Driverless Car Documentation

DRIVERLESS CAR
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
The overview of this project is to implement a driverless car is an autonomous vehicle that can drive itself from one point to another without assistance from a driver. ne of the main impetuses !ehind the call for driverless cars is safet". An autonomous vehicle is fundamentall" defined as a passen#er vehicle. An autonomous vehicle is also referred to as an autopilot$ driverless car$ auto%drive car$ or automated #uided vehicle &A'V(. )ost protot"pes that have !een !uilt so far performed automatic steerin# that were !ased on sensin# the painted lines in the road or ma#netic monorails em!edded in the road. 1.2 Purpose
*urpose of the current wor+ is to stud" and anal",e the driverless car technolo#". This mo!ilit" is usuall" ta+en for #ranted !" most people and the" reali,e that transportation forms the !asis of our civili,ation. The need for a more efficient$ !alanced and safer transportation s"stem is o!vious. This need can !e !est met !" the implementation of autonomous transportation s"stems.
1.3
Scope n the Road Toda". In
Current wor+ focuses on how to use the -uture Car Technolo#" That.s
the future$ automated s"stem will help to avoid accidents and reduce con#estion. The future vehicles will !e capa!le of determinin# the !est route and warn each other a!out the conditions a head. )an" companies and institutions wor+in# to#ether in countless projects in order to implement the intelli#ent vehicles and transportation networ+s of the future.
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT
*a#e 1
DRIVERLESS CAR
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY

A driverless car is an autonomous vehicle that can drive itself from one point to another without assistance from a driver. Some !elieve that autonomous vehicles have the potential to transform the transportation industr" while virtuall" eliminatin# accidents$ and cleanin# up the environment. Accordin# to ur!an desi#ner and futurist )ichael E. Arth$ driverless electric vehicles2in conjunction with the increased use of virtual realit" for wor+$ travel$ and pleasure2 could reduce the world.s 344$444$444 vehicles to a fraction of that num!er within a few decades. Arth claims that this would !e possi!le if almost all private cars re5uirin# drivers$ which are not in use and par+ed 647 of the time$ would !e traded for pu!lic self%drivin# ta8is that would !e in near constant use.This would also allow for #ettin# the appropriate vehicle for the particular need 2a !us could come for a #roup of people$ a limousine could come for a special ni#ht out$ and a Se#wa" could come for a short trip down the street for one person. Children could !e chauffeured in supervised safet"$ D9Is would no lon#er e8ist$ and :1$444 lives could !e saved each "ear in the 9.S. alone. Driverless passen#er car pro#rams include the 344 million EC E9RE;A *rometheus *roject on autonomous vehicles &163<%166=($ the >#etthere passen#er vehicles &usin# the -R '%navi#ation technolo#"( from the /etherlands$ the AR' automo!iles see smart cars. The control mechanism of an autonomous car consists of three main !loc+s as shown !elow research project from Ital"$ and the DAR*A 'rand Challen#e from the 9SA. -or the wider application of artificial intelli#ence to
*a#e >
DRIVERLESS CAR
)ost autonomous vehicle projects made use of stoc+ cars and modified them$ addin# ?smart@ hardware to create automated cars. The advanta#e of usin# stoc+ cars is the ease of o!tainin# the car throu#h sponsors. The stoc+s cars help conve" the messa#e autonomous vehicles are not science fiction an"more and these s"stems can !e implemented on normal cars. 2.1 His or!
An earl" representation of the driverless car was /orman 0el 'eddes.s -uturama e8hi!it sponsored !" 'eneral )otors at the 16AA Borld.s -air$ which depicted electric cars powered !" circuits em!edded in the roadwa" and controlled !" radio. The histor" of autonomous vehicles starts in 16<< with the Tsu+u!a )echanical En#ineerin# La! in Capan. n a dedicated$ clearl" mar+ed course it achieved speeds of up to A4 +mDh &>4 miles per hour($ !" trac+in# white street mar+ers &special hardware was necessar"$ since commercial computers were much slower than the" are toda"(. In the 1634s a vision%#uided )ercedes%0en, ro!ot van$ desi#ned !" Ernst Dic+manns and his team at the 0undeswehr 9niversit" of )unich in )unich$ 'erman"$ achieved 144 +mDh on streets without traffic. Su!se5uentl"$ the European Commission !e#an fundin# the 344 million Euro E9RE;A *rometheus *roject on autonomous vehicles &163<E166=(. Also in the 1634s the DAR*A%funded Autonomous Land Vehicle &ALV( in the 9nited States achieved the first road%followin# demonstration that used laser radar &Environmental Research Institute of )ichi#an($ computer vision &Carne#ie )ellon 9niversit" and SRI($ and autonomous ro!otic control &Carne#ie )ellon and )artin )arietta( to control a driverless vehicle up to A4 +mDh. In 163<$ FRL La!oratories &formerl" Fu#hes Research La!s( demonstrated the first off%road map and sensor%!ased autonomous navi#ation on the ALV. The vehicle travelled over G44m at A +mDh on comple8 terrain with steep slopes$ ravines$ lar#e roc+s$ and ve#etation. In 166:$ the twin ro!ot vehicles Va)* and Vita%> of Daimler%0en, and Ernst Dic+manns of 9ni0w) drove more than one thousand +ilometers on a *aris three%lane hi#hwa" in standard heav" traffic at speeds up to 1A4 +mDh$ al!eit semi%autonomousl" with human interventions.
