Electrical Metrology

QUIRDER ELECTRICAL METROLOGY
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 1

F a c h h o c h s c h u l e F r a n k f u r t a m Ma i n - Un i v e r s i t y o f Ap p l i e d S c i e n c e s
E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g

1 . Th e o r e t i c a l Ba s i c s
Preliminary it was already noted that a measurement is always defective. Therefore,
it should be generally examined first, how to describe measuring errors, how they
must be considered in the measuring result and how they can be explained by the
type of measurement. In accordance with The German Institute for Standardization
(DIN 1319-1) you do not speak any more from a measuring error but from a
measuring derivation. Nevertheless let us talk about errors.

1.1 Measuring error
The absolute error fa is defined as the difference between the actual value xA which
bears the error, and the desired value xW which should be genuine.

W A a
x x f = (1.1.1)
The absolute error is a part of the measured value and therefore must be indicated as
a measure with its dimension unit.
Also a relative error fr may be defined which represents an absolute error related to
the desired value. Therefore it is dimensionless.

W
W A
r
x
x x
f

= (1.1.2)
While electrical engineers mostly use an indication error. In doing so the absolute
error is related to the final value in the measuring range xMB and given in percent.
This error is called the indication error fAr.
% 100
=
MB
W A
Ar
x
x x
f (1.1.3)
Wherefrom the errors result, it was not mentioned yet. Following DIN 1319 there are
two different kinds of errors, namely the systematic and the random ones.
Systematic errors are a type of errors whose sign and value either are already known
or, however, are to be calculated anyhow, therefore a correction of the measured
value is possible. Beneath others you will find most of the errors resulting of
environmental effects, as for example a subject to the ambient air temperature.
Random or stochastically errors permit no statement about their sign and their value.
Beneath this you find, e.g., errors which appear while reading the display. Therefore,
they can be estimated only with the methods of the theory of probabilities.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 2


1.1.1 Average Value, Standard Deviation, Variance
A statistical error will be determined by calculating the average value x of n
measurements under the same conditions and with the same equipment

( )
n
x x x
n
x + + + =
2 1
1
(1.1.4)

=
=
n
i
i
x
n
x
1
1
(1.1.5)
furthermore the standard deviation s as the root mean square deviation
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 2
2
2
1
1
1
x x x x x x
n
s
n
+ + +
= (1.1.6)
( )
=
n
i
i
x x
n
s
1
2
1
1
(1.1.7)
or with an algorithm which is used by your pocket calculator,

(
(
|
.
|
\
|

=

= =
2
1 1
2
1
1
1
n
i
i
n
i
i
x
n
x
n
s (1.1.8)
The transformation of Gl. 1.1.7 to the Gl. 1.1.8 you find in the appendix.
For a sufficiently large number n goes s to the limit , the standard deviation of the
population. This also applies if for an actually insufficiently large number of values
all values are included in the calculation.
The square of this limit is called variance of the population
( )
(
= =

=

n
i
i
n n
x x
n
s
1
2
2 2
1
1
lim lim (1.1.9)
The so calculated average value is indicated frequently as the result of the
measuring. But this may not represent the true value of the measured parameter,
however. Therefore, one defines the so-called confidence limit v within which the
true value with the statistic confidence S is to be expected.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 3


1.1.2 Normal Distribution
For a better understanding of the confidence limit some terms of the theory of
probabilities should be explained first.
In the metrology statistical, independent and in advance unknowable errors lead to
random variables as measured values which are subject to a so-called normal or
Gaussian distribution. Besides, it is a continuous distribution whose probability
density can be calculated with the function f(x).

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
1

=
x x
x
e f (1.1.10)
( ) ( ) + < < = x x x
2
; ;
A measured value x, a random variable, where such a density function may be
applied, is called normal-distributed. The expected value x , that means the average
value, and the deviation
2
are the parameters of this distribution. If these both
parameters are known, the probability density is uniquely determined.

Fig. 1.1.1: Gaussian Bell-Shaped Curve

The bell-shaped curve of the normal distribution is symmetrically to the maximum,
the average value. Where the curve shows its inflexion points, there the values of the
standard deviation lie. Then the curve progression asymptotically approaches the
abscissa. Therefore the more the curve is rampant, the less the deviation
2
will be.
The distribution function F(x) of the normal distribution indicates the probability that
a value x is located in the examined area of the normal distribution.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 4


( )
( )
}

=
x
x
dz x z F
2
; ; (1.1.11)

( )
( )
}

=
x
x z
x
dz e F
2
2
2
2
2
1

( )
2
; ; x x =

If you enlarge the upper integration limit to + = x , the distribution function will
enclose all values and the probability will be one.

Fig. 1.1.2: The Distribution Function

( )
( ) 1 ; ;
2
= =
}
+

dz x z F
x
(1.1.12)

The distribution makes use of the shape shown in figure 1.1.2.
For easier handling very often the function will be used as a normalized or
standardized normal distribution. Doing so the function values may be given in
tabular form. With 0 = x and 1
2
= the functions will have the following form.
( ) ( ) x x = 1 ; 0 ; (1.1.13)
( ) + < <
=

x e
x
2
2
2
1

as density of the standardized normal distribution and
( ) ( ) x x = 1 ; 0 ; (1.1.14)
dz e
x
z

=
}

2
2
2
1

THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 5


as the distribution function of the standardized normal distribution. Then the
associated curves change to the shape as shown in figure 1.1.3.
The function values are present in the relevant literature as tables mostly for 0 x .
The existing symmetry causes the following:
( ) ( ) x x + = (1.1.15)
and
( ) ( ) x x + = 1 (1.1.16)

Fig. 1.1.3: Curve of the Density- and the Distribution-Function of the Standardized
Normal Distribution

If the table is calculated with the lower integration limit 0 = x , the distribution
function follows as:
( ) ( ) x x + + = +
0
2
1
(1.1.17)
and
( ) ( ) x x + =
0
2
1
(1.1.18)

THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 6


1.1.3 Confidence Region
The confidence region marks out the limits, within those and with the specification of
the statistical confidence a measured value may belong to a certain normal
distribution following the distribution function ( ) x . To define the confidence
region you may use tabular values as they were calculated for the t test, also
student's test called, (s. Appendix). Then the confidence limit v becomes:
s
n
t
v = (1.1.19)

The genuine value of the measurement lies with a statistical confidence S given in
percent within the confidence region
v x x v x + (1.1.20)

1.1.4 Uncertainty of Measurement
By adding the systematic error xF estimated or calculated -, the measuring
uncertainty u will be determined:

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
F
x s
n
t
u (1.1.21)
Therefore after the correction of the registered systematic errors the measuring result
follows from the average value and the measuring uncertainty u:
u x x
e
= (1.1.22)

1.2. Error Propagation
As far as measured values are linked together by a mathematic algorithm their errors
have to be calculated too. Again you differentiate between the systematic and the
random errors.
The measuring values with their systematic mistakes are examined, as follows:
a) Addition:
( ) ( ) ( )
F F F F
x x x x x x x x
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
+ + = + (1.2.1)
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 7


b) Subtraction:
( ) ( ) ( )
F F F F
x x x x x x x x
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
+ = (1.2.2)
c) Multiplication:
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
2
1
1
1 2 2 1 1
1 1
x
x
x
x
x
x x x x x
F F
F F
(1.2.3)
with
1 1
x x
F
<< and
2 2
x x
F
<< it is valid:
( ) ( )
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
2
1
1
2 1 2 2 1 1
1
x
x
x
x
x x x x x x
F F
F F
(1.2.4)
d) Division:

|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 2
1 1
1
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x x
F
F
F
F
(1.2.5)
If you consider, e.g., only the positive sign and further on you extend the
denominator, so this applies:

|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
F F
F F
F
F
(1.2.6)

2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
F
F F F F
(1.2.7)
Then with 1
2
2
1
1
<<
x
x
x
x
F F
and 1
2
2
2
<<
|
|
.
|
\
|
x
x
F
it applies to both signs of the relative errors:

(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
1 1
1
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x x
F F
F
F
(1.2.8)
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 8


e) Raising to a Higher Power:
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
1
1 1 1
1
x
x
m x x x
F m m
F
(1.2.9)
Generally it applies to the linkage of systematic errors:
If you add or subtract measured values, you calculate the sum of the absolute errors.
If you multiply or divide measured values, you calculate the sum of the relative
errors.

If the measuring result is calculated by statistically processed measuring values, you
get
( )
m
x x x f y , , ,
1
= (1.2.10)
The m different values will be measured n-times, so you may calculate m standard
deviations s1, s2 ... sm. Now you calculate the deviation dyi of a value yi due to the
small changes dx1, dx2..., dxm using the entire differential.

mi
m
i i i
dx
x
y
dx
x
y
dx
x
y
dy
+ +
=
2
2
1
1
(1.2.11)
If you square this equation and sort it according to the purely square and mixed
terms, you get:
( )

= = (
(
+
(
(
=
m
k j
ki ji
k j
m
j
ji
j
i
dx dx
x
y
x
y
dx
x
y
dy
1
2
1
2
2 (1.2.12)
Because of the statistically distributed signs in the second term, this can be neglected.
For the sum of all square deviations you get:
( )

= = (
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
i
mi
m
i i
n
i
i
dx
x
y
dx
x
y
dx
x
y
dy
1
2 2
2
2
2
1
1 1
2
(1.2.13)
And therefore the standard deviation will become:

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
m
m
y
s
x
y
s
x
y
s
x
y
s
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (1.2.14)
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 9


1.3. Dynamic Measuring Errors
Beside the static measuring errors which will be considered if the whole system to be
measured is in steady state condition, there are additional errors which result from
the measurement of time variant values, and then you speak of dynamic errors. Now
the dependence between the measured values xa and the result xe can be described
with a differential equation.

( )
( )
( )
+ = + + + +
e a
a
n
a
n
n
n
a
n
n
x B x
t d
x d
T
t d
x d
T
t d
x d
T
0 1
1
1
1
(1.3.1)
The dynamic behaviour of measuring systems is described like time dependent
systems by their character functions and values in the time and frequency domain.
Dynamic measuring errors are not treated for their complexity.

1.4. Reporting Measured Values
Measuring you may follow three different aims:
* Investigation of the dependence between two or several measured values as a
function of an independently changeable parameter (e.g., current/voltage
characteristic curve of an electric light bulb).
* Investigation of continuous stochastic measured values (e.g., voltage with overlaid
noise voltage measured continuously).
* Investigation of stochastic measured values by single measurements (e.g., repeated
measurement of a resistance).

1.4.1 Pairs of Measured Values
A typical report of pairs of measured values, which are a function of an independent
changeable parameter, is a chart. The uncertainty u may be drawn as a vertical dash,
so that you can draw a curves adaptation within the framework of the measuring
uncertainty with estimation by sight. If you do it with a computer, you can arrange
the curves adaptation mathematically by a so-called curves-fit, i.e. you calculate the
coefficients of the equation so you get the minimum square deviation to all measured
pairs.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 10


Fig. 1.4.1: Presentation of Measured Value Pairs

For n measured pairs of values xi and yi you may get a linear function
x a a y + =
1 0
(1.4.1)
where the sum of the square deviation in each measuring pair becomes a minimum.
This kind of the curves adaptation is called linear regression and the function is a
regression straight line. The coefficients of the regression straight lines are:

( )
( )

= =
= = =
(

=
n
i
n
i
i i
n
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i i
x x n
y x y x n
a
1
2
1
2
1 1 1
1
(1.4.2)

(
=

= =
n
i
i
n
i
i
x a y
n
a
1
1
1
0
1
(1.4.3)
A further analysis determines the correlation coefficient r,

( )
( ) ( )

=

= = = =
= = =
n
i
n
i
i i
n
i
n
i
i i
n
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i i
y y n x x n
y x y x n
r
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1
(1.4.4)
It indicates the closeness of agreement between the linear function and every value
pair, with 1 = r there an accurately linear relationship exists. If no relationship
exists, r becomes zero, i.e. with the correlation coefficient you can check the result of
the curves-fit on its utility. Logarithmic, exponential or power functions can also be
examined by taking the logarithm from xi and/or yi.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 11


1.4.2 Continuous Stochastic Measured Values
The evaluation and graphic presentation of continuous, stochastic measuring
parameters result in an average value in examined section.

