Module 2:

How is the concept of God understood by Hindus and Sikhs?

Introduction
In approaching the question of the concept of God for Hindus and Sikhs, let me first clarify a terminological issue. For Hindus, perhaps a better phrase would be the concept of the transcendent, since their religion is not unequivocally monotheistic, as Sikhism is.

Through investigation of this question, the evidence suggests that the Sikhs concept of the transcendent is clearer cut than Hindu conceptions. This argument will be developed through the course of this essay.

Hinduism

Figure 1 Hinduisms chief symbol: aum (or om).

Hinduism is an ancient and diverse set of beliefs and practices, which is challenging to study as a single religion. For example, what were once heterodoxies within Hinduism (such as Jainism or Buddhism) have now acquired their own identities as separate religions. This essays focus will strive to concentrate on what most Hindus would recognise as mainstream Hinduism. Its origins are not reliant on one founding father as in the cases of Christianity or Sikhism.

As Kanitkar and Cole (1) aver: The Banyan tree of Hinduism draws from its varied doctrinal roots the energy to nourish the spreading boughs of expression and practice, under the shade of which the varied definitions and experiences of faith may thrive. It has been suggested that there are as many ideas of Hinduism as there are Hindus. . . The question of how Hindus understand the concept of the Divine, then, is not straightforward.

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, former President of India, said, Hinduism is more a way of life than a set of beliefs (Langley 18). So perhaps what is more important than an objective explanation of Hinduisms

concepts of the transcendent, is an exploration of how Hindus reach their understanding of the divine. Let us start, however, with some basic widely-held beliefs.

Basic Hindu conceptions of the transcendent

According to Hinnells (211) Hinduism does not have a single concept of God central to it. However, one fundamental metaphysical presupposition is that brahman is the impersonal absolute or world soul without attributes underlying the phenomenal diversity of the universe.

The One Absolute Reality (or Supreme Being) is brahman (neuter), and on assuming attributes, becomes Ishvara. Ishvara has three aspects: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu (Nivedita & Coomaraswamy 389). These three deities constitute the trimurti, analogous to the Christian trinity. Indian worship is monotheistic; there is not for the individual worshipper any confusion of God with gods (ibid). Hence for example, one who reveres Krishna, will think of him as God, rather than one of many (or one aspect of the Divine). The doctrine of the ishtadeva states that individuals have freedom to choose which manifestation of the Divine to worship, and their chosen path to salvation (Hinnells 212).

Narayanan 25: According to the Taittiriya Upanishad, brahman is truth, knowledge and infinity. It is existence, consciousness and bliss. Further description is impossible. Yet however impersonal brahman is, the human soul (atman) can be liberated to unite with it (Hinnells 212).

The aim of Hinduism

Hinduisms purpose is liberation (moksha) (Flood 225). The human soul (atman) is eternal, and following bodily death, it will be reincarnated. This cycle of birth and death is samsara, and it is from this which the Hindu wishes to be liberated. The notion of karma can be equated to a universal objective justice, such that ones actions (whether good or bad) have consequences, in this life or subsequently. The balance of merit or demerit acquired in this lifetime will determine the nature and quality of ones ne xt existence (Narayanan 90).

According to scripture, Shiva taught that the universe is born of maya (illusion). Maya is its material cause. This means that the only true reality is brahman, and the phenomenal manifested world of our daily lives is

illusory. This illusion on our own personal level causes a sort of spiritual blindness ( avidya) which means that we take our mundane lives as reality (Nivedita & Coomaraswamy 312).

Let us turn to how individuals reach a personal understanding or experience of the Divine.

The three main ways understanding of the transcendent

Hinduism contains three main approaches (as described by Krishna in the great Hindu myth the Bhagavad Gita (Narayanan 59)). The way of karma (action) The way of jnana (enlightenment) The way of bhakti (devotion to the Lord) (Hinnells 212).

Karma yoga the way of action

Karma yoga focuses on outward action and is hence less bound to a particular understanding of the transcendent. Intentional action determines ones future fortunes, either in this life or subsequent incarnations. These actions bind us to samsara, the ever-revolving wheel of mortal birth and death. While karma originally referred to animal sacrifices or other ritual performance, now it can concern more general acts of merit such as puja (worship/prayer) or simply undertaking ones life duties spontaneously and without motive (Hinnells 258-9).