*a#e A
DRIVERLESS CAR
The" demonstrated autonomous drivin# in free lanes$ convo" drivin#$ and lane chan#es left and ri#ht with autonomous passin# of other cars. In 166=$ Dic+mannsH re%en#ineered autonomous S%Class )ercedes%0en, too+ a 1G44 +m trip from )unich in 0avaria to Copenha#en in Denmar+ and !ac+$ usin# saccadic computer vision and transputers to react in real time. The ro!ot achieved speeds e8ceedin# 1<= +mDh on the 'erman Auto!ahn$ with a mean time !etween human interventions of 6 +m$ or 6=7 autonomous drivin#. A#ain it drove in traffic$ e8ecutin# manoeuvres to pass other cars. Despite !ein# a research s"stem without emphasis on lon# distance relia!ilit"$ it drove up to 1=3 +m without human intervention. In 166=$ the Carne#ie )ellon 9niversit" /avla! project achieved 63.>7 autonomous drivin# on a =444 +m &A444%mile( I/o hands across AmericaI trip. This car$ however$ was semi% autonomous !" natureJ it used neural networ+s to control the steerin# wheel$ !ut throttle and !ra+es were human%controlled. -rom 166GE>441$ Al!erto 0ro##i of the 9niversit" of *arma launched the AR' *roject$ which wor+ed on ena!lin# a modified Lancia Thema to follow the normal &painted( lane mar+s in an unmodified hi#hwa". The culmination of the project was a journe" of >$444 +m over si8 da"s on the motorwa"s of northern Ital" du!!ed )ille)i#lia in Automatico$ with an avera#e speed of 64 +mDh. 6:7 of the time the car was in full" automatic mode$ with the lon#est automatic stretch !ein# =: +m. The vehicle had onl" two !lac+%and%white low%cost video cameras on !oard$ and used stereoscopic vision al#orithms to understand its environment$ as opposed to the Ilaser$ radar % whatever "ou needI approach ta+en !" other efforts in the field. Three 9S 'overnment funded militar" efforts +nown as Demo I &9S Arm"($ Demo II &DAR*A($ and Demo III &9S Arm"($ are currentl" underwa". Demo III &>441( demonstrated the a!ilit" of unmanned #round vehicles to navi#ate miles of difficult off%road terrain$ avoidin# o!stacles such as roc+s and trees. Cames Al!us at /IST provided the Real%Time Control S"stem which is a hierarchical control s"stem. /ot onl" were individual vehicles controlled &e.#. throttle$ steerin#$ and !ra+e($ !ut #roups of vehicles had their movements automaticall" coordinated in response to hi#h level #oals.
*a#e :
DRIVERLESS CAR
In >44>$ the DAR*A 'rand Challen#e competitions were announced. The >44: and >44= DAR*A competitions allowed international teams to compete in full" autonomous vehicle races over rou#h unpaved terrain and in a non%populated su!ur!an settin#. The >44< DAR*A challen#e$ the DAR*A ur!an challen#e$ involved autonomous cars drivin# in an ur!an settin#. In >443$ 'eneral )otors stated that the" will !e#in testin# driverless cars !" >41=$ and the" could !e on the road !" >413. In >414 VisLa! ran VIAC$ the VisLa! Intercontinental Autonomous Challen#e$ a 1A$444 +m test run of autonomous vehicles. The four driverless electric vans successfull" ended the drive from Ital" to China via the arrivin# at the Shan#hai E8po on >3 cto!er.
*a#e =
DRIVERLESS CAR
CHAPTER 3
RECENT PRO"ECTS
The wor+ done so far varies si#nificantl" in its am!ition and its demands in terms of modification of the infrastructure. 0roadl"$ there are three approachesJ -ull" autonomous vehicle Various enhancements to the infrastructure &either an entire area$ or specific lanes( to create a self%drivin# closed s"stem. IassistanceI s"stems that incrementall" remove re5uirements from the human driver &e.#. improvements to cruise control( An important concept that cuts across several of the efforts is vehicle platoons. In order to !etter utili,e road%space$ vehicles are assem!led into ad%hoc train%li+e IplatoonsI$ where the driver &either human or automatic( of the first vehicle ma+es all decisions for the entire platoon. All other vehicles simpl" follow the lead of the first vehicle. 3.1 #ULLY AUTONO$OUS -ull" autonomous drivin# re5uires a car to drive itself to a pre%set tar#et usin# unmodified infrastructure. The final #oal of safe door%to%door transportation in ar!itrar" environments is not "et reached thou#h. Au o%o&ous ro'o s are ro!ots that can perform desired tas+s in unstructured environments without continuous human #uidance. )an" +inds of ro!ots have some de#ree of autonom". Different ro!ots can !e autonomous in different wa"s. A hi#h de#ree of autonom" is particularl" desira!le in fields such as space e8ploration$ cleanin# floors$ mowin# lawns$ and waste water treatment. Some modern factor" ro!ots are IautonomousI within the strict confines of their direct environment. It ma" not !e that ever" de#ree of freedom e8ists in their surroundin# environment$ !ut the factor" ro!ot.s wor+place is challen#in# and can often contain chaotic$ unpredicted
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e G
DRIVERLESS CAR
varia!les. The e8act orientation and position of the ne8t o!ject of wor+ and &in the more advanced factories( even the t"pe of o!ject and the re5uired tas+ must !e determined. This can var" unpredicta!l" &at least from the ro!ot.s point of view(. ne important area of ro!otics research is to ena!le the ro!ot to cope with its environment whether this !e on land$ underwater$ in the air$ under#round$ or in space. A full" autonomous ro!ot has the a!ilit" to

'ain information a!out the environment. Bor+ for an e8tended period without human intervention. )ove either all or part of itself throu#hout its operatin# environment without human assistance. Avoid situations that are harmful to people$ propert"$ or itself unless those are part of its desi#n specifications.
An autonomous ro!ot ma" also learn or #ain new capa!ilities li+e adjustin# strate#ies for accomplishin# its tas+&s( or adaptin# to chan#in# surroundin#s. 3.1.1 VAHICLES #OR SUR#ACED ROADS 'oo#le driverless car$ with a test fleet of autonomous vehicles that !" driven 1:4$444 miles &>A4$444 +m( without an" incidents. The 344 million Euro E9RE;A *rometheus *roject on autonomous vehicles &163<E166=(. Amon# its culmination points were the twin ro!ot vehicles VITA%> and Va)* of Diamler%0en, and Ernst Dic+manns$ drivin# lon# distances in heav" traffic &see KFistor" a!ove(. The VIAC Challen#e$ in which : vehicles drove from Ital" to China on a 1A$444 +ilometers &3$144 mi( trip with onl" limited occasions intervene !" human$ such as in the )oscow traffic jams and when passin# toll stations. This is the lon#est%ever trip !" an unmanned vehicle. The third competition of the DAR*A 'rand Challen#e held in /ovem!er >44<. =A teams 5ualified initiall"$ !ut after a series of 5ualif"in# rounds$ onl" eleven teams entered the final cto!er >414 have
*a#e <
DRIVERLESS CAR
race.