Fig. 1.4.2: Continuous Stochastic Measured Values
mathematically seen you apply an integration:

}
=
T
t d x
T
x
0
1
(1.4.5)
Besides the correlation analysis finds its application on such measured values. You
distinguish two kinds of correlation.
There we have the autocorrelation, which enables us to find periodic signals in a
strongly jammed signal. By shifting a sequence of the signal as far as the product of it
and the measured values becomes a maximum (mathematical: convolution) (radio
astronomy).

( ) ( )
}
=

T
t t
t d u u
T
0
1 1 ) ( 11
1

(1.4.6)

Fig. 1.4.3: Block Diagram of a Correlator (Autocorrelator: Switch Position S1)
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 12


The other type is the cross correlation which you apply to measured values to find
out the interrelation between two stochastic signals by a convolution (controlled
systems).

( ) ( )
}
=

T
t t
t d u u
T
0
2 1 ) ( 12
1

(1.4.7)

Fig. 1.4.4: Example of an Autocorrelation

1.4.3 Stochastic Measured Values
For the presentation of stochastic measured values you arrange the statistic
distribution of each measured values around a desired value, a histogram, a bell
curve or a curve of the cumulative frequency.
Moreover you divide the area determined by the measured values into k equal
classes and assign the measured values to the classes. Class width m should be
chosen smaller than 1/3 of the standard deviation s (with 9 < k < 25).
In the cumulative frequency curve the cumulative frequency values H will be
inserted every time on the lower border of a class. They are formed by the addition
the frequency values H of the separate classes, beginning with the highest class.
Moreover, the frequency values are applied mostly as per cent values. This qualified
presentation gives you the chance of a straight comparison of different
measurements.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 13


The average value is located at 50% of the cumulative frequency curve. The value of
the standard deviation you find as the difference between 50% and 84,13% or
between 50% and 15,87% of the cumulative frequency.
For the presentation of the cumulative frequency curve you find special paper whose
ordinate is divided in such a way so that you get a straight line by a normal
distribution.

Fig. 1.4.5: Cumulative Frequency Curve on Special Paper

If one applies the class frequency H of the measured values in the middle of each
class, one can draw a histogram or a bell curve too. The maximum of the curve
represents the average value. The difference between the average value and the
60,6% value indicates the standard deviation.

Fig. 1.4.6: Histogram, Bell Curve and Cumulative Frequency
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 14


1.5. Measuring Parameters and Unities
Measured values consist, how already mentioned, of the unit and the absolute
measure. Therefore the units have to be defined and as far as possibly to be
internationalized. The units have been named as the so-called international unity
system (SI) in 1960 by the 11
th
General conference for measurement and weight of
the international meter convention. Finally in 1971 it was extended to altogether
seven basic unities and two supplement unities.

Base item Formular symbol Basic unit Short symbol
length l meter m
1)

mass m kilogram kg
2)

time t second s
3)

current I ampere A
4)

temperature T kelvin K
5)

light intensity IV candela cd
6)

quantity of material n mol mol
7)

plane angle , , radiant rad
8)

solid angle , steradiant sr
9)

1)
1 meter are 1.650.763,73 vacuum wavelengths of the radiation which corresponds to the crossing between the levels 2p10 and
5d5 of the atom krypton 86.
2)
1 kilogram is the mass of the international kilogram prototype.
3)
1 second is the duration of 9.192.631.770 periods of the radiation which corresponds to the crossing between both hyperfine
structure levels of the initial state of the atom caesium 133.
4)
1 ampere is the strength of the time invariant current through two straight-line, parallel, infinitely long conductors of the
relative permeability 1 and from negligible cross section which have the distance 1 m and between those the force caused
electro-dynamically by the current for each 1 m of the double line amounts 210
-7
N in free space.
5)
1 Kelvin is the 273,16th part of the (thermodynamic) temperature of the tripe point of water.
6)
1 candela is the light intensity which a black body of the surface 1/600.000 m
2
radiates vertically to its surface at the
solidification temperature of the platinum and the pressure of 101.325 Pa.
7)
1 Mol is the material amount of a system of a certain compounding which exists of the same number of particles as atoms are
contained in 12/1000 kg of the atom carbon 12.
[ Avogadro constant: 12 g
12
C contain (6,02252 0,00028) 10
23
atoms]
8)
1 Radiant is the angle which is shaped by two rays going out of the centre of a circle with the radius 1 m and including a
segment of the circle with the length 1 m. (1 rad = 5717 ' 44,8 ")
9)
1 Steradiant is the solid angle which is shaped by a band of rays going out of the centre of a ball with the radius 1 m and
including the surface of 1 m
2
on the surface of this ball.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 15


In a lot of applications these unities are either too big or, however too small.
Therefore, headers are internationally defined in order to form decimal multiple and
parts.

SI-header abbreviaton factor SI-header abbreviation factor
exa E 10
18
deci d 10
-1

peta P 10
15
centi c 10
-2

tera T 10
12
milli m 10
-3

giga G 10
9
micro 10
-6

mega M 10
6
nano n 10
-9

kilo k 10
3
Pico p 10
-12

hecto h 10
2
femto f 10
-15

deka da 10
1
atto a 10
-18

1.6. Principle of Indication
Referring to the principle of indication one selected measuring instruments into
analogue and digital ones, today the difference is not so easy to explain. Measuring
instruments constructed in analogue technology may have a digital display and
those in digital technology may have an analogue scale reading (wrist watch!).

1.7. Principle of Measuring
You may measure in two ways:
One method is to set as much units against the measuring parameter till the system is
balanced. The advantage of this method is that you need no calibration of the
measuring system, because only the equality is stated by the measuring parameter
and the measure. The units required for the balance represent the measuring result
(beam balance).
The other way is to use a pointer which will be deflected in relation to the measuring
parameter. The result may be read out on a scale. Moreover the scale must be
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 16


calibrated, i.e. it must have been compared with a normal of the measuring
parameter previously and scaled.

1.8. Measuring Instruments in the Measuring Circuit
If you bring a measuring instrument in a system to measure it, the system is always
affected and the measuring result is falsified generally.
In the electric metrology this particularly appears measuring current and voltage
simultaneously, due to the fact that the distribution of the current and the voltage in
the measuring circle are disturbed. Because this is, however, a systematic error, a
correction is possible.
Measuring simultaneously the current and the voltage you may distinguish between
two systematic errors, i.e. the "current-correct" or the "voltage-correct" circuit of the
measuring instruments; one names both variants also "voltage-error" or "current-
error".
In the "current-correct" circuit the current measuring instrument ampere meter -
measures the correct current
A
I I = . The voltage measuring instrument voltmeter -
measures the total voltage minus the voltage drop across the ampere meter
I R U U
ia V
= .

Fig. 1.8.1: "current-correct" or "voltage-error" Measurement

In the "voltage-correct" circuit the voltmeter measures the correct voltage
V
U U = .
The ampere meter measures the total current minus the current needed in the
voltmeter
iv
A
R
U
I I = .
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 17


Fig. 1.8.2: "voltage-correct" or "current-error" Measurement

Therefore the application of the measuring circuit is corresponding to the value of
the load resistor Rx:
voltage-error method:
iA x
R * 100 R
current-error method:
iV x
R * 01 , 0 R
With a measuring resistor in the range of the internal resistor Ria of the ampere meter
the voltage drop across the ampere meter can not be neglected, i.e. it must be
measured voltage-correct. With a measuring resistor in the range of the internal
resistance Riv of the voltmeter, however, the current flow across the voltmeter can not
be neglected, i.e. it must be measured current-correct.

1.9. Limits of the Measurability
As a result of the thermal agitation of the charge carriers stochastic fluctuations are
superposed to the currents and the voltages. This limits the measurability and the
measuring accuracy of small parameters. In addition the mechanically indicating
measuring instruments are influenced by the Brownian motion of the mobile
measuring element.
For a critically damped galvanometer, e.g., with the closing resistor = k R
gr
4 , the
time of oscillation s T 10
0
= , the temperature of the measuring circuit K 290 = , the
Boltzmann constants
1 23
10 38 , 1

= K J k and the efficiency factor of the
galvanometer 2 , 0 = the average fluctuation squares of the current
2
i and the
voltage
2
u become
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 18


= = k
R
T
u T R i
gr
gr
2
1
0 2
0
2

Now we solve the equation for i :

0
2
1
T R
k i
gr

=

And we get:
pA i 5 , 0 = and nV i R u
gr
2 = =
This is a theoretical value which can not be reached in practice.

THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 19


Appendix:
Calculation to form the algorithm of the standard deviation:
( )
=
n
i
i
x x
n
s
1
2
1
1

and

(
(
|
.
|
\
|

=

= =
2
1 1
2
1
1
1
n
i
i
n
i
i
x
n
x
n
s
should be same, or:
( )
2
1 1
2
1
2 1
|
.
|
\
|
=

= = =
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
x
n
x x x
First the bracket on the left side of the equation is dissolved:

( ) ( )
( )

= =
= =
=
+ =
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
x x x x
x x x x x x
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2

Now it is to be proved that this applies:
( )
2
1 1
2 1
2 |
.
|
\
|
=

= =
n
i
i
n
i
i
x
n
x x x
If one forms the sum of all ( )
2
2 x x x
i
, the term
2
x exists n-times in this sum, i.e. it
is follows:
( ) ( )
2
1 1
2
2 2 x n x x x x x
n
i
i
n
i
i
=

= =

If you now use the equation for the average value (see Gl.1.5), so you find:

( )
. . .
1
2
1
1 1
2 2
2
1
2
1 1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
d e q x
n
x x x
n
x
n
n x
n
x x n x x
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
n
i
i
n
i
i i
n
i
i
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
= = =
= = = =

THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 20


Table 1: Distribution Function:
( ) ( ) dz e x x
x
z

= =
}

2
2
2
1
1 ; 0 ;

x ( ) x
x
( ) x
x
( ) x
x
( ) x
0,00 0,50000 0,05 0,51994 2,00 0,97725 2,05 0,97982
0,10 0,53983 0,15 0,55962 2,10 0,98214 2,15 0,98422
0,20 0,57926 0,25 0,59871 2,20 0,98610 2,25 0,98778
0,30 0,61791 0,35 0,63683 2,30 0,98928 2,35 0,99061
0,40 0,65542 0,45 0,67364 2,40 0,99180 2,45 0,99286
0,50 0,69146 0,55 0,70884 2,50 0,99379 2,55 0,99461
0,60 0,72575 0,65 0,74215 2,60 0,99534 2,65 0,99598
0,70 0,75804 0,75 0,77337 2,70 0,99653 2,75 0,99702
0,80 0,78814 0,85 0,80234 2,80 0,99744 2,85 0,99781
0,90 0,81594 0,95 0,82894 2,90 0,99813 2,95 0,99841
1,00 0,84134 1,05 0,85314 3,00 0,99865
1,10 0,86433 1,15 0,87493 3,10 0,99903
1,20 0,88493 1,25 0,89435 3,20 0,99931
1,30 0,90320 1,35 0,91149 3,30 0,99952
1,40 0,91924 1,45 0,92647 3,40 0,99966
1,50 0,93319 1,55 0,93943 3,50 0,99977
1,60 0,94520 1,65 0,95053 3,60 0,99984
1,70 0,95543 1,75 0,95994 3,70 0,99989
1,80 0,96407 1,85 0,96784 3,80 0,99993
1,90 0,97128 1,95 0,97441 3,90 0,99995
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 21