The prime cause of creation is inexplicable, since in a universe conditioned by causality present causes must be preceded by prior causes, going backwards forever. The process of manifestation (or creation) is more properly understood as outside time. No motive can be assigned to this creative Will, thus mythically the entire world-process has been called Lila, the Lords amusement. (Or perhaps Being desires to behold the reflection of its own perfection mirrored in Non-Being.) (Nivedita & coomaraswamy 395.)

Thus the follower of the karma yoga path does not focus on a personal form of the transcendent.

Jnana yoga the way of knowledge

This is an intellectual or philosophical approach. New ways of understanding human experience are intended to bring about a transformation of fundamental motivation (Hinnells 251). This wisdom may be attained through studying scripture (with a gurus help), meditation, or physical and mental yogic discipline (Narayanan 60).

An important proponent of jnana yoga was Shankara (Kanitkar & Owen Cole 141). His system, advaita vedanta, holds a monist position that atman and brahman are one.

God's Brahman nature is realised by philosophically understanding the eternal and unchanging nature of one's self. (http://hinduism.iskcon.org/concepts/107.htm)

Bhakti yoga the way of devotion

Shaktas (devotees) are usually devoted to a particular manifestation of the transcendent, and theirs is a personal God with whom they have a relationship. Many Hindus see the story of Krishna and Radha as an allegory of the mutual love between the divine and the devotee. The basis of this way is loving devotion and surrendering oneself to the deity. Grace is conferred in return, which causes inner transformation (Hinnells 69).

Devotion is aimed at worship of the Lord as a divine person, Ishvara, or as the Supreme Person (Bhagavan or Param-Ishvara), situated in his spiritual abode. As such, Shaktas believe that the Divine as an object of worship is outside of themselves and the mundane world. (http://hinduism.iskcon.org/concepts/107.htm)

Sikhism

Figure 2 The Sikh emblem: the nishan sahib

Sikhisms origins are much more tangible (and recent) than Hinduisms, as it was founded in the fifteenth century by a mystic, Nanak, the first Sikh guru (teacher) (Jhutti-Johal viii). Guru Nanak claimed the Divine Word (logos) as his guru (Sikh Missionary Center 262). Nanak was the first of ten Sikh gurus, who have now

been succeeded by the Guru Granth Sahib, which is the holiest of Sikh scriptures and considered to be their eternal final guru.

According to Smart (398), Sikhism began as a syncretic and peaceful way of combining Hindu and Muslim motifs.

The Sikh concept of God

Guru Nanak received divine revelation which made unmanifest God manifest through His Word. He preached the oneness of God. Although God is immanent, Sikhism is not pantheist, and looks upon Hindu worship of murti (holy statues) as idolatrous (Cole 124).

Sikhism is ardently monotheistic. God is formless, beyond human comprehension, and the creator of the whole universe. Yet He is in everything and theoretically accessible to everyone (Jhutti-Johal 3).

Guru Nanaks most revered statement about the nature of God is the Mul Mantra (which forms the opening of the Guru Granth Sahib), and is the closest Sikhs have to a creed (Cole 123) as an important affirmation of belief. As translated from Punjabi:

There is One supreme eternal reality; the true one; immanent in all beings; sustainer of all things; creator of all things; immanent in creation; without fear or enmity; not subject to time; beyond birth and death; self-manifesting; known by the Gurus grace. (The Guru is this case meaning God.) (ibid.)

Figure 3 The Ik Onkar symbol

Ik Onkar is a Sikh symbol (see Figure 3) referring to the oneness of God. Ik means one, and Onkar is the equivalent of the Sanskrit aum (Figure 1) representing the Divine. This reminds Sikhs of the opening of the Mul Mantra (Cole 15).

Impersonal God is formless and beyond human reach. When He reveals Himself through His creation, He becomes related and personal. Though He is formless, the whole universe is His personal form (Sikh Missionary Center 256). This is similar to the formless Hindu brahman, and Ishvara, who has attributes. According to Sikhs, when God made Himself manifest, He first formed Himself into nam (the Divine Name) and then created the universe. He then kept His presence within nature, and is thus immanent (op. cit. 258). Thus nam is more than a name, but is the formless Ones manifested Self in our universe.