f these$ si8 teams completed navi#atin# throu#h the non%populated ur!an environment$ vehicle &see KFistor" a!ove( is the predecessor of the 0RAiVE vehicle$ !oth
and the Carne#ie )ellon 9niversit" team won the L> million pri,e. The AR' from the 9niversit" of *arma.s Vis La!. Ar#o was developed in 166G and demonstrated to the world in 1663M 0RAiVE was developed in >443 and firstl" demonstrated in >446 at the IEEE IV conference in Ni.an$ China. Stanford Racin# Team.s junior car is an autonomous driverless car for paved roads. It is intended for civilian use The Vol+swa#en 'olf 'TI =AO1 is a modified Vol+swa#en 'olf 'TI capa!le of autonomous drivin#. The 'olf 'TI =AO1 features a implemented s"stem that can !e inte#rated into an" car. This s"stem is !ased around the )icroAuto0o8 from dSpace. This$ as it was intended to test VB hardware without a human driver &for consistent test results(. The Audi TTS *i+es *ea+ is a modified Audi TTS$ wor+in# entirel" on '*S$ and thus without additional sensors. The car was desi#ned !" 0ur+hard Fuhn+e of Vol+swa#en Research. Stadtpilot$ Technical 9niversit" 0raunschwei#. Auto/ ) S % part of the Artificial Intelli#ence 'roup of the -erie 9niversitat 0erlin. 3.1.2 #REE(RAN)IN) VEHICLES There are four clusters of activit" relatin# to free%ran#in# off%road cars. Some of these projects are militar"%oriented.
9S militar" DAR*A 'rand Challen#e The 9S Department - Defence announced on the Cul" A4$ >44> a I'rand Challen#eI$
for 9S%!ased teams to produce a vehicle that could autonomousl" navi#ate and reach a tar#et in the desert of the south western 9SA. In )arch >44:$ the first competition was held$ for a pri,e%mone" of L1 million. /ot one of the >= entrants completed the course. Fowever$ in the second competition held in cto!er >44= five different teams completed the 1A=%mile &>1< +m( course$ and the Stanford 9niversit" team won the L> million pri,e.
*a#e 3
DRIVERLESS CAR
/ovem!er Ard$ >44<$ the third competition was held and LA.= million dollar in cash pri,es$ trophies and medals were awarded. Si8 driverless vehicles were a!le to complete the == miles &36 +m( of ur!an traffic in the >44< DAR*A 9r!an Challen#e rall" st"le race. 1st *lace % Tartan Racin#$ *itts!ur#h$ *AM >nd *lace % Stanford Racin# Team$ Stanford$ CAM Ard *lace % Victor Tan#o$ 0lac+s!ur#$ VA.
European Land%Ro!ot Trial &ELR 0( The 'erman Department of Defence held an e8hi!ition trade show &ELR 0( for demonstratin# automated vehicles in )a" >44G. The event included various militar" automated and remotel"%operated ro!ots$ for various militar" uses. Some of the s"stems on displa" could !e ordered and implemented immediatel". In Au#ust >44< a civilian version of the event was held in Swit,erland. The Smart Team from Swit,erland presented Ia Vehicle for Autonomous /avi#ation and )appin# in utdoor EnvironmentsI. -or pictures of their ELR 0 demo$ see this.
The Israeli )ilitar"%Industrial Comple8 As a followup from its success with 9nmanned Com!at Air Vehicles$ and followin# the construction of the Israeli Best 0an+ 0arrier there has !een si#nificant interest in developin# a full" automated !order%patrol vehicle. Two projects$ !" El!it S"stems and Israel Aircraft Industries are !oth !ased on the locall"%produced Armored ITomcarI and have the specific purpose of patrollin# !arrier fences a#ainst intrusions. The ISciAutonics III team in the >44: DAR*A Challen#e used El!it.s version of the Tom car.
;orean Autonomous Vehicle Competition &AVC( or#ani,ed !" F"undai ;ia Automotive 'roup In /ovem!er >414$ the first competition was held$ for a winnin# pri,e%mone" of L144 thousand$ and the Fan"an# 9niversit" A1 team won the L144 thousand pri,e.
*a#e 6
DRIVERLESS CAR
3.2 PRE(*UILT IN#RASTRUCTURE The followin# projects were conceived as practical attempts to use availa!le technolo#" in an incremental manner to solve specific pro!lems$ li+e transport within a defined campus area$ or drivin# alon# a stretch of motorwa". The technolo#ies are proven$ and the main !arrier to widespread implementation is the cost of deplo"in# the infrastructure. Such s"stems alread" function in man" airports$ on railroads$ and in some European towns. 3.2.1 DUAL $ODE TRANSIT($ONORAIL There is a famil" of projects$ all currentl" still at the e8perimental sta#e$ that would com!ine the fle8i!ilit" of a private automo!ile with the !enefits of a monorail s"stem. The idea is that privatel"%owned cars would !e !uilt with the a!ilit" to doc+ themselves onto a pu!lic monorail s"stem$ where the" !ecome part of a centrall" mana#ed$ full" computeri,ed transport s"stem2 more a+in to a driverless train s"stem &as alread" found in airports( than to a driverless car. This idea is also +nown a Dual mode transit. &See also *ersonal rapid transit for another concept alon# those lines$ for purel" pu!lic transport.( 'roups wor+in# on this concept areJ

R9-&Denmar+( 0iBa" &9;( AT/ &/ew Pealand( Tri Trac+ &Te8as$ 9nited States(
$ONORAIL+
The ;L )onorail in ;uala Lumpur )ala"sia$ a straddle%!eam monorail

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e 14
DRIVERLESS CAR
A &o%or,i- is a rail%!ased transportation s"stem !ased on a sin#le rail$ which acts as its sole support and its #uidewa". The term is also used variousl" to descri!e the !eam of the s"stem$ or the vehicles travelin# on such a !eam or trac+. The term ori#inates from the contraction of the words mono &one( and rail$ from as earl" as 136<$ possi!l" from 'erman en#ineer Eu#en Lan#en who called an elevated railwa" s"stem with wa#ons suspended the Eugen Langen Onerailed Suspension Tramway &Einschieni#e FQn#e!ahn S"stem Eu#en Lan#en(. The transportation s"stem is often referred to as a railwa". Collo5uiall"$ the term ImonorailI is often used erroneousl" to descri!e an" form of elevated rail or peoplemover. In fact$ the term solel" refers to the st"le of trac+$ not its elevation. DUAL($ODE TRANSITJ