Table 2: t Distribution
- values in per cent
Bilateral problem
m\
50 25 10 5 2 1 0,2 0,1
1 1,00 2,41 6,31 12,7 31,82 63,7 318,3 637,0
2 .816 1,60 2,92 4,30 6,97 9,92 22,33 31,6
3 .765 1,42 2,35 3,18 4,54 5,84 10,22 12,9
4 .741 1,34 2,13 2,78 3,75 4,60 7,17 8,61
5 .727 1,30 2,01 2,57 3,37 4,03 5,89 6,86
6 .718 1,27 1,94 2,45 3,14 3,71 5,21 5,96
7 .711 1,25 1,89 2,36 3,00 3,50 4,79 5,40
8 .706 1,24 1,86 2,31 2,90 3,36 4,50 5,04
9 .703 1,23 1,83 2,26 2,82 3,25 4,30 4,78
10 .700 1,22 1,81 2,23 2,76 3,17 4,14 4,59
11 .697 1,21 1,80 2,20 2,72 3,11 4,03 4,44
12 .695 1,21 1,78 2,18 2,68 3,05 3,93 4,32
13 .694 1,20 1,77 2,16 2,65 3,01 3,85 4,22
14 .692 1,20 1,76 2,14 2,62 2,98 3,79 4,14
15 .691 1,20 1,75 2,13 2,60 2,95 3,73 4,07
16 .690 1,19 1,75 2,12 2,58 2,92 3,69 4,01
17 .689 1,19 1,74 2,11 2,57 2,90 3,65 3,96
18 .688 1,19 1,73 2,10 2,55 2,88 3,61 3,92
19 .688 1,19 1,73 2,09 2,54 2,86 3,58 3,88
20 .687 1,18 1,73 2,09 2,53 2,85 3,55 3,85
25 .684 1,18 1,71 2,06 2,49 2,79 3,45 3,72
30 .683 1,17 1,70 2,04 2,46 2,75 3,39 3,65
40 .681 1,17 1,68 2,02 2,42 2,70 3,31 3,55
60 .679 1,16 1,67 2,00 2,39 2,66 3,23 3,46
120 .677 1,16 1,66 1,98 2,36 2,62 3,17 3,37
.674 1,15 1,64 1,96 2,33 2,58 3,09 3,29
m
/ 25 12,5 5 2,5 1 0,5 0,1 0,05
Unilateral problem
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 22


Example 1.1
A resistor measurement under the same conditions shows the following 20 values of
Ri in ohm:
680 684 684 672 664 692 685 681 676 668
693 681 676 696 689 672 688 682 677 680

Please calculate the average value, the standard deviation, the confidence region for a
statistic safety S = 95% and the measuring result. The estimated systematic error
amounts to 0,1%.

Example 1.2
the measuring result is the function of the measuring parameters:
A)
3 2 1
x c x b x a y + =
B)
3
2 1
x
x x
y

=
Calculate in each case formally the standard deviation.

Example 1.4.1
Between the current I and the voltage U of an electric light bulb exists a dependence
which can be described with the power function:

a
U
U
I k I
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
0
0

With the measured values U and I

U in V 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230
I in mA 340 421 496 563 623 677 726 772 817 860 903

are to be calculated the exponent a, the factor k and the correlation coefficient r.
THEORETICAL BASICS
1 - 23


Example 1.4.2
A resistor measurement under the same conditions shows the following 20 values of
Ri in ohm:
680 684 684 672 664 692 685 681 676 668
693 681 676 696 689 672 688 682 677 680

Outline the histogram, the bell curve and the cumulative frequency curve.

QUIRDER ELECTRICALMETROLOGY
ACCURACYOFMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
21

F a c h h o c h s c h u l e F r a n k f u r t a m Ma i n Un i v e r s i t y o f Ap p l i e d S c i e n c e s

2 . Ac c u r a c y o f Me a s u r i n g I n s t r u me n t s
The indication error should not exceed given limits under nominal and test condi
tions withinthe measuringrange. Analoganddigital measuring instrumentsdefine
the indication error in different ways. Nevertheless with this specification you will
calculatethevalueoftheratedsystematicerrorofyourmeasurement.
2. 1 Ac c ur ac y of an Anal og Meas ur i ng I ns t r ument
Thegraduationtakesplaceinaccuracyclasseswiththemaximumerrorrelatedtothe
fullscalevalueofthemeasuringrange.Itisapercentspecification.
Youdifferentiatebetweenprecisionmeasuringinstruments:
Class: 0,05; 0,1; 0,2 or0,5
andoperationalmeasuringinstruments:
Class: 1,0; 1,5; 2,5 or5,0
withthecorrespondingpercentalindicationerrors.
Measuringinstrumentswithoutamechanicalzeroorwithaverynonlinearscalede
finetheclassasthepercentalerroroftheusablescalelength.
Youfindtheaccuracyclasswithotherspecificationsonthedialofyourinstrument.
Theindicationerror
AR
f iscalculatedby

A
MB
AR
x
x k
f

(2/1/1)
with k classinpercent,

MB
x fullscalerangeand

A
x measuredvalue
Thisistheratedsystematicerrorofyourmeasurement.
ACCURACYOFMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
22


Amoreindividualerroristhenotverticallydirectedlookatthepointer,parallax
named.Topreventoratleastminimizethiserrorthescaleofprecisioninstrumentsis
builtwithalamellarmirrornexttothescalemarks.Aswell,oneholdsthedistance
betweenpointerandscaleaslowaspossible.Thisisatypicalrandomerror.
Fig.2.1.1:Parallax
2. 2 Ac c ur ac y of a Di gi t al Meas ur i ng I ns t r ument
Withdigitalmeasuringinstrumentsyoufindnospecificationintodifferentaccuracy
classes.Thereisonlygivenalimitofindicationerrors
%) 100 ) % 100 / % ( lsd b x a f
A AR
(2.2.1)
with a indicationerrorinpercent,

A
x measuredvalue
b numberofdigitsand
lsd leastsignificantdigit

SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 1


3 . S u p p o r t i n g Un i t s
To extend the application of measuring instruments, very often supporting units are
added to the basic instruments.

3.1 Direct and Alternating Magnitudes
Especially for the measurement of alternating magnitudes you need various types of
supporting units. Therefore, the definition of direct and alternating magnitudes fol-
lows now:

3.1.1 Definition of Direct Magnitudes
Direct magnitude says that during the measuring interval a constant value exists, i.e.
the magnitude during the measuring time does not change:

( ) t
f U (3.1.1)
or

( ) t
f I (3.1.2)
The ratio of voltage and current is called the ohmic resistance R

I
U
R = (3.1.3)
and its reciprocal value is the conductance G

U
I
R
G = =
1
(3.1.4)
The product of voltage and current results in the power P, the active power
I U P = (3.1.5)

3.1.2 Definition of Alternating Magnitudes
Alternating magnitude says that during the measuring interval no constant value
must exist. The value is dependent on time. For sine wave-form alternating values
you usually write:

( )
( )
u t
t u u + = sin (3.1.6)
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 2


or

( )
( )
i t
t i i + = sin
(3.1.7)
With and as the peak values of the voltage and the current, u and i the phase
displacements of the voltage and the current related to a reference phase angle and
the angular frequency ( ) T f = = 2 2 with T the time of oscillation.
The ratio of the voltage u (t) and the current i(t) is called the complex resistance
1)
or the
impedance Z. The reciprocal value is the complex conductance or the admittance Y.
If you multiply a voltage by a current, you will get the instantaneous power of an al-
ternating voltage circuit with a current flow i (t) and in the voltage u (t).

( ) ( ) ( ) t t t
i u p = (3.1.8)
( ) ( )
i u
t i t u + + = sin
sin
with the addition theorem:
( ) ( ) [ ] + = cos cos
2
1
sin sin
follows:

( )
( ) ( ) [ ]
i u i u t
t
i u
p + +
= 2 cos cos
2
(3.1.9)
Due to the fact that the reference phase angle can be freely chosen, you may select the
phase angle i as the reference phase angle, so the equation 3.1.9 simplifies to

( )
( ) [ ]
u u t
t
i u
p +
= 2 cos cos
2
(3.1.10)
If you use the notation of the root mean square value of a sine wave-form current
I I
i
eff
= =
2

or U U
u
eff
= =
2

you find

1)
Definition:
Complex Resistance: Impedance (Z) = Resistance (R) + j Reactance (X)
Complexer Conductance: Admittance (Y) = Conductance (G) + j Suszeptance (B)
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 3


( )
( ) [ ] + = t I U p
t
2 cos cos (3.1.11)
If you look at the power within a period of the oscillation frequency, so you find:

( )
}
=
T
t
t d p
T
P
0
1
(3.1.12)

( ) [ ]
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
)
`
+ +
=
(
=
+ =
}

0 sin 2 sin
2
1
cos 0
1
2 sin
2
1
cos
1
2 cos cos
1
0
0
T T I U
T
t t I U
T
t d t I U
T
T
T

finally you get:
cos = I U P (3.1.13)
The integration over one period shows that the average power value of the alterna-
ting current corresponds to that of a direct current and that it is dependent on the
phase angle between current and voltage.
The second term of the integral supplies no contribution to the result, because it is an
alternating value with the amplitude 2
i u which oscillates with the doubled fre-

quency around the zero baseline. Fig. 3.1.1 shows the run of the curve for three dif-
ferent phase angles.

Fig. 3.1.1: alternating current power vs. [a) = 0; b) = 60 ; c) = 90 ]

This part of the alternating current power which spends no contribution to the active
power is call the reactive power. If you choose the complex manner of writing, how-
ever, it is obvious to disassemble the alternating current power in a real part and an
imaginary part of the complex numbers plane.
With { } S e I U P = = cos of the active power follows for the reactive power:
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 4


{ } S m I U Q = = sin (3.1.14)
and together you get the amount of the apparent power:
S Q P I U S = + = =
2 2
(3.1.15)
Writing with exponential terms you must remember the definition of the phase angle
namely =
i u
. So that the product of voltage and current must be build with the
current as a conjugate complex value.
Apparent power written in complex manner:

*
I U S = (3.1.16)
with
) (
u
t j
e U U
+
=
and
) (
i
t j
e I I
+
=
or
) ( *
i
t j
e I I
+
=
you get:

) ( ) (
i u
t j t j
e I e U S
+ +
= (3.1.17)

( )
( )

sin cos j I U
e I U
e I U
j
j
i u
+ =
=
=

3.1.3 Multiphase System
If several coils which are dedicated to each other on a common shaft, turn in a mag-
netic field, a voltage is induced in every coil which corresponds to the momentary
position in the field. Also one of the voltages represents the spatial allocation related
to the other induced voltages by the phase angles to these. If the coils of such a mul-
tiphase system are identical and, moreover, are evenly distributed against each other,
this system is called a symmetric multiphase system with a phase displacement
m 2 according to m coils. In a homogeneous magnetic field the instantaneous
value of the voltage induced in the k
th
coil amounts to:

( )
( )
(
+ = t
m
k u u
u t k

2
1 cos (3.1.18)
With the peak value of the voltage in each coil and
u
the zero phase angle of the
first coil (reference coil)
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 5


Fig. 3.1.2: Three-Phase System

Limiting the implementation to a three-phase system the voltages can be formulated
in accordance with Fig. 3.1.2:

( )
( )
u t
t u u + = cos
1
(3.1.19)

( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
3
2 1
cos
2

u t
t u u (3.1.20)

( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
3
2 2
cos
3

u t
t u u (3.1.21)

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
3
2
cos

u
t u
In the practice the coils will be linked, there are two basic kinds of wiring. On the one
hand the phases will be connected as a delta with the sum of the voltages U = 0 and
on the other as a star with the sum of the currents I = 0. Therefore a distinction is
drawn between three-wire and four-wire systems.
For the power measurement in a three-wire system a few characteristics are to be
considered.
Within a four-wire system, a star circuit with neutral line, you can measure the active
power in every phase and sum it up.

3 2 1
P P P P
ges
+ + = (3.1.22)

3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
cos cos cos + + = I U I U I U
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 6


Fig. 3.1.3: Four-Wire System

If you are sure that the load is symmetrically, you may reduce the number of meas-
urement to the active power measurement in one phase. Then the measured value is
multiplied by three.
with U U U U = = =
3 2 1

I I I I = = =
3 2 1

and = = =
3 2 1

follows out of equation 3.1.22

3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
cos cos cos + + = I U I U I U P
ges
(3.1.23)
cos 3 = I U
With a symmetrically loaded three-wire system which is based either on a star circuit
without a neutral line or on a delta circuit, you may simulate an artificial neutral
point by resistors as a voltage reference point for the three phases and measure the
active power with only one wattmeter.