God is immanent yet transcendent. As the Guru Granth Sahib states, The one who permeates all hearts is transcendent. . . detached and alone (Cole 129).

Sikhs often use the genderless name Waheguru to refer to God, meaning wonderful Lord (Ganeri 16). However, many different names for God can also be used, including some borrowed from Hinduism and Islam (Cole 126). Although Sikhs often use the name Waheguru, no special significance is attached to this term, as it is believed that God will know you are referring to Him irrespective of the form of address.

As God is ineffable, it is only through His will (hukam) that He made Himself known to us. He deigned to become our Guru (Cole 131). According to the Guru Granth Sahib, Gods will is the only thing that existed (along with God Himself) prior to the creation of the universe (Jhutti-Johal 15). Whatever happens is according to Gods will, and on a personal level, is the result of ones karma (op. cit. 76).

The aim of Sikhism

In all creation, humans alone are not unquestioningly obedient to Gods will. We have the possibility to choose to enter into a conscious union with God, or not (Cole 135). Yet humans alone are given the chance to meet their Creator (ibid.).

The root cause of human suffering is haumai, literally meaning I-myself, which refers to egotism (Singh 66) or self-reliance (Cole 136). People are naturally man-mukh, self-centred (Owen 137). As in Hinduism, maya (sometimes translated as materialism or worldly attachment) is a root cause of our condition (Sikh Missionary Center 269). It is also referred to as ignorance (Cole 136). However for Sikhs the world is not illusory (Cole 137).

Jivan mukhti (or mukt) is spiritual liberation within ones current incarnation. Once the veil of egotistical ignorance is lifted and Gods grace becomes active, one is liberated. God -centredness has replaced selfcentredness. Such an enlightened person will no longer accrue karma (Cole 142).

Nanak also taught that liberation does not only apply to ones current life: Saints are absorbed in Gods name and have destroyed the pain and fear of transmigration (samsara) (Shah 201). As the mind becomes pure, the soul will merge with the Supreme Soul (Sikh Missionary Center 267).

According to the sayings of Guru Nanak, Put your soul on the raft of the fear of God and you will be saved. God offers a raft to few (Shah 195) and Some God blends with himself, others he leads astray (op. cit. 186). This difficult idea has parallels in Christianity with the phrase, Many are called but few are chosen (Matthew). It therefore seems that while some may not be destined to be liberated within this lifetime, this is due to their karma. God cannot be manipulated by prayer, meditation or any other human action. Gods will is inviolable. As Nanak said, God cannot be told what to do. Gods own will determines His actions (Cole 126).

The Sikh way to liberation

However beyond human comprehension God may be, He is personal, with whom the Sikh must develop an intimate relationship (Langley p.38).

Nanak taught that the route to enlightenment is meditation, truthful living, and the remembering and reciting of Gods name. This last practice, called nam simran (or nam japan) (Kalsi 11) is the primary means of liberation, consisting of remembering or repeating the Divine name. It can take various forms, including scriptural singing or chanting (Hinnells 339). As Nanak said, Repeating His name, you shall attain the true fruit (Shah 203). This is practising the presence of God in ones consciousness (Sikh Missionary Center 258).

Selfless service (or community service) is known as sewa (or seva), and is a practical way for a Sikh to become less man-mukh and more gurmukh (God-oriented). A Sikhs beliefs cannot be separate from his conduct. Serving others is a way to serve God, and is a recognition of Gods presence in others. This is a vital part of ones spiritual liberation (Cole 95).

Whereas a Hindu may choose to renounce the world to follow a particular way towards liberation, for Sikhs, salvation must be sought within ordinary life without shirking ordinary social and familial responsibility (Sikh Missionary Center 252).

Conclusion
As mentioned earlier, it has been said that Nanak (with the aid of revelation) synthesised Hindu and Muslim concepts of the divine. As for Muslims, God is a unity, yet Sikhs accept much of Hindu philosophy, e.g. regarding brahman and Ishvara. Nanak wedded his Hindu understanding of karma, samsara and liberation to Islamic submission to the One True God. Thus Sikhism can be seen as a distillation of Hindu and Muslim ideas to create a powerful and unequivocal religion.

Bibiography
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G. Flood, An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press 1996