CR Fo++aido D)V tested. Du,- &o.e r,%si descri!es transportation s"stems in which vehicles operate on !oth pu!lic roads and on a #uidewa"M thus usin# two modes of transport. In a t"pical dual mode transit s"stem$ private vehicles compara!le to automo!iles would !e a!le to travel under driver control on the street$ !ut then enter a #uidewa"$ which ma" !e a speciali,ed form of Railwa" or monorail$ for automated travel for an e8tended distance. E8amples of this concept include the TriTrac+$ R9- )e#arail and CR Fo++aido. Dual%mode transit see+s to address a similar audience as personal rapid transit. 3.2.2 AUTO$ATED HI)H/AY SYSTE$S Automated hi#hwa" s"stems &AHS( are an effort to construct special lanes on e8istin# hi#hwa"s that would !e e5uipped with ma#nets or other infrastructure to allow vehicles to sta" in the center of the lane$ while communicatin# with other vehicles &and with a central s"stem( to avoid collision and mana#e traffic. Li+e the dual%mode monorail$ the idea is that cars remain private and independent$ and just use the AFS s"stem as a 5uic+ wa" to move alon# desi#nated routes. AFS allows speciall" e5uipped cars to join the s"stem usin# special .acceleration lanes. and to leave throu#h .deceleration lanes.. Bhen leavin# the s"stem each car verifies that its driver is
DRIVERLESS CAR
read" to ta+e control of the vehicle$ and if that is not the case$ the s"stem par+s the car safel" in a predesi#nated area. Some implementations use radar to avoid collisions and coordinate speed. ne e8ample that uses this implementation is the AFS demo of 166< near San Die#o$ sponsored !" the 9S #overnment$ in coordination with the State of California and Carne#ie )ellon 9niversit". The test site is a 1>%+ilometer$ hi#h%occupanc"%vehicle &F V( se#ment of Interstate 1=$ 1G +ilometers north of downtown San Die#o. The event #enerated much press covera#e. This concerted effort !" the 9S #overnment seems to have !een prett" much a!andoned !ecause of social and political forces$ a!ove all else the desire to create a less futuristic and more mar+eta!le solution. As of >44<$ a three%"ear project is underwa" to allow ro!ot controlled vehicles$ includin# !uses and truc+s$ to use a special lane alon# >4 Interstate 34=. The intention is to allow the vehicles to travel at shorter followin# distances and there!" allow more vehicles to use the lanes. The vehicles will still have drivers since the" need to enter and e8it the special lanes. The s"stem is !ein# desi#ned !" Swoop Technolo#"$ !ased in San Die#o Count". PLATOON 0,u o&o'i-e1+ 'roupin# vehicles into p-, oo%s is a method of increasin# the capacit" of roads. An automated hi#hwa" s"stem is a proposed technolo#" for doin# this. *latoons decrease the distances !etween cars usin# electronic$ and possi!l" mechanical$ couplin#. This capa!ilit" would allow man" cars to accelerate or !ra+e simultaneousl". Instead of waitin# after a traffic li#ht chan#es to #reen for drivers ahead to react$ a s"nchroni,ed platoon would move as one$ allowin# up to a fivefold increase in traffic throu#hput if spacin# is diminished that much. This s"stem also allows for a closer headwa" !etween vehicles !" eliminatin# reactin# distance needed for human reaction.
*a#e 1>
DRIVERLESS CAR
*latoon capa!ilit" mi#ht re5uire !u"in# new cars$ or it ma" !e somethin# that can !e retrofitted. Drivers would pro!a!l" need a special license endorsement on account of the new s+ills re5uired and the added responsi!ilit" when drivin# in the lead. Smart cars with artificial intelli#ence could automaticall" join and leave platoons. The automated hi#hwa" s"stem is a proposal for one such s"stem$ where cars or#anise themselves into platoons of ei#ht to twent"%five. 3.2.3 #REE(RAN)IN) ON )RID -ro# /avi#ation S"stems &the /etherlands( applies the -R ' &2ree(r,%3i%3 o% 3ri.( technolo#". The technolo#" consists of a com!ination of autonomous vehicles and a supervisor" central s"stem. The compan".s purpose%!uilt electric vehicles locate themselves usin# odometr" readin#s$ recali!ratin# themselves occasionall" usin# a Ima,eI of ma#nets em!edded in the environment$ and '*S. The cars avoid collisions with o!stacles located in the environment usin# laser &lon# ran#e( and ultra%sonic &short%ran#e( sensors. The vehicles are completel" autonomous and plan their own routes from A to 0. The supervisor" s"stem merel" administers the operations and directs traffic where re5uired. The s"stem has !een applied !oth indoors and outdoors$ and in environments where 144O automated vehicles are operational &container port(. At this time the s"stem is not suited "et for runnin# the sheer num!er of vehicles encountered in ur!an settin#s. The compan" also has no intention of developin# such technolo#" at this time. The -R ' s"stem is deplo"ed for industrial purposes in factor" sites$ and is mar+eted as a pilot pu!lic transport s"stem in the cit" of Capelle aan den ICssel !" its su!sidiar" >#etthere. This s"stem e8perienced an accident that proved to !e caused !" a Fuman error.
3.3 DRIVER(ASSISTANCE
*a#e 1A
DRIVERLESS CAR
Thou#h these products and projects do not aim e8plicitl" to create a full" autonomous car$ the" are seen as incremental steppin#%stones in that direction. )an" of the technolo#ies detailed !elow will pro!a!l" serve as components of an" future driverless car 2 meanwhile the" are !ein# mar+eted as #ad#ets that assist human drivers in one wa" or another. This approach is slowl" tric+lin# into standard cars &e.#. improvements to cruise control(. Driver%assistance mechanisms are of several distinct t"pes$ sensorial%informative$ actuation% corrective$ and s"stemic. 3.3.1 SENSORIAL(IN#OR$ATIVE These s"stems warn or inform the driver a!out events that ma" have passed unnoticed$ such as

Lane Departure Barnin# S"stem &LDBS($ for e8ample from Iteris or )o!ileE"e /.V. Rear%view alarm$ to detect o!stacles !ehind. Visi!ilit" aids for the driver$ to cover !lind spots and enhanced vision s"stems such as radar$ wireless vehicle safet" communications and ni#ht vision. Infrastructure%!ased$ driver warnin#Dinformation%#ivin# s"stems$ such as those developed !" the Capanese #overnment
LANE DEPARTURE /ARNIN) SYSTE$J
Roadwa" with lane mar+in#s In road%transport terminolo#"$ a -,%e .ep,r ure w,r%i%3 s!s e& is a mechanism desi#ned to warn a driver when the vehicle !e#ins to move out of its lane &unless a turn si#nal is on in that direction( on freewa"s and arterial roads. These s"stems are desi#ned to minimi,e accidents !" addressin# the main causes of collisionsJ drivin# error$ distraction and drowsiness. In >446 the /FTSA !e#an stud"in# whether to mandate lane departure warnin# s"stems and frontal collision warnin# s"stems on automo!iles. There are two main t"pes of s"stemsJ
*a#e 1:
DRIVERLESS CAR
S"stems which warn the driver &lane departure warnin#$ LDB( if the vehicle is leavin# its lane. &visual$ audi!le$ andDor vi!ration warnin#s( S"stems which warn the driver and if no action is ta+en automaticall" ta+e steps to ensure the vehicle sta"s in its lane &lane +eepin# s"stem$ L;S(.