Fig. 3.1.4: One-Wattmeter Method with an Artificial Neutral Point
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 7


Fig. 3.1.5: Aron-Circuit
If symmetry is not guaranteed, you apply a so-called Aron measuring circuit within a
three-wire system. In such a system the sum of the phase currents must be zero,
therefore you may determine the active power by two watt meters. The voltage is
measured in each case against the phase in which no wattmeter is inserted. Therefore
three measurement setups are possible:

32 12
P P P
ges
+ = (3.1.24)

23 13
P P P
ges
+ = (3.1.25)

31 21
P P P
ges
+ = (3.1.26)
It should be mentioned that while the watt meters are installed in the same way one
of the partial powers can become negative. Nevertheless the partial powers must be
added with their correct signs.

Fig. 3.1.6: Vector Diagram for a Symmetric Load
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 8


If you consider the measuring circuit under the aspect of a symmetric load, P12 and
P32 show the partial powers:

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
6
cos
1 12 12
I U P (3.1.27)

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
6
cos
3 32 32
I U P (3.1.28)
with U U U U = = = 3
1 32 12
and I I I = =
3 1
follows:

)
`
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
6
cos
6
cos I U P
ges
(3.1.29)
With the symmetry of the cosine

|
.
|
\
|
=
(
|
.
|
\
|

6
cos
6
cos
And with the addition theorem

2
cos
2
cos 2 cos cos

+
= +
with
+ =
6
and
=
6
and a symmetric load the active power calculates to:

cos 866 , 0 2
cos
6
cos 2
=
=
I U
I U P
ges

cos 3 = I U (3.1.30)
In this case the reactive power may be calculated by the two partial power measure-
ments too.
Now this formula applies:

)
`
|
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
6
cos
6
cos
32 12
I U P P (3.1.31)
Again under the aspect of the cosine symmetry and with the addition theorem

2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos

+
=
follows:
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 9


sin
6
sin 2
32 12
= I U P P (3.1.32)
sin 5 , 0 2
12 32
= I U P P (3.1.33)

3
Q
=
Or for the reactive power with symmetric load
( )
12 32
3 P P Q = (3.1.34)
For this special case you may also calculate the phase angle:

( )
32 12
12 32
3
tan
P P
P P
P
Q
+

= = (3.1.35)

3.2 Rectifiers
Measuring circuits with rectifying diodes are called according to their way of opera-
tion. You find half-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier to measure the mean value, the
root mean square value and the peak value.
The most common electric rectifier circuits are:
Half-wave rectifier
Only that part of the measuring magnitude, which lies in the pass band of the electric
rectifier element (diode), is included in the result of the measurement.
Warning: Used only for the measurement of voltages, because every time one half of
the current is blocked.

Fig. 3.2.1: Half-Wave Rectifier

SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 10


Graetz circuit
A bridge rectifier consists of four rectifier elements. It has the disadvantage of the se-
ries connection of two rectifier elements with the DC-measuring circuit by which the
sensitivity is decreased and the temperature dependence is raised.

Fig. 3.2.2: Graetz Circuit

Modified Graetz Circuit (Pfannenmller)
You avoid the disadvantages of the Graetz circuit and, however, the current selectiv-
ity decreases. The resistors are shunt circuit to the whole circuit and raise the power
demand.

Fig. 3.2.3: Pfannenmller Circuit

Greinacher Circuit
A circuit which doubles the peak value of an alternating voltage. It loads the capaci-
tors lying parallel to the consumer in the same direction.
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 11


Fig. 3.2.4: Greinacher Circuit

Ring-Modulator
The ring-modulator also belongs to the rectifiers, namely it is a phase depending rec-
tifier. The carrier frequency f1 closes and opens alternately the rectifiers Gl1 and Gl2 or
the diagonal rectifiers Gl3 and Gl4. The carrier voltage must be so high that the meas-
uring signal can not compensate it and change the conducting direction. To avoid
that the carrier voltage appears in the output of the circuit, the transformer and the
rectifiers must be well selected.

Fig. 3.2.5: Ring-Modulator

3.3 Phase Rotator
The circuits used to rotate the phase between two electric values by = 90 are
summarized as bumblebee-circuits.
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 12


Fig. 3.3.1: Bumblebee-Circuit

A disadvantage of these circuits is its frequency dependent; therefore, they only can
be used for a certain frequency.

1
2 1 2
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
R
L L
R L
R
R
L j
I
U
+
(
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = (3.3.1)
with
2 1
2
2 1
L L R R = the real part becomes zero. Between the voltage U and the cur-
rent I2 there is phase rotation of 2 , as demanded.
The phase shifter represents an interesting circuit in this field. If the voltage U2 re-
mains unstressed, it can take all phase angles in the relation to the total voltage U1.

Fig. 3.3.2: Phase Shifter

SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 13


Under the condition
C
L
R R R = = =
2 1
the input resistance becomes independent of
the frequency, real and like R.
With the oscillating frequency
C L
=
1
you get
2 1
U U = and the phase between
both voltages becomes 2 .

3.4 Extension of the Measuring Range
Extensions of the measuring range are needed if either the current or the voltage to
be measured overruns the final value of the measuring range.
For the current measurement you put a resistor (shunt) in parallel to the measuring
element to divide the current flow in known ways.

Fig. 3.4.1: Extension of the Measuring Range by a Parallel Resistor

You find:

p M ges
i i i + = (3.4.1)
With
ges
i the total current to be measured

M
i the current of the measuring element

p
i the current of the parallel resistor, shunt
furthermore must the condition:

p A
u u =
and
SUPPORTING UNITS
3 - 14


p p iA M
R i R i =
be fulfilled.
For a voltage measurement uges a resistor Rv is assembled in series with the measur-
ing element to distribute the voltage so that above the internal resistor RiV of the
measuring element the maximal voltage may drop which is related to the permissible
measuring current.

Fig. 3.4.2: Extension of the Measuring Range by a Resistor in Series

( )
V iV M ges
R R i u + = (3.4.2)
In a multimeter you find an interconnection of shunts and resistors in series.

PHENOMENA AND THEIR APPLICATION
4 - 1


4 . P h e n o me n a a n d Th e i r Ap p l i c a t i o n
If you want to measure a physical parameter, you must realize which phenomenon is
released by this parameter and how you can use this in a measuring device.
In the electric metrology the following parameters are measured:
current, voltage, power, resistance, capacity, inductance, phase angle between cur-
rent and voltage, frequency, etc..
Now for these parameters the phenomena which can be used for their measurement
are to be examined.

4.1 Thermal Energy
When a current flows in an electric conductor, i.e. charge carriers move under the ef-
fect of electric field forces through the material, they transfer a part of their kinetic
energy to the material particles as an undirected kinetic energy as thermal energy.
Therefore the current which flows through a conductor with the resistance R pro-
duces thermal energy, also called Joule energy or current thermal energy:

= = = = t d u G t d i R t d i u Q d u W
J
2 2
(4.1.1)
Then the supplied electric power is:

2 2
u G i R i u
t d
W d
P
J
= = = = (4.1.2)
This has found its implementation in the following instruments:

4.1.1 Hot Wire Measuring Instrument
Thermal expansion
2
~ i
By the influence of the supplied current thermal energy extends the conductor. The
amperage is shown by the changed slack span of the conductor.
4 - 2


Fig. 4.1.1: Hot Wire Instrument
The response time amounts to some seconds. It is also suitable for the radio fre-
quency metrology, because no cut off frequency is to be considered. In most cases
thermal instruments are applied even to the demonstration of the current thermal
energy.
Disadvantage: It is sensitive to overload

4.1.2 Thermal Converter
Thermo-electric voltage
2
~ i
Here a linear conductor is flown by a current to be measured too. The produced heat
is measured with a thermocouple and the thermo-electric voltage proportional to the
temperature of the conductor is advertised.

Fig. 4.1.2: Thermal Converter
[1 thermocouple; 2 heater band; 3 compensation band; 4 isolator; 5 connectors]
4 - 3


The thermocouple can be welded with the hot wire (direct heating) or coupled elec-
trically isolated (indirect heating).
These instruments find application in the current measurement, especially in the area
of the radio frequency engineering. Higher amperages must be measured with cur-
rent transformer. Because the interrelationship is square, power can be measured too,
only the phasing of alternating parameters must be considered.

Fig. 4.1.3: Thermal Converter Measuring Power

Therefore, two thermal converters are used to measure the active power. Their hot
wires are flown by two current, by the sum and the difference of the current through
the load and of the voltage falling over the load. The thermocouples are arranged on
the hot wires insulated and are switched again each other. Because the thermo-
electric voltage uth depends on the square of the heating current, it applies:

2 1 th th th
u u u = (4.1.3)

( ) ( ) [ ]
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
4 i i k
i i i i k
=
+ =

with u k i =
1 1
and i k i =
2 2
follows:
i u k k u
th
=
2 1
(4.1.4)
i u k
th
=
and therefore for alternating parameters:
cos = I U k u
th th
(4.1.5)
Disadvantage: It is sensitive to overload
4 - 4


4.1.3 Bimetallic Movement
Angle
2
~ i
The conductor exists of two laminated materials with different thermal expansion
coefficients. By measuring a current the conductor is warmed up and curves. The re-
sulting angle is the value of the current.

Fig. 4.1.4: Bimetallic Movement

In practice the bimetallic band is wrapped to a spiral where the pointer is fastened.
For the compensation of the variations in environment temperature serves a second
spiral with an opposed direction of winding. Bimetallic movements are used
switchboards and are frequently equipped with a trailing pointer to show the maxi-
mum value.
Advantage: Simply, durably, high torque
Disadvantage: low measuring accuracy, big thermal slowness

4.2 Forces on Electric Charge
If you bring an electric charge into a magnetic field, so a force is exerted on these par-
ticles which depend on the size and the speed of the electric charge as well as on the
strength of the magnetic induction at the position of the particle. The direction of the
resulting force is normal to the movement of the electric charge and to the direction
of the induction.
4 - 5


Fig. 4.2.1: Coil in a Magnetic Field

Vectorial writing shows:
( ) B v Q F

x = (4.2.1)
with the absolute value:
( ) B v B v Q F

, sin = (4.2.2)
replacing now

= = i
t
Q v Q (4.2.3)
And if you assume that the angle is a right one between the direction of the current
and the induction, you get the force:
B i F = (4.2.4)
with ( ) 1 , sin = B i

If you now consider a rectangle coil with the length L and w sinuosity in the homo-
geneous magnetic field and the axis of rotation of the coil stands normal to the induc-
tion lines, so you find the torque in dependence to the projected distance cos r .
cos 2 = r B i w L M
el
(4.2.5)
with L r A = 2 the surface of the rectangle coil it also applies:
cos = B i A w M
el
(4.2.6)
Technical applications of this effect are moving-coil measuring instruments and elec-
trodynamic measuring mechanism.
4 - 6


4.2.1 Moving-Coil Measuring Instrument with a Permanent
Magnet
In moving-coil measuring instruments the coil moves in the air gap of a permanent
magnet, so that the resulting moment is a function of the current to be measured.
i k M
i el
= (4.2.7)
With a spiral spring the mechanical counter moment, the deflecting force MR, is estab-
lished in relation to the torsion angle.
=
R R
k M (4.2.8)
Now the coil twists itself so far, till that the sum of the moments becomes zero. Then
it applies:
= = =
R i R el
k i k M M (4.2.9)
and therefore i ~
If the current i is an alternating one, the pointer should oscillate around the zero posi-
tion, but as the result of its inertia you get an average value. Therefore it applies i.e.,
however, to a sinusoidal current:
( )
=
T
m
t d t i
T
I
0
sin
1
(4.2.10)
( ) [ ] 0 cos
1
1
0
= =
T
t i
T

