different insulation classes (including ambient temperature and temperature rise) are: * Class A, 105 [degrees] C; * Class B, 130 [degrees] C; * Class F, 155 [degrees] C; and

* Class H, 180 [degrees] C. Depending upon the method of measurement, size of motor, ambient temperature, etc., the permitted temperature rise will vary. However, the maximum temperature must not be exceeded. When designing a motor circuit and selecting an appropriate motor, it's normally not necessary for you to indicate the type of insulation required. Class B insulation is considered standard and most often will be supplied. Requirements such as a 1.15 service factor for a totally enclosed motor will usually be met by the manufacturer by supplying a higher grade of insulation. There are cases, however, when selecting a higher insulation class is justified as a safety factor or to provide for some particular condition that may not be adequately covered by the ambient temperature chosen. An encapsulated motor includes more material over the windings, leading to higher-than-normal temperatures. The increased temperature of an open dripproof motor with a 1.15 service factor can be compensated for by reducing the service factor or by supplying a higher-rated insulation. Permitted temperature rise of different insulations is based on operation of the motor at altitudes of 3300 ft or less. When this elevation must be exceeded, there are several alternatives. If the motor has 1.15 service factor, then it can be operated at unity factor at altitudes up to 9000 ft in a 40 [degrees] C ambient. Cycling of the load also affects the temperature of the windings. Standard motors are rated for continuous duty; that is, the load is relatively constant for long periods of time. If the application requires that the motor be started and stopped often, or if the load is a cyclical, duty-cycle information should be included in the specifications. Larger frame sizes or higher-rated insulations may be required.