The first production lane departure warnin# s"stem in Europe was developed !" the 9nited States.s Iteris Compan" for )ercedes Actros commercial truc+s. The s"stem de!uted in >444 and is now availa!le on most truc+s sold in Europe In >44>$ the Iteris s"stem !ecame availa!le on -rei#htliner Truc+s. truc+s in /orth America. In all of these s"stems$ the driver is warned of unintentional lane departures !" an audi!le rum!le strip sound #enerated on the side of the vehicle driftin# out of the lane. /o warnin#s are #enerated if$ !efore crossin# the lane$ an active turn si#nal is #iven !" the driver. Sensor types Lane warnin#D+eepin# s"stems are !ased onJ
video sensors in visual domain &mounted !ehind the windshield$ t"picall" inte#rated !eside the rear mirror( laser sensors mounted in the vehicle front infrared sensors &mounted either !ehind the windshield or under the vehicle( Audi !e#an in >44< offerin# its Audi Lane Assist feature.
*LIND SPOT 0VEHICLE1+ A '-i%. spo in a vehicle are areas around the vehicle that cannot !e directl" o!served under e8istin# circumstances. 0lind spots e8ist in a wide ran#e of vehiclesJ cars$ truc+s$ motor!oats and aircraft.
The !lue car.s driver sees the #reen car throu#h his mirrors !ut cannot see the red car without turnin# to chec+ his '-i%. spo .
*a#e 1=
DRIVERLESS CAR
As one is drivin# an automo!ile$ !lind spots are the areas of the road that cannot !e seen while loo+in# forward or throu#h either the rear%view or side mirrors. The most common are the rear quarter blind spots, areas towards the rear of the vehicle on !oth sides. Vehicles in the adjacent lanes of the road that fall into these !lind spots ma" not !e visi!le usin# onl" the car.s mirrors. Rear 5uarter !lind spots can !eJ

chec+ed !" turnin# one.s head !riefl" &ris+in# rear%end collisions($ eliminated !" reducin# overlap !etween side and rear%view mirrors$ or Reduced !" installin# mirrors with lar#er fields%of%view.
ther areas that are sometimes called !lind spots are those that are too low to see !ehind$ in front$ or to the sides of a vehicle$ especiall" those with a hi#h seatin# position$ such as vans$ truc+s$ and S9Vs. Detection of vehicles or other o!jects in such !lind spots are aided !" s"stems such as video cameras or distance sensors$ thou#h these remain uncommon or e8pensive options in #eneral%purpose automo!iles. RADAR+ R,.,r is an o!ject%detection s"stem which uses electroma#netic waves 2 specificall" radio waves 2 to determine the ran#e$ altitude$ direction$ or speed of !oth movin# and fi8ed o!jects such as aircraft$ ships$ spacecraft$ #uided missiles$ motor vehicles$ weather formations$ and terrain. The radar dish$ or antenna$ transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which !ounce off an" o!ject in their path. The o!ject returns a tin" part of the wave.s ener#" to a dish or antenna which is usuall" located at the same site as the transmitter.
A lon#%ran#e radar antenna$ +nown as ALTAIR$ used to detect and trac+ space o!jects in conjunction with A0) testin# at the Ronald Rea#an Test Site on ;wajalein Atoll. A radar s"stem has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in predetermined directions. Bhen these come into contact with an o!ject the" are usuall" reflected andDor scattered in man" directions. Radar si#nals are reflected especiall" well !" materials of considera!le electrical conductivit"2especiall" !" most metals$ !" seawater$ !" wet land$ and !" wetlands. Some of these ma+e the use of radar altimeters possi!le. The radar si#nals that are
*a#e 1G
DRIVERLESS CAR
reflected !ac+ towards the transmitter are the desira!le ones that ma+e radar wor+. If the o!ject is moving either closer or farther awa"$ there is a sli#ht chan#e in the fre5uenc" of the radio waves$ due to the Doppler Effect. /IRELESS VEHICLE SA#ETY CO$$UNICATION+ Bireless vehicle safet" communications telematics aid in car safet" and road safet". It is an electronic su!%s"stem in a car or other vehicle for the purpose of e8chan#in# safet" information$ a!out such thin#s as road ha,ards and the locations and speeds of vehicles$ over short ran#e radio lin+s. This ma" involve temporar" ad hoc wireless local area networ+s. Bireless units will !e installed in vehicles and pro!a!l" also in fi8ed locations such as near traffic si#nals and emer#enc" call !o8es alon# the road. Sensors in the cars and at the fi8ed locations$ as well as possi!le connections to wider networ+s$ will provide the information$ which will !e displa"ed to the drivers in some wa". The ran#e of the radio lin+s can !e e8tended !" forwardin# messa#es alon# multi%hop paths. Even without fi8ed units$ information a!out fi8ed ha,ards can !e maintained !" movin# vehicles !" passin# it !ac+wards. It also seems possi!le for traffic li#hts$ which one can e8pect to !ecome smarter$ to use this information to reduce the chance of collisions. -urther in the future$ it ma" connect directl" to the adaptive cruise control or other vehicle control aids. Cars and truc+s with the wireless s"stem connected to their !ra+es ma" move in convo"s$ to save fuel and space on the roads. Bhen an" column mem!er slows down$ all those !ehind it will automaticall" slow also. There are also possi!ilities that need less en#ineerin# effort. NI)HT VISION Ni34 visio% is the a!ilit" to see in a dar+ environment. Bhether !" !iolo#ical or technolo#ical means$ ni#ht vision is made possi!le !" a com!ination of two approachesJ sufficient spectral ran#e$ and sufficient intensit" ran#e. Fumans have poor ni#ht vision compared to man" animals$ in part !ecause the human e"e lac+s a tapetum lucidum. TYPES O# RAN)ES+
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e 1<
DRIVERLESS CAR