Therefore you can not directly measure an alternating current with a moving coil
measuring instrument.
Nevertheless doing so you add a full wave rectifier. Now the movement of the
pointer is the arithmetic average value formed about the half oscillation (average ab-
solute value or mean modulus).
( )
=
2
0
sin
2
T
arith
t d t i
T
I (4.2.11)
( ) [ ] i t
i
T
2
cos
2
0
= =

The arithmetic average value corresponds to a direct current which has the same
electrolytic effect, how a half oscillation of the considered alternating current (electric
rectifier technology).
4 - 7


Moving-coil measuring instruments are damped electro-dynamically, so that me-
chanical attenuation elements are obsolete. By the movement of the moving coil a
voltage is induced. The so-called shut down resistor RS allows a current flow in op-
position to the measuring current.
Moving-coil measuring instruments are suitable to measure currents up to 10 mA di-
rectly. According to direction of the axis the smallest measuring range will be 0 to 1
A (vertically) or 0 to 10 A (horizontal).
As long as the current is measured directly, the temperature dependence of the coils
resistance has no influence on the measuring accuracy, because the whole measuring
current I0 flows through the coil. If, however, you must extend the measuring range,
you can do this by switching a resistor in parallel to the measuring element. How-
ever, now the current divides by the resistance values therefore a heating of the coil
by the measuring current I0 the displayed value is incorrect. Therefore, the compen-
sation is done by switching a " temperature independent "resistance RVW in series
with the coil. Its value should amount a multiple of the coils resistance. Then for the
shunt RN to extent the working rang you will find:

0
R R R
S N
= (4.2.12)
with
VW M
R R R + =
0
.
The extension is mostly not limited to one rang, but it encloses several ranges with
the associated shunts. In practice the shunts for several current measuring ranges are
divided by the method of Ayrton, so that apart from the external measuring circle the
resistors RM, RVW and RN form a constant shut down resistor RS of the measuring ele-
ment which is given by the needed damping.

Fig. 4.2.2: Measuring Range Extension by Ayrton

4 - 8


= =
= + =
n
i
i
n
i
i S
R R R R
0 1
0
(4.2.13)
( )
0
1
0
1
I I R I R R
m
m
i
i
m
i
i S
=

= =
(4.2.14)

Nm
m
S
m
i
i
R
I
I R
R =
=
0
1
(4.2.15)
for
0
I I
m
>> the voltage drop
0
I R U
S
is nearly constant in every measuring range.
Example 4.2.1
A measuring element with its resistor = 200
M
R and its current for full-scale deflec-
tion A I 200
0
= is given. The shut down resistor should be = 500
S
R . The combina-
tion of shunts has to be calculated for the measuring ranges 1,0 mA, 10 mA, 0,1 A
and 1,0 A.
The measuring element should be extended to a voltmeter with the measuring
ranges 100 mV, 1,0 V, 10 V and 100 V and the smallest current measuring range
should be used.

4.3 Moving-Coil Measuring Instrument with an Electromagnet
Replacing the permanent magnet by a coil, so you can produce a flux density in the
air gap proportional to the current.

L
L
w
i B
1
1 0
= (4.3.1)
with the length
L
of the line of magnetic flux in the air gap.
Such an instrument is called dynamometer.

Fig. 4.3.1: Dynamometer
4 - 9


If you now apply the already known formulas of the moving-coil measuring instru-
ment with permanent magnet, so you may read:
cos
2 1
= i i k M
el
(4.3.2)
Here you need a return spring too, which must produce the counter moment:
=
R R
k M (4.3.3)
Then with the moments in balance you get:
cos
2 1
= i i k k
R
(4.3.4)
and therefore:
cos ~
2 1
i i (4.3.5)
Now different configurations are possible:

2
~ i with .
1
const i =

2
~ i with i i i = =
2 1
or

2 1
~ i i with independent currents.
If you connect the two coils in series, so that the pointer deflection becomes propor-
tionally to the square of the current, the pointer shows the square average value by
the measurement of an alternating current.
( )
=
T
eff
t d t i
T
I
0
2 2 2
sin
1
(4.3.6)

( ) [ ]
2
2 cos 1
2
1
1
2
0
2
i
t d t i
T
T
=
=

The root of this average value is the effective value of an alternating parameter (root
mean square value, rms). In this case the effective value of a harmonic oscillation.
During one period the effective value or geometrical average value of an alternating
current develops the same heat as a direct current in this time.
If you set the effective value with the arithmetic average value in relation, you will
get a shape factor which amounts to 11 , 1 =
f
k for sine function and it deviates for all
other varying forms from it. If you calibrate a moving-coil measuring instrument by
means of direct current on the associated half oscillation average value for a harmo-
4 - 10


nious oscillation, enormous measuring errors can appear by alternating values with
high harmonic components.
Also power measurement are possible with a dynamometer, because on the one
hand the square of the current is measured with the series connection of the coils and
for other the product from current and voltage, i.e. from the current proportional for
the voltage.
In the direct current metrology both methods lead to the same result. In the alternat-
ing current metrology, however, the square leads to the measurement of the appar-
ent power:
( ) ( ) cos sin
sin
1 1 ) (
+ + =
i i t el
t i t i k m (4.3.7)
( ) cos sin
2 2
+ =
i
t i k
( ) [ ]
=
T
el
t d t i
T
k M
0
2
2 cos 1
2
1
1
(4.3.8)
with =
R R
k M follows:

2
~ I (4.3.9)
While the product of the current and the current proportional to the voltage gives the
measure of the active power:
( ) ( ) cos sin
sin
2 1 ) (
+ + =
i u t el
t i t i k m (4.3.10)
( ) ( ) cos sin sin
+ + =
i u u
t t u i k
( ) [ ]
+ + =
T
i u u el
t d t
T
I U k M
0
2 cos cos
1
cos (4.3.11)
with =
R R
k M follows:
cos ~ I U (4.3.12)
Also the reactive power can be measured with the help of a dynamometer. Therefore
the phase angle must be exactly turned by 90 in the voltage path, this can be done
with a bumblebee's circuit as a phase turner. Always pay attention that this circuit
can be only dimensioned for one frequency.

4 - 11


4.4 Forces in Interfaces
Not only the action of force which is executed on moved electric charge or current
carrying conductors in the magnetic field, is known also forces appear in the inter-
faces of magnetically different medias (e.g., iron - air).

4.4.1 Moving Iron Instrument
The magnetic energy of a magnetically homogeneous area is:

= V d B H W
2
1
(4.4.1)
This energy is based on the field coil, so that you may write:

2
2
1
i L W =
(4.4.2)
with L as the inductance of the field coil

d
L d
i
d
W d
M
el
= =
2
2
1
(4.4.3)
A torque can be formed only if the rotation of the mobile part leads to a change of the
inductance. If this dependence is linear, the angle is proportional to the square of the
coils current, i.e. the effective value is measured:

2
~ i (4.4.4)
By the form of the iron core you may change the dependence. Moving iron measur-
ing instruments are divided according to their construction into flat- and round-coil
measuring instruments.

Fig. 4.4.1: Moving Iron Flat-Coil Instrument [1 coil; 2 iron core; 3 pointer]
4 - 12


With the flat-coil instrument the inductance changes by the entry of the iron core into
the coils opening, while with the round-coil instrument the rotation changes the de-
gaussing factor of the system and with it the inductance.

Fig. 4.4.2: Moving Iron Round-Coil Instrument [1 coil; 2 mobile core; 3 fixed core; 4 pointer]

4.5 Coulombs Law
Two electric loads are effective a force on each other which points in direction of the
connecting line between the loads. The force is direct proportional to the amount of
both loads and vice versa proportional to the square of their distance.

2
2 1
~
r
Q Q
F

(4.5.1)
This law is also applies to plate condensers. The easiest way to get the solution is to
calculate the electric energy of the condenser.

= =
2
2
1
u C Q d u W
el
(4.5.2)
with u d C Q d =
By the virtual decrease of the plate distance d the force follows in accordance with
the change of the energy content

x d
W d
F
el
= (4.5.3)

x d
C d
u =
2
2
1

Then with
x
A
C = follows:
4 - 13


2
2
2 2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
x
A
u
x x d
d
A u
x d
C d
u F
=
= =

d
u C F
1
2
1
2
= (4.5.4)
The negative sign indicates that the force acts against the enlargement of the dis-
tance, as you would expect it by the Coulomb's law. However, this also means that
the force is attended by a capacity change; there is a behaviour analogue to the mov-
ing iron coil instrument whose force is based on an inductance change. This force ef-
fect between the condenser plates is used in the electrometer for the measurement of
an electric voltage.

4.5.1 Quadrant Electrometer
In most cases the quadrant electrometer has a radial-symmetric thin aluminium plate
as the mobile part, also called needle. This needle moves in a cylindrical hollow part
which is divided into four chambers, the quadrants.

Fig. 4.5.1: Quadrant Electrometer [K chambers; N needle]
The faced segments of the electrometer are usually connected with each other, so that
a triple-pole electrode-system is realised.
4 - 14


The electric torque can be written for a capacity which is proportional to the rotation
angle:
( )

+
=
0
2 1
2 1
2

k M
el
(4.5.5)
With
2 1
, the potentials of the chamber pairs and
0
the potential of the needle.

Fig. 4.5.2: Hetero-Static (a) and Idio-Static (b) Electrometer Circuit
For hetero-static or quadrant circuit it applies:

2 1
U U k M
el
= (4.5.6)
And for the idio static circuit with
0 2
= it follows:

2
2
1
U k M
el
= (4.5.7)
If one of the voltages is proportional to the current, you can measure the active
power with this instrument.
By integration of sine wave-form parameters you get the average value of the torque:
( )
+ =
T
el
t d t t
T
R i u k M
0
1 2
sin sin
1
(4.5.8)

cos
cos
1 2
=
=
I U K
R I U k

With
R k K
1
= and
1
I
I
= the transformation ratio of the current transformer.
4 - 15


Fig. 4.5.3: Active Power-Meter with Quadrant Electrometer
MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 1


5 . Me a s u r i n g Br i d g e s
A bridge circuit can be drawn in a general form as follows:

Fig. 5.0.1: General Bridge Design

If the condition

4
3
2
1
Z
Z
Z
Z
= (5.0.1)
is fulfilled, then the diagonals a-b and c-d are independently of each other and you
can interrupt one of both without affecting the current in the others.
Bridge circuits are used for the different measuring tasks, besides; you should know
that the bridge balance can be done with an instrument which has no calibrated scale.
Relevant is a sufficient sensitivity. According to the kind of the power source the
bridge circuit are separated into direct current and alternating current bridges.

5.1. Direct Current - Bridges
The direct current bridge is arranged by purely ohmic resistors and is fed by the DC
voltage U or by the direct current I. The current Id in the measuring diagonals
amounts:

( ) ( )
2 1 4 1 4 3 4 3 2 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
3 2 4 1
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R
U I
d
d
+ + + + + +

= (5.1.1)
or fed by a direct current I:

( ) ( ) ( )
4 2 3 1 4 3 2 1
3 2 4 1
R R R R R R R R R
R R R R
I I
d
d
+ + + + + +

= (5.1.2)
MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 2


Fig. 5.1.1: Direct Current - Bridge Circuit

A direct current bridge will be balanced:

3 2 4 1
R R R R = (5.1.3)
The sensitivity of the measuring bridge is determined by the value of the diagonal
current which will flow by a little change of the balance settings. For a small varia-
tion of the resistor
1 10 1
R d R R + = instead of the value
10
R of the balanced bridge you
get the detuning of the bridge to:

10
1
R
R d
= (5.1.4)
Then the current
d
I in the measuring diagonal becomes:

4 3 2 10
0
5
R R R R
U I
R d
+ + +
=

(5.1.5)
The source resistor
0
R as well as the internal resistor of the measuring instrument
5
R
are neglected in this examination. The maximal sensitivity is reached if the resistors
of the bridge are:

4 3 2 1
R R R R = = = (5.1.6)
Direct current bridges are used to determine values of resistors, time constants and
other parameters which may be measured by means of a resistance change. Without
a balance of the bridge the calibrated deflection of the "null indicator" will be a direct
reading of the measured resistance.
MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 3


5.1.1. Wheatstone - Bridge
The Wheatstone - bridge is used for the direct resistance comparison. The achievable
accuracy depends on the accuracy of the reference standards, which are the bridge
amendatory resistors, and the sensitivity of the null indicator in the measuring di-
agonal of the bridge. The sensitivity of the indicator is chosen in such a way that the
smallest change of the reference resistor causes a recognizable reaction of the read-
ing. The more sensitively the measuring bridge is, the more sensitively the null indi-
cator must be. The accuracy of technical measuring bridges will be about 10
-5
and the
resistance can be measured between 1 and
5
10 .
If you put the resistance to be measured Rx to the position of R1, you get for the bal-
anced bridge:

4
3 2
R
R R
R
x

= (5.1.7)
and resistor R2 is implemented as a decade reference resistor, R3 and R4 as the fixed
resistance which are adjustable, however, for the measuring range adaptation.