SPECTRAAL RAN)EJ /i#ht%useful spectral ran#e techni5ues can sense radiation that is invisi!le to a human o!server. Fuman vision is confined to a small portion of the electroma#netic spectrum called visi!le li#ht. Enhanced spectral ran#e allows the viewer to ta+e advanta#e of non%visi!le sources of electroma#netic radiation &such as near%infrared or ultraviolet radiation(. Some animals can see usin# much more of the infrared andDor ultraviolet spectrum than humans. INTENSITY RAN)EJ Sufficient intensit" ran#e is simpl" the a!ilit" to see with ver" small 5uantities of li#ht. Althou#h the human visual s"stem can$ in theor"$ detect sin#le photons under ideal conditions$ the neurolo#ical noise filters limit sensitivit" to a few tens of photons$ even in ideal conditions. Enhanced intensit" ran#e is achieved via technolo#ical means throu#h the use of an ima#e intensifier$ #ain multiplication CCD$ or other ver" low%noise and hi#h%sensitivit" arra" of photodetectors. $OTION DETECTOR+
A &o io% .e ec or is a device that contains a ph"sical mechanism or electronic sensor that 5uantifies motion that can !e either inte#rated with or connected to other devices that alert the user of the presence of a movin# o!ject within the field of view. The" form a vital component of comprehensive securit" s"stems$ for !oth homes and !usinesses. An electronic &o io% .e ec or contains a motion sensor that transforms the detection of motion into an electric si#nal. This can !e achieved !" measurin# optical or acoustical chan#es in the field of view. )ost motion detectors can detect up to 1=E>= meters &=4E34 feet(. There are !asicall" three t"pes of sensors used in motion detectors spectrumJ *assive infrared sensor &*IR( Loo+s for !od" heat. /o ener#" is emitted from the sensor. 9ltrasonic &active(
DRIVERLESS CAR
Sends out pulses and measures the reflection off a movin# o!ject. )icrowave &active( Sensor sends out microwave pulses and measures the reflection off a movin# o!ject. Similar to a police radar #un. ELECTRONIC STA*ILITY CONTROL+ E-ec ro%ic S ,'i-i ! Co% ro- &ESC( is a computeri,ed technolo#" that improves safet" throu#h a vehicle.s sta!ilit" !" detectin# and minimi,in# s+ids. Bhen ESC detects loss of steerin# control$ it automaticall" applies the !ra+es to help IsteerI the vehicle where the driver intends to #o. 0ra+in# is automaticall" applied to individual wheel$ such as the outer front wheel to counter oversteer or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC s"stems also reduce en#ine power until control is re#ained. ESC does not improve a vehicle.s cornerin# performanceM instead$ it helps to minimi,e the loss of control. Accordin# to IIFS and /FTSA$ one%third of fatal accidents could have !een prevented !" the technolo#". Durin# normal drivin#$ ESC wor+s in the !ac+#round and continuousl" monitors steerin# and vehicle direction. It compares the driver.s intended direction &determined throu#h the measured steerin# wheel an#le( to the vehicle.s actual direction &determined throu#h measured lateral acceleration$ vehicle rotation &"aw($ and individual road wheel speeds(. ESC intervenes onl" when it detects loss of steerin# control$ i.e. when the vehicle is not #oin# where the driver is steerin#. This ma" happen$ for e8ample$ when s+iddin# durin# emer#enc" evasive swerves$ understeer or oversteer durin# poorl" jud#ed turns on slipper" roads$ or h"droplanin#. ESC estimates the direction of the s+id$ and then applies the !ra+es to individual wheels as"mmetricall" in order to create tor5ue a!out the vehicle.s vertical a8is$ opposin# the s+id and !rin#in# the vehicle !ac+ in line with the driver.s commanded direction. Additionall"$ the s"stem ma" reduce en#ine power or operate the transmission to slow the vehicle down. 3.2.2 ACTUATION(CORRECTIVE+ These s"stems modif" the driver.s instructions so as to e8ecute them in a more effective wa"$ for e8ample the most widel" deplo"ed s"stem of this t"pe is A0SM conversel" power steerin# is not a control mechanism$ !ut just a convenience % it is not involved in decision ma+in#.
DRIVERLESS CAR
Anti%loc+ !ra+in# s"stem&A0S( &also Emer#enc" 0ra+in# Assistance &E0D($ often coupled with Electronic !ra+e force distri!ution &E0D($ which prevents the !ra+es from loc+in# and losin# traction while !ra+in#. This shortens stoppin# distances in most cases and$ more importantl"$ allows the driver to steer the vehicle while !ra+in#.
Traction control s"stem &TCS( actuates !ra+es or reduces throttle to restore traction if driven wheels !e#in to spin. -our wheel drive &ABD( with a centre differential. Distri!utin# power to all four wheels lessens the chances of wheel spin. It also suffers less from oversteer and understeer. Electronic sta!ilit" control &ESC( &also +nown for )ercedes%0en, proprietar" Electronic Sta!ilit" *ro#ram &ES*($ Acceleration Slip Re#ulation &ASR( and Electronic differential loc+ &EDL((. 9ses various sensors to intervene when the car senses a possi!le loss of control. The car.s control unit can reduce power from the en#ine and even appl" the !ra+es on individual wheels to prevent the car from understeerin# or oversteerin#.
D"namic steerin# response &DSR( corrects the rate of power steerin# s"stem to adapt it to vehicle.s speed and road conditions.
ANTI(LOC5 *RA5IN) SYSTE$ 0A*S1+ An ,% i(-oc6 'r,6i%3 s!s e& &A*S( is a safet" s"stem that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to continue interactin# tractivel" with the road surface as directed !" driver steerin# inputs while !ra+in#$ preventin# the wheels from loc+in# up &that is$ ceasin# rotation( and therefore avoidin# s+iddin#. An A0S #enerall" offers improved vehicle control and decreases stoppin# distances on dr" and slipper" surfaces for man" driversM however$ on loose surfaces li+e #ravel or snow%covered pavement$ an A0S can si#nificantl" increase !ra+in# distance$ althou#h still improvin# vehicle control. Since initial widespread use in production cars$ anti%loc+ !ra+in# s"stems have evolved considera!l". Recent versions not onl" prevent wheel loc+ under !ra+in#$ !ut also electronicall" control the front%to%rear !ra+e !ias. This function$ dependin# on its specific capa!ilities and implementation$ is +nown as electronic !ra+eforce distri!ution &E0D($ traction control s"stem$ emer#enc" !ra+e assist$ or electronic sta!ilit" control &ESC(.
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e >4
DRIVERLESS CAR
HISTORY+ EARLY SYSTE$SJ The A0S was first developed for aircraft use in 16>6 !" the -rench automo!ile and aircraft pioneer$ 'a!riel Voisin$ as threshold !ra+in# on airplanes is nearl" impossi!le. An earl" s"stem was Dunlop.s )a8aret s"stem$ which was introduced in the 16=4s and is still in use on some aircraft models. These s"stems use a fl"wheel and valve attached to a h"draulic line that feeds the !ra+e c"linders. The fl"wheel is attached to a drum that runs at the same speed as the wheel. In normal !ra+in#$ the drum and fl"wheel should spin at the same speed. $ODERN SYSTE$S+ Chr"sler$ to#ether with the 0endi8 Corporation$ introduced a computeri,ed$ three%channel$ four% sensor all%wheel A0S called ISure 0ra+eI for its 16<1 Imperial. It was availa!le for several "ears thereafter$ functioned as intended$ and proved relia!le. In 16<1$ 'eneral )otors introduced the ITrac+masterI rear%wheel onl" A0S as an option on their Rear%wheel drive Cadillac models. In the same "ear$ /issan offered an EAL &Electro Anti%loc+ S"stem( as an option on the /issan *resident$ which !ecame Capan.s first electronic A0S. In 1633$ 0)B introduced the first motorc"cle with an electronic%h"draulic A0SJ the 0)B ;144. Fonda followed suit in 166> with the launch of its first motorc"cle A0S on the ST1144 *an European. OPERATION+ The anti%loc+ !ra+e controller is also +nown as the CA0 &Controller Anti%loc+ 0ra+e(. A t"pical A0S includes a central electronic control unit &EC9($ four wheel speed sensors$ and at least two h"draulic valves within the !ra+e h"draulics. The EC9 constantl" monitors the rotational speed of each wheelM if it detects a wheel rotatin# si#nificantl" slower than the others$ a condition indicative of impendin# wheel loc+$ it actuates the valves to reduce h"draulic pressure to the !ra+e at the affected wheel$ thus reducin# the !ra+in# force on that wheelM the wheel then turns faster. Conversel"$ if the EC9 detects a wheel turnin# si#nificantl" faster than
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e >1
DRIVERLESS CAR
the others$ !ra+e h"draulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the !ra+in# force is reapplied$ slowin# down the wheel. This process is repeated continuousl" and can !e detected !" the driver via !ra+e pedal pulsation. Some anti%loc+ s"stem can appl" or release !ra+in# pressure 1G times per second. The EC9 is pro#rammed to disre#ard differences in wheel rotative speed !elow a critical threshold$ !ecause when the car is turnin#$ the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the outer two. -or this same reason$ a differential is used in virtuall" all road#oin# vehicles. If a fault develops in an" part of the A0S$ a warnin# li#ht will usuall" !e illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel$ and the A0S will !e disa!led until the fault is rectified. The modern A0S applies individual !ra+e pressure to all four wheels throu#h a control s"stem of hu!%mounted sensors and a dedicated micro%controller. A0S is offered or comes standard on most road vehicles produced toda" and is the foundation for ESC s"stems$ which are rapidl" increasin# in popularit" due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the "ears. )odern electronic sta!ilit" control &ESC or ES*( s"stems are an evolution of the A0S concept. Fere$ a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the s"stem wor+J these are a steerin# wheel an#le sensor$ and a #"roscopic sensor. The theor" of operation is simpleJ when the #"roscopic sensor detects that the direction ta+en !" the car does not coincide with what the steerin# wheel sensor reports$ the ESC software will !ra+e the necessar" individual wheel&s( &up to three with the most sophisticated s"stems($ so that the vehicle #oes the wa" the driver intends. The steerin# wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornerin# 0ra+e Control &C0C($ since this will tell the A0S that wheels on the inside of the curve should !ra+e more than wheels on the outside$ and !" how much. The A0S e5uipment ma" also !e used to implement a traction control s"stem &TCS( or Anti%Slip Re#ulation &ASR( on acceleration of the vehicle. If$ when acceleratin#$ the tire loses traction$ the A0S controller can detect the situation and ta+e suita!le action so that traction is re#ained. )anufacturers often offer this as a separatel" priced option even thou#h the infrastructure is
*a#e >>
DRIVERLESS CAR
lar#el" shared with A0S. )ore sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and !ra+es simultaneousl". ELECTRONIC *RA5E#ORCE DISTRI*UTION+ E-ec ro%ic 'r,6e2orce .is ri'u io% 0E*D or E*#D1$ E-ec ro%ic 'r,6e2orce -i&i , io% 0E*L1 or E-ec ro%ic 'r,6e ,ssis 0E*A1 is an automo!ile !ra+e technolo#" that automaticall" varies the amount of force applied to each of a vehicle.s !ra+es$ !ased on road conditions$ speed$ loadin#$ etc. Alwa"s coupled with anti%loc+ !ra+in# s"stems$ E0D can appl" more or less !ra+in# pressure to each wheel in order to ma8imi,e stoppin# power whilst maintainin# vehicular control. T"picall"$ the front end carries the most wei#ht and E0D distri!utes less !ra+in# pressure to the rear !ra+es so the rear !ra+es do not loc+ up and cause a s+id. In some s"stems$ E0D distri!utes more !ra+in# pressure at the rear !ra+es durin# initial !ra+e application !efore the effects of wei#ht transfer !ecome apparent. OPERATION+ The jo! of the E0D as a su!s"stem of the A0S s"stem is to control the effective adhesion utili,ation !" the rear wheels. The pressure of the rear wheels is appro8imated to the ideal !ra+e force distri!ution in a partial !ra+in# operation. To do so$ the conventional !ra+e desi#n is modified in the direction of rear a8le over!ra+in#$ and the components of the A0S are used. E0D reduces the strain on the h"draulic !ra+e force proportionin# valve in the vehicle. E0D optimi,es the !ra+e desi#n with re#ard toJ adhesion utili,ationM drivin# sta!ilit"M wearM temperature stressM and pedal force. E0D ma" wor+ in conjunction with A0S and Electronic Sta!ilit" Control &IESCI( to minimi,e "aw accelerations durin# turns. ESC compares the steerin# wheel an#le to vehicle turnin# rate usin# a "aw rate sensor. IRawI is the vehicle.s rotation around its vertical center of #ravit" &turnin# left or ri#ht(. If the "aw sensor detects moreDless "aw than the steerin# wheel an#le should create$ the car is understeerin# or oversteerin# and ESC activates one of the front or rear !ra+es to rotate the car !ac+ onto its intended course. -or e8ample$ if a car is ma+in# a left turn and !e#ins to understeer &the car plows forward to the outside of the turn( ESC activates the left rear !ra+e$ which will help turn the car left. The sensors are so sensitive$ and the actuation is so
*a#e >A
DRIVERLESS CAR
5uic+ that the s"stem ma" correct direction !efore the driver reacts. A0S helps prevent wheel loc+%up and E0D helps appl" appropriate !ra+e force to ma+e ESC wor+ effectivel".