5.1.2. Thomson - Bridge
If small resistance should be measured in the range from
3
10 to 1 , you use the
double bridge developed by Thomson.
The resistors R3 and R5 are the device under test and a reference resistor in the same
order of magnitude. They are fitted out with potential-terminals.

Fig. 5.1.2: Thomson - Bridge

If you match the relation
MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 4


7
6
2
1
R
R
R
R
= (5.1.8)
the condition for the balance gives you the measured resistor

1
4 2
5
R
R R
R

= (5.1.9)
with
7 6 4
R R R + =
The supply lines and contact resistance do not affect the measurement. To fulfil at the
same time the balance and the additional conditions, you must use double crank re-
sistors because a change of R2 also requires a change of R7.

5.2. Alternating Current - Bridges
Alternating current - bridges can be used to measure the resistance, the inductances,
the capacitance, the loss angle, the frequency and the harmonic distortion.

Fig. 5.2.1: General Alternating Current - Bridge

The alternating current - bridge must fulfil two equations, namely for the amounts
and for the phase angles. The impedances will be balanced:

3 2 4 1
Z Z Z Z = (5.2.1)
and

3 2 4 1
+ = + (5.2.2)
or if you disassembles the complex resistance into its resistance and its reactance,
with X j R Z + = you get the condition for the real part:

3 2 3 2 4 1 4 1
X X R R X X R R = (5.2.3)
and for the imaginary part:
MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 5


2 3 3 2 1 4 4 1
X R X R X R X R + = + (5.2.4)

5.2.1. Inductance - Bridge
The Maxwell-Wien-bridge is mostly used to measure an inductance. The balance is
independent of the frequency and the bridge circuit is suitable for smaller to middle
inductances. The conditions of balance may be derived from the voltage divider for-
mula for each half bridge and with the default that the diagonal voltage must be
zero. So you get:

Fig. 5.2.2: Maxwell - Wien - Bridge

3 4 4
4 4
2
2
R C R
C R
L j R R
R
x x
+
=
+ +
(5.2.5)
with

4 4
4
4
4
4 4
1
1
1
R C j
R
C j
R
C R
+
=
+
=

It applies:

4 4
4
3
4 4
4
2
2
1
1
R C j
R
R
R C j
R
L j R R
R
x x
+
+
+
=
+ +
(5.2.6)

( )
4 4
4 4 3 4
4 4
4
1
1
1
R C j
R C j R R
R C j
R
+
+ +
+
=

MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 6


( )
4
4 4 3 4
2
2
1
R
R C j R R
R
L j R R
x x
+ +
=
+ +
(5.2.7)

3 4
4
3
2 2
1 1 R C j
R
R
R
L j
R
R
x x
+ + =
+ +
(5.2.8)
Then you get a balanced bridge for:
{ } 0 = e :

4
3
2
R
R
R
R
x
= (5.2.9)

4
3
2
R
R
R R
x
= (5.2.10)
and
{ } 0 = m :

3 4
2
R C
R
L
x
=
(5.2.11)

3 2 4
R R C L
x
= (5.2.12)
With the performance Q (definition s. Appendix):

4 4
3 2
4
3 2 4
R C
R R
R
R R C
R
L
Q
x
x
=
(5.2.13)
It is recommended to use R4 and C4 as balancing elements, because they are inde-
pendent of each other in both conditions and therefore bring forward the conver-
gence of the balance.

5.2.2. Capacitance - Bridge
For the comparison of capacitors "without losses" and with small to middle capaci-
tance you choose the simplest form of a capacitance-bridge:

Fig. 5.2.3: Bridge for Capacitors without Losses
MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 7


Only one condition of balance must be fulfilled:

3
4
2
R
R
C C
x
= (5.2.14)
The balance is independent of the frequency.

MEASURING BRIDGES
5 - 8


Appendix:
The loss angle tan and its reciprocal value, the performance Q, follow these de-
pendences:

Serial connection:
X j R Z
s
+ = and
X
R
s
= tan
then it applies:

s
s
s s
L
R
R C
= =
tan
or:

s
s
s s
R
L
R C
Q

=

= =

1
tan
1

Parallel connection:
B j G Y
p
+ = and
B R B
G
p
p
= =
1
tan
Then it applies:

p
p
p
p
p p p
p
R
L
L
G
R C C
G
=
=

=
1
1
tan
or:

p
p
p p
L
R
R C Q
= = =
tan
1

ELECTRON BEAM - OSCILLOSCOPE
6 - 1


6 . E l e c t r o n Be a m - Os c i l l o s c o p e
The main part of the electron beam oscilloscope is named the electron beam tube,
also cathode ray tube or Braun tube. Dots on the screen are activated by the deflec-
tion of the electron beam related to the measured electric voltage. In the metrology
electron beam tubes are used predominantly with electrostatic deflection, i.e. by
means of an electric field between the deflection plates.

Fig. 6.0.1: Schematized Electron Beam Tube

In an evacuated axially symmetric glass bulb (1) there are several electrodes. Begin-
ning with the hot cathode (2) which emits the electrons. The free electrons are accel-
erated in the direction of the screen (7) by the anode (4) which has a high positive po-
tential (500 V till 2000 V).
First, however, the electrons still must run through a pinhole, the so-called Wehnelt
cylinder (3). It is on a potential negative to the cathode, so that the electrons are bun-
dled to a ray. The number of the electrons, which can pass this pinhole, can be
steered by varying its potential, i.e., however, the strength of the electron current is
varied. A negative potential, which is high enough, will break the current flow.
6 - 2


The anode system (4) is constructed as electron lens and brings the electron beam
into focus on the screen (7). The adjustable potential UA of the last anode serves as the
fine tuning of the dot diameter on the screen.
The luminescent layer consists of a mixture of phosphorescent materials whose elec-
trons are first boosted into a higher energy level by the kinetic energy of the hitting
electrons before they fall back into their initial position under the delivery of light.
The fade out time depends on the application and varies between some milliseconds
and some seconds.
The mode of operation of the electron lens should be explained.
You use the concentrating effect of a rotation-symmetric field, in which you order
several rotation-symmetric electrodes in a row and connect them to different poten-
tials. There are two types of electron lenses, the so-called single lenses and the im-
mersion lenses. The single lenses operate with the same potential before and behind
the lens, while the immersion lenses operate with different potentials in front and
behind.

Fig. 6.0.2: Electron Lenses

6.1 Forces in an Electric Field
Pairs of plates (5,6), which are horizontally and vertically arranged, serve as the de-
flection elements of the electron beam, i.e. the electrons obtain a side acceleration by
the applied voltage. No longer the ray will end at the centre of the screen, but it is de-
flected in x-and y direction proportionally to the voltages.
The forces on an electron in the electric field are described as follows.
If you bring an electron into the field between the y-deflection plates with the start-
ing velocity
( )
0
0
=
y
v , a force on the electron takes effect:
( ) ( )
y e y
E q F = (6.1.1)

y y
E e F = (6.1.2)
6 - 3


If the positive y-direction is oriented from lower to the upper and positively loaded
plate, the electron is accelerated in direction of the positively loaded plate:

y
e e
y
y
E
m
e
m
F
a = = (6.1.3)
By an integration of the acceleration you get the velocity:
t d a v
y y

= (6.1.4)
C t E
m
e
y
e
+ =
The integration constant C becomes zero with 0
) 0 (
=
= t y
v and 0 = t . Another integra-
tion leads to the distance
t d t a t d v y
y t y

= =
) (
(6.1.5)
C t E
m
e
y
e
+ =
2
2
1

Again the integration constant C becomes zero if 0
) 0 (
=
= t
y and 0 = t .
If in addition the electron has a speed vz in the z-direction which is vertically orien-
tated to the flux lines in y-direction, the influence of the field is temporally limited.
While an electron moves through the electric field between cathode and anode it has
absorbed energy from this field:
( ) ( )
A A e el
U e U q U Q W = = = (6.1.6)
This absorbed energy is converted into kinetic energy, so that it applies:

A z e kin
U e v m W = =
2
2
1
(6.1.7)
and you calculate the speed to:

A
e
z
U
m
e
v = 2 (6.1.8)
With s A e
19
10 6 , 1

= and kg m
e
31
10 11 , 9

= you get the tailored equation of vz the
voltage UA must be used in the dimension volt.
s km U v
A z
/ 593 =
6 - 4


Fig. 6.1.1: Forces in an Electric Field

With . const v
z
= and the length
y
of the y plates in z-direction the exposure time in
the electric field is:

z
y
v
= (6.1.9)
now vy becomes:

z
y
y
e
y
e
y
v
E
m
e
E
m
e
v

= = (6.1.10)
Replacing the field strength Ey by the plate voltage Uy and the plate distance dy, so it
applies:

z
y
y
y
e
y
v d
U
m
e
v

= (6.1.11)
Now the velocity vector has the angle to the z-axis:

2
tan
z
y
y
y
e z
y
v d
U
m
e
v
v
= = (6.1.12)
Inserting the velocity vz which is determined by the anode voltage, you get:

A
y
y
y
A
e
y
y
y
e
U
U
d
U
m
e
d
U
m
e
=

=
2
2
tan

(6.1.13)
The angle is related to the centre of the plates, therefore it also applies:

zy
B
y
= tan (6.1.14)
6 - 5


Where the picture height on the screen is
B
y and the distance from the centre of the
y-plate to the screen is
zy
. The susceptibility of the deflection Ay of the y-plates be-
comes

A y
y
zy
y
B
y
U d U
y
A
1
2

= =

(6.1.15)
In practice V mm A
y
/ 5 , 0 = is usual for measuring oscilloscopes.

Example 6.1.1
Given:
Anode voltage kV U
A
4 =
Plate length cm
y
4 =
Plate distance mm d
y
5 =
Searched:
Deflection voltage =
y
U
The picture height cm y
B
5 , 2 = with a distance cm
zy
30 = between the centre of
the plate and the screen.

6.2 Cut-Off Frequency
The cut-off frequency of a system is the frequency where the amplitude of the signal
on the display is 3 dB or according to the factor 2 1 smaller then the original one.
If you now drive the plates with an alternating voltage, so you find:
t E e F
y y
= cos
(6.2.1)
With
y
E
the peak value of the electric field strength

( ) t y
E
t E
m
e
a
y
e
y
= cos
(6.2.2)
( )
= t d t E
m
e
v
y
e
y
cos
(6.2.3)
t E
m
e
y
e
=
sin
1

where the integration constant C becomes zero again.
6 - 6


After the acceleration between the y-plates the direction of the electron can be de-
scribed again with a tangent-function.
t
v
E
m
e
v
v
z
y
e z
y
= =
sin
1 1
tan (6.2.4)
The tangent is not only defined by the speeds, but also by the relation of the distance,
between the centre of the plates and the screen and the image height on the screen:

zy
B
y
= tan (6.2.5)
and

zy
B
y
= tan (6.2.6)
If you set both tangents in relation, so you get:

t
v
E
m
e
v
E
m
e
y
y
z
y
e
z
y
y
e
B
B

=
sin
1 1
tan
tan
2
(6.2.7)
with the field strength
y y
E E
= and
B B
y y =
2
1
:

=
g
g
sin
2 (6.2.8)
or

2
sin

=
g
g

If you write x sin as a row ( + =
! 5 ! 3 ! 1
sin
5 3
x x x
x ) and you replace the sine by the
first two elements of this rows development, so it follows:

( )
2
3 2 1 1
3

g g g
(6.2.9)
( )

2
1
1 6
2

g
(6.2.10)

326 , 1
g
(6.2.11)
6 - 7


or

211 , 0
g
f (6.2.12)

A
e y y
z
g
U
m
e v
f = =
2
1
4
1
4
1
4
1

(6.2.13)
therefore the cut-off frequency is approximate one quarter of the reciprocal value of
the exposure time of the electron between the y-deflection plates.

6.3 Configurations
According to the application some special configurations of the oscilloscope have
been developed, but the construction fundamentals are more or less for all the same.
Y-input:
Signal input with an adjustable broadband amplifier and a power amplifier for the
vertical deflection of the electron beam.
X-input:
The second signal input which is usually connected with the internal time basis. The
time base generates a saw tooth signal for the horizontal deflect the electron beam.
Synchronization-input (Trigger):
At this input the trigger signal is either externally applied or internal connected to
synchronize the horizontal deflection.
The internal signal can be derived as a threshold from the y-signal or from the power
supply (50 hertz). As well the horizontal deflection may run free. With the threshold
the start of the horizontal deflection is fixed to the y-signal. Besides, from here the
blanking of the Wehnelt cylinder is controlled when the electron ray returns to its
horizontal start position.
6 - 8


Fig. 6.3.1: Block Diagram of an Oscilloscope

6.3.1 Universal Oscilloscope
The universal oscilloscope is used, i.e., in the following applications (cx, cy are the de-
flection factors of x and y):

a) measuring of a periodic voltage u(t):
measuring circuit: u(t) at the y-input
Saw tooth to the x-input
trigger: y-signal
screen: y(x)
examination:
y
c
y
u =

x
c
x
t =

6 - 9


b) Display of unique operating sequences (sporadic impulses):
screen: visible only with a storage oscilloscope or with a
taken photo
measuring circuit see a)
c) Admission of current-voltage-characteristic (diodes etc):
trigger: without
examination:
x
c
x
u =

y
c R
y
i
=
conditions: input-impedances
g
R R, >>

Fig. 6.3.2: Circuit for a Current - Voltage - Characteristic

d) Admission of a magnetic hysteresis from magnetic materials in core shape
trigger: without
examination:
Fe x
R
w
c
x
H

=
1
1

( )
Fe
w
y
A w
R R C
c
y
B
+
=
2
2 2
2

conditions: input-impedances
2
1
1
,
C
R
>>

2
2
1
2
C
R R
w
>> +

2 2 1 1
w I w I >>
6 - 10


Fig. 6.3.3: Circuit for a Magnetic Hysteresis

e) Measurement of the phase angle between two sine wave voltages
x-input: t u sin
1

y-input: ( ) + t u sin
2

trigger: without
examination:
1
0
arcsin
y
y
=

1
0
arcsin
x
x
=

A simple check of the phase or frequency equality.
f) Frequency measurement with Lissajous figures: (frequency
comparison with adjustable generator)
x-input: generator voltage with
known frequency fG
y-input: voltage with unknown
frequency fy
trigger: without
examination:
n
m
f f
G y
=
With m and n enumerated touch points after
balancing a freeze image of a closed curve by fG.
If the frequency relation
G
y
f
f
does not exactly match the relation
n
m
, the figure
moves like the projection of a sine line written on a turning cylinder. With Tu as the
time for one cycle you get:
6 - 11


=
G u
G y
f T n
m
f f
1
1 (6.3.1)
the sign in the equation depends on the sense of rotation of the figure and can be de-
termined, e.g., by slight raising of the comparison frequency fG:
Raising frequency and faster turning in the same sense of rotation means, the
minus sign applies; the unknown frequency is smaller than the comparison fre-
quency.
Raising frequency and slower turning in the same or reverse sense of rotation
means, the plus sign applies and the unknown frequency is higher.

The main parameters of a universal oscilloscope have the following orders of magni-
tude:
Deflection factors with a maximum amplification:
cy = 10 to 50 cm/V
cx = 1 to 10 cm/V
Cut-off frequency of the y-channel:
fc = 5 MHz to 100 MHz
Raising time of the y-channel:
tr = 70 ns to 5 ns
Sweep frequency:
fs = 0,01 Hz to 200 kHz
6 - 12


f
y
/ f
x
= 1 f
y
/ f
x
= 1,5 f
y
/ f
x
= 2 f
y
/ f
x
= 3

Fig. 6.3.7: Lissajous - Figures

= 0
= /4
= /2
= 3/4
=

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8 . Di g i t a l Me t r o l o g y
Digital measuring instruments are based on the principle the quantification of the
measuredvalue,i.e.themeasuringparameterisfractionizedintolittlepiecesandthe
outcomeofthisisdisplayed.
Veryoftentheparameterisonlyquantizedatcertainmoments.Thereforeitiscalled
instantaneous value quantification. What happens in between the interval is un
known!

Fig.8.0.1:InstantaneousValueQuantification
To reduce this insecurity, one averages the measured value forms about each inter
val.
Anotherkindofquantificationisthesocalledspecifiedamountquantification.Every
timeanimpulsearisesifalevelofthequantificationstepisexceededorisundercut.

Fig.8.0.2:SpecifiedAmountQuantification
DIGITALMETROLOGY
82


Tomemorize:
Theimpulse:
Onedistinguishesneedleandrectangleimpulseswhichcanberealizedmoreorless
ideally.Therectangleimpulseisdescribedbytheraisetimetrasthetimethesignal
raisesbetween10%and90%ofitsfinalvalue,thefalltimetfwithcomparabledefini
tion and the duration tx of the impulse. If the times tr, tf and tx converge to zero, the
rectangleimpulsewillbecomesaneedleimpulse.
Code:
Thecodingrepresentsthenumberofthemeasuringunitscorrespondingtothemeas
uredvalueinanumericalsystem.
Examples:
Decimal Basis10:
0 1
10 7 10 2 27 + =
D

Binary Basis2:
B D
11011 2 1 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 27
0 1 2 3 4
+ + + + =
[Thesimplestcode:8421]
hexadecimal Basis16:
H D
B 1 16 11 16 1 27
0 1
+ =
Amixtureofbinarynumberanddecimalnumberarebinarycodeddecimals:
BCD Basis2: ( ) + + + + =
1 0 1 2 3
10 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 27
D

( )
0 1
0 0 1 2 3
10 0111 10 0010
10 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0
+
+ + + +
B B

8.1Counters
A group of the digital measuring instruments are the counters. Without looking at
therealizationofthecounterscircuits,youcandistinguishtwokinds:
8.1.1ImpulseCounter
Impulse or event countershave agatein its inputcircuitwhichisopenedfor acer
tain,mostlyadjustabletime.Inthistimetheimpulseswhichreachthegateareadded
up and indicated. Therefore the result of the measurement is the number of the im
pulsesperunitoftime.
DIGITALMETROLOGY
83


8.1.2FrequencyCounter
In thiscase the measuringsignalwiththefrequency numerator determines the gate
opening time by an adjustable signal thresholds and the signals falling or rising
edge. Also a clockpulse is connected to the gate. The number of the accumulated
clockpulses is inversely proportional to the frequency of the measured signal. To
achieve the desired accuracy, the clock frequency must be several powers of ten
higherthanthefrequencytobemeasured.
8.2AnalogDigitalConverter(ADC)
Herewithallcircuitsandcomponentsarenamedwhichconvertananalogvoltageor
currentintocorrespondingdigitalvaluesbyquantification.
One knows different principles which differ by the circuit complexity, the transfor
mationspeed,theprecisionandbytheprize.
8.2.1CountingProcedure
Oneofthesimplestcircuitsisthecounterorservotype.Itisadigitalcounterwhich
connectedtotheinputsofadigitalanalogconverter(DAC).
TheprincipleofDAC:

Fig.8.2.1:DACwithWeightedCurrentSources
DIGITALMETROLOGY
84


This widespread type of the DAC is based on a matrix of binary weighted current
sources switched by transistors. Besides, the binary weighting is done by binary
weightedemitterresistancewiththevalues R R R R R
n
2 2 ; 2 ; 2 ; 2
3 2 1 0
.There
sultingcollectorcurrentsareaddedattheinvertinginputofthefollowingOpAmp.
Thecurrentsourcesaresuppliedbythebasepotentialof1,2Vandtheyareswitched
bytheTTLlevelswhicharefedintheemittersacrossthecouplingdiodes.Bytheef
fect that the transistors do not go into the saturation, but only switch selected cur
rents,fastswitchingspeedsarereached.
Thesumofthecurrentsisconvertedbyanoperationalamplifierintoavoltage.How
ever, you may also use a load resistor which gives a voltage swing of approx. 1 V.
ThereforethesettlingtimeoftheOpAmpwillbeomitted.
Withincreasingresolutionthehighervaluedemitterresistorsareaproblem,because
theycauselesstemperaturestabilityandswitchspeeds.Oneavoidsthisproblemby
cascading identical circuits of current sources which are connected binary weighted
too.

Fig.8.2.2:DACwithCircuitsofWeightedCurrentSources
Fig. 8.2.2 also shows how a bipolar output may be realized by this configuration.
Fromtheaccumulatedcurrentsanoffsetcurrentissubtractedwhichisdrawnacross
aresistorR0outoffthereferencevoltagesourcesothatthiscurrentisexacthalfthe
fullscalecurrent.
AnothercircuitvariantofaDACistheR2Rladdernetwork.Thisnetworkisassem
bled by serial resistors with the uniform value R and by shunts with the uniform
value2R.Nowthefreeendsoftheshuntscanbeswitchedeithertogroundpotential
ortothepointoftheaccumulatedcurrents.
DIGITALMETROLOGY
85


Fig.8.2.3:DACwithanR2RLadderNetwork
Ifyouconsiderthenetworkindetail,yourecognizethatfrompointAtherightpart
ofthecircuitrepresentsaresistorwiththevalue2R,i.e.thereferencesourcelookson
a resistor R. Therefore the current of the reference source evenly splits in both sec
tors. This is reiterated at every intersection with an over all binary weighting. The
switchesareactuatedbyadigitalwordwiththecorrespondingnumberofbits.
ComingbacktotheADCwiththecountingprocedure.
A clock signal is connected to the digital counter. The output voltage of the DAC
rises with every clock pulse by a LSB. The comparator compares the input voltage
withtheoutputvoltageoftheDACandstopsthecounter,assoonasthevoltagesare
equal.Thenthecounterreadingcorrespondstothedigitizedvalue.
Thenextdigitizingbeginswithzeroagain,thereforethecounterissetback,andi.e.
theconversionisveryslow.
Atracking procedurewillreducetheconversiontime.Theclockisnowconnected
withanupanddowncounterandthecomparatormanagesthecountingdirection,
so always the variation of the input voltage will be determined. You should pay at
tention that the counter can follow the changing input signal. As the converter con
tinuouslyfollowstheinputvoltage,thecounteroutputthedigitalreadoutiscor
respondingtotheanalogousvalueandconstantlyavailabletoo.
DIGITALMETROLOGY
86


Fig.8.2.4:ADCwithaTrackingProcedure
8.2.2SuccessiveApproximation
Forconverterwithmiddletoveryfastconversionratesthesuccessiveapproximation
is the most usual and most important procedure. As the converter operates with a
feedbackloop,hereagainyouneedaDAC.ThisfeedbackloopconsistingoftheDAC
and a comparator is steering the digital control circuit which changes its status as
longasitsoutputvoltagediffersfromthatvalueoftheinputvoltage.

Fig.8.2.5:SuccessiveApproximation
By an optimization algorithm a conversion is realized in only n steps for an n bit

resolution.Thisprocedureisalsonamedscalingprocedure,becausetheapproachis
comparabletoweighinganunknownweightbymeansofabeambalance.Standard
weightsinbinaryorderareputon,thatmeans1,,,kg.
Youstartwiththemostsignificantbit(MSB)andthenyougodownbitbybittothe
least significant bit (LSB).As long astheoutput voltage ofthecomparator ishigher
thantheinputvoltage,thesebitsareswitchedoffandthenextlowerbitisswitched
DIGITALMETROLOGY
87


on. If the output voltage of the comparator remains below the input voltage this bit
remainsswitchedon.TheconvertingprocedurefinisheswiththeLSB.Theresulting
bitcombinationwhichfeedstheDACisthedigitalvalueoftheinputvoltageinthe
bestapproximation.

Fig.8.2.6:DACOutputVoltageofan8BitsADCwithSuccessiveApproximation
8.2.3ParallelConverter
Highspeedconvertertodigitizei.e.videosignalsusetheparallelconversion,called
flashorsimultaneousconverter.
Thisconvertingproceduredirectlycomparestheinputvoltagewithnreferencevolt
ages according to the resolution of n bit. However, you need in the best case 1 2
n
comparatorswhoseswitchthresholdsdifferbythevalueoftheLSBineachcase.

Fig.8.2.7:4BitsofParallelADC
DIGITALMETROLOGY
88


For higher resolutions you need a large number of comparators therefore you may
cascade the converters again. For an 8 bit conversion you only need 15 2 compara
tors,aswellasinadditiona4bitDACandanoperationalamplifierforthesubtrac
tion,insteadof255comparators.
With this technology you still realize a conversion rate of more than 100 MHz for 8
bitresolution.
Fig.8.2.8:ATwoStage8bitParallelADC
8.2.4IntegratingConverter
Anotherconvertertechnologyisappliedtotheintegratingconverter.Againyouwill
finddifferentvariantsandoneofthemisthevoltagetimeconversion.
Theinputvoltageiscomparedwiththesawtoothvoltagewhichisderivedfromthe
integrationofareferencevoltage.Aslongasthesawtoothvoltageissmallerthanthe
input voltage, the clock tact can be given to the counter. If the input voltage is
reached,theclocktacttothecalculatorisblocked.Themeterreadingcorrespondsto
thedigitizedinputvoltagevalue.
DIGITALMETROLOGY
89


Fig.8.2.9:VoltageTimeConverter
Afarwidespreadvariantoftheintegratingconverteristhedualslopeprocedure.
Theconversionbeginsassoonastheinputvoltageisappliedtotheinputoftheinte
grator. At the same moment a counter which runs with a fixed clock tact starts to a
predefinedcount,sothattheintegratingtimeisconstant.Aftertheintegrationofthe
input voltage stops the integration is continued with a reference voltage of reverse
polarity.Simultaneouslythecounterisclockedandrunsaslongastheintegratorhas
notreachedzerovoltage.

Fig.8.2.10:DualSlopeConverter
DIGITALMETROLOGY
810


Fig.8.2.11:VoltagesattheOutputoftheIntegratorwithinaDualSlopeADC
BetweenthetimesT1andT2existsthefollowingrelation:
ref
ein
U
U
T T =
1 2
(8.2.1)
Therefore the digital wordatthe outputof thecounter expressestheratio ofthe in
putvoltagetothereferencevoltage.
Theadvantageofthedualslopeprocedureliesintheindependenceofthestabil
ityofthetactgeneratorandtheintegrationcapacitor,aslongasthestabilityisgiven
in one conversion period. The accuracy depends on the reference voltage and the
linearityoftheintegrator.
8.2.5VoltageFrequencyConverter
Theinputvoltageisintegratedagain,butonlyaslongasthereferencevoltageisnot
reached. A comparator determines the equality of both values and produces an im
pulsewhichisavailableaswellattheoutputoftheconverterandasaresetofthein
tegrator. Thereforethe value oftheinput voltageindicates howquicklythe integra
torreachesthereferencethresholdandreleasesanimpulse.Theresultingfrequency
isproportionallytotheleveloftheinputvoltage.
DIGITALMETROLOGY
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Fig.8.2.12:VoltageFrequencyConverter
Thevoltagefrequencyconverterprincipleisusedinanothertypeofconverterthe
socalled charge balancing procedure, also named quantified feedback method.
Againimpulsesaregeneratedbythevoltagefrequencyconversion.Nowtheim
pulseswillbecountwithinafixedperiod.

Fig.8.2.13:ChargeBalancingConverter
ApositiveinputvoltagecausesacurrentacrossR1intotheintegrator.Thiscurrentis
integrated and a negative voltage appears at the output of the integrator. The com
paratordetectsthisnegativevoltageandactivatestheprecisionpulsegenerator.For
a predefined time the pulse generator now switches the reference voltage on, there
forewegetacurrentflowacrossR2withthereversesigntodischargethecapacitor.
This will be repeated as often as the comparator detects a negative voltage at the
output of the integrator. This discharging pulse is give to a counter too, where the
pulsesarecountinadefinedperiodandgivethedigitalwordproportionaltothein
DIGITALMETROLOGY
812


putvoltage.Theinputcurrentisbalancedwiththeswitchedreferencecurrent,there
foreitisnamedchargebalancing.Thisbalancehasthefollowingrelation:
1
2
1
R
R
U
U
f
ref
ein
=
t
(8.2.2)
Witht thewidthofthepulseand f thefrequencyproportionaltoinputvoltage.
8.3DigitalStorageOscilloscope
Digitalstorageoscilloscopesrepresentthefurtherdevelopmentoftransientrecorders
which make it possible to record a step response of a switching operation. These
transientstoragesconsistofananalogdigitalconverterandadigitalstorageinthe
as their main hardware modules. Furthermore, you still need a wave form recon
structionandanelectronbeamtubeforthereadoutofthestoredvalues.

Fig.8.3.1:BlockDiagramofaDigitalStorageOscilloscope
8.3.1Digitization
Typicallytheanalogvalueisstoredforashorttimetopresentamoreconstantvalue
for the conversion (Sample and Hold method). The quantification mostly will be
between6and12binarylevels.
Duetothefactthattheerrorofthequantificationaddsupto
n
2 foranndigitbi
nary number, e.g., with 10 bits resolution you can achieve accuracy for the digitiza
tionof
1024
1
2
10
=
approx.1
0
/00.
Thevelocityoftheconversiondependsonthevalueofthesignaltoberecordedbut
it must feature at least the double signal frequency corresponding to the sampling
theoremforasinewave form. However,withhigher signalfrequencyorwithcom
plexsignalwavesanerrorappearswhichiscalledaliasingeffect.
DIGITALMETROLOGY
813


Fig.8.3.2:AliasingEffect
In Fig. 8.3.2 this error is explained for the digitization of a sine wave signal of 5 Hz
and a sampling rate of 4 Hz. The reconstruction as a harmonic oscillation will pro
duceawaveof1Hz.
Toavoidthiserroryouuseanantialiasingfilter,sothatallfrequenciesabovehalf
of sampling frequency are suppressed. However, the disadvantage is that a high
frequentsignalnowisnotrecordedatall,i.e.themeasuringerrorsremain,andthey
onlyarenotinthereadoutofthemeasurementanymore.
Devicesofahigherpricerangehavetheoptiontomeasurebythefunctionrealtime
analogmode.
Theerrordoesnotoccurifyouusetheequivalenttimesamplingmethodinsteadof
therealtimesamplingmethod.Thismethodworksonlywithrepeatingsignalforms.
Therefore it is a special oscilloscope because you should be able to measure single
eventtoo.
Fig.8.3.3:SamplingoftheInputSignalandReadoutontheScreen
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8.3.2CurveReconstruction
Asimportantthedigitizationoftheinput sig
nalwillbeasnecessaryisthereconstructionof
the original waveform by the stored values as
readoutonthescreen.
The simplest method is the point wise display
of the stored values with the readout velocity
givenbythetimebase(Fig.8.3.4).
Which influence the sampling rate has on the
digitization, Fig. 8.3.5 shows. For more com
plexwaveformsitisevidentthattheratemust
behigher.
For the readout of a triangle signal, e.g., 128
points are already sufficient. If you take, how
ever, the same number for a more complex
signal, you can only guess the waveform. Only with a fourfold of the points the
waveformcanbereadout.
Fig.8.3.5:NecessaryNumberoftheDataforSignalReadout
Fig.8.3.6:ApparentAliasingError

Fig.8.3.4:PointwiseReadoutofthestored
values

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Inadditiontothepointwisereadoutyoualsomayusemathematicalfunctionstore
construct the waveform. This is a case of an interpolation, i.e. with the stored digi
tizedvaluescalculatedinterimvaluesaredisplayedonthescreen.
Ifthenumberofvaluesisnotsufficienttofollowawaveformwithyoureye,anap
parentaliasingerrormayappear.Youcanavoidit,however,bystretchingthetime
base.
Another method is to connect the single stored points by vectors, so that a continu
ous waveform appears. If the connecting traces between two measured values are
linear, it is called an impulse interpolation. This has the disadvantage that a wrong
impulse slew rate may be shown if the stored sampling points do not correspond
withthesignalpeakvalues.

Fig.8.3.7:ErroroftheImpulseSlewRate
Beside the linear interpolation the sine interpolation is also spread very much, be
cause in a lot of cases sine waveform or nearly sine waveform signals have to be
displayed.However,herewithanimpulseorastepfunctioncanbeinterpolatedvery
badly(seeFig.8.3.8).

Fig.8.3.8:StepFunctionwithSineandImpulseInterpolation
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Fig.8.3.9:CurvesDevelopingwithDifferentSignalFrequenciesandInterpolations
8.3.3Triggering
Digital storage oscilloscopes store the digitized values on slops and levels of the in
put signal or of other events which are switched to the external trigger input. Nor
mally the digitization takes place constantly, however, values can be stored before
the trigger point. However, as long as they are of no importance, they are only
shiftedthroughthestorage(principleofaFIFOshiftregister).
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Therefore you have the possibility to store a part of the signal before the trigger
event.Thisiscalledwithpretrigger.Thetriggerbecomesthereferencepoint.
8.3.4ScanMethods
Youcandistinguishtwovariantsofscansforthedigitizationoftheinputsignal.
SummationProcedures:
Thesummationprocedureworkswitharigidallocationofthestorageareafor
one or several periods of the measuring signal or for a certain time frame of a
single event. The so determined data are predestined to readout an average
valueoranautocorrelation.Thepeakvaluesofashortsignal,whichdonotfall
inascan,arenotrecognized.
EnvelopeProcedure:
The envelope procedure is really predestined to capture the peak values of a short
signalbecausewiththisprocedureessentiallymoresignalvaluesaredigitized,than
finally are stored, i.e. the data are stored in this way that the waveform is possibly
welldefinedmeasuredandstored,independentofafixedintervaltimingofthedig
itizationofthevalues.
8.3.5SpecialFunctions
Byinternalreferencevoltagesandtimeintervalstags,linesorcursorscanbeoverlaid
on the screen which are compared with the storage contents. Therefore amplitudes,
slops, frequencies, periods or duty cycles can be measured and their values directly
displayed on the screen. Beside the manipulation of the curve traces by microcom
puter inserted in the oscilloscope and by the belonging software, the stored values
canbeexportedthroughaninterfacetoothersystems.
8.3.6TechnicalData
The information is of representative sizes. You should think about that one maxi
mumspecificationmayexcludeanothermaximumone.
Verticalresolution: to12bits
Bandwidth: approx.300MHz
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Samplingfrequency: approx.200MHz
Memory: xxxMByte
Thememorydepthismostlydivisibleby2orpowerof2,sothatamorechannelor
alsoanx,yapplicationispossible.

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QUIRDER ELECTRICAL METROLOGY

QUIRDER ELECTRICAL METROLOGY

i u which oscillates with the doubled fre-

the peak value of the electric field strength

By an optimization algorithm a conversion is realized in only n steps for an n bit

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