TRACTION CONTROL SYSTE$+ Traction control s"stem &TCS( actuates !ra+es or reduces throttle to restore traction if driven wheels !e#in to spin. A r,c io% co% ro- s!s e& &TCS($ also +nown as A% i(S-ip Re3u-, io% &ASR($ is t"picall" &!ut not necessaril"( a secondar" function of the anti%loc+ !ra+in# s"stem on production vehicles$ and is desi#ned to prevent loss of traction of the driven road wheels$ and therefore maintain the control of the vehicle when e8cessive throttle is applied !" the driver and the condition of the road surface &due to var"in# factors( is una!le to cope with the tor5ue applied. The intervention can consist of one or more of the followin#J

Reduces or suppress the spar+ to one or more c"linders Reduce fuel suppl" to one or more c"linders 0ra+e one or more wheels Close the throttle$ if the vehicle is fitted with drive !" wire throttle In tur!o%char#ed vehicles$ the !oost control solenoid can !e actuated to reduce !oost and therefore en#ine power.
T"picall"$ the traction control s"stem shares the electro%h"draulic !ra+e actuator &!ut does not use the conventional master c"linder and servo($ and the wheel speed sensors with the anti%loc+ !ra+in# s"stem.
OPERATION+ Bhen the traction control computer &often incorporated into another control unit$ li+e the anti% loc+ !ra+in# s"stem module( detects one or more drive wheels spinnin# si#nificantl" faster than
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e >:
DRIVERLESS CAR
another$ it will use the A0S to appl" !ra+e friction to the wheels that are spinnin# too fast. This !ra+in# action on the slippin# wheel&s( will cause power to !e transferred to the wheels that are not due to the mechanical action within a differential. all%wheel drive vehicles also often have an electronicall" controlled couplin# s"stem in the transfer case or transa8le that is en#a#ed &in an active part time ABD($ or loc+ed up ti#hter &in a true full%time set up that drives all the wheels with some power all the time( to suppl" the non%slippin# wheels with &more( tor5ue. This often occurs in conjunction with the powertrain computer reducin# availa!le en#ine tor5ue !" electronicall" limitin# throttle application andDor fuel deliver"$ retardin# i#nition spar+$ completel" shuttin# down en#ine c"linders$ and a num!er of other methods$ dependin# on the vehicle and how much technolo#" is used to control the en#ine and transmission. USE O# TRACTION CONTROL+ In road carsJ Traction control has traditionall" !een a safet" feature in hi#h%performance cars$ which would otherwise need ver" sensitive throttle input to +eep them from spinnin# the driven wheels when acceleratin#$ especiall" in wet$ ic" or snow" conditions. In recent "ears$ traction control s"stems have !ecome widel" availa!le in non%performance cars$ minivans$ and li#ht truc+s. In race carsJ Traction control is used as a performance enhancement$ allowin# ma8imum traction under acceleration without wheel spin. Bhen acceleratin# out of turn$ it +eeps the tires at the optimum slip ratio I In motor c"clesJ Traction control for a production motorc"cle was first availa!le with the Fonda ST1144 in 166>. 0" >446$ traction control was an option for several models offered !" 0)B and D9CATI$ and the model "ear >414 +awasa+i &1:44'TR(. In off roads vehiclesJ Traction control is used instead or in addition to the mechanical limited slip or loc+in# differential. It is often implemented with$ as well as other computeri,ed controls of the en#ine and transmission. The spinnin# wheel is slowed down with short applications of !ra+es$ divertin# more tor5ue to the non%spinnin# wheel. TRACTION CONTROL IN CORNERIN)+
*a#e >=
DRIVERLESS CAR
Traction control is not just used for improvin# acceleration under slipper" conditions. It can also help a driver to corner more safel". If too much throttle is applied durin# cornerin#$ the drive wheels will lose traction and slide sidewa"s. This occurs as understeer in front wheel drive vehicles and oversteer in rear wheel drive vehicles. Traction control can prevent this from happenin# !" limitin# power to the wheels. It cannot increase the limits of #rip availa!le and is used onl" to decrease the effect of driver error or compensate for a driver.s ina!ilit" to react 5uic+l" enou#h to wheel slip. Automo!ile manufacturers state in vehicle manuals that traction control s"stems should not encoura#e dan#erous drivin# or encoura#e drivin# in conditions !e"ond the drivers. control.
#OUR /HEEL DRIVE+ -our wheel drive &ABD( with a centre differential. Distri!utin# power to all four wheels lessens the chances of wheel spin. It also suffers less from oversteer and understeer. #our(w4ee- .rive$ 7/D$ or 787 &Ifour !" fourI( is a four%wheeled vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four wheels to receive tor5ue from the en#ine simultaneousl". Bhile man" people associate the term with off%road vehicles and Sport utilit" vehicles$ powerin# all four wheels provides !etter control than normal road cars on man" surfaces$ and is an important part in the sport of rall"in#.
In a!!reviations such as 787$ the first fi#ure is normall" ta+en as the total num!er of wheels and the second is normall" ta+en as the num!er of powered wheels &the num!ers are actuall" a8le% ends to allow for more than one wheel on each end of an a8le(. :S> means a four%wheel vehicle in which en#ine power is transmitted to onl" two a8le%endsJ the front two in front%wheel drive or the rear two in rear%wheel drive. 7/D VS ALL /HEEL DRIVE+
*a#e >G
DRIVERLESS CAR
The term four-wheel drive t"picall" descri!es truc+%li+e vehicles that ma" allow the driver to manuall" switch &sometimes with an automatic option( !etween two%wheel drive mode &if availa!le( for streets and four%wheel drive mode for low%traction conditions such as ice$ mud$ snow$ or loose #ravel. All-wheel drive &ABD( is often used to descri!e a Ifull timeI :BD that ma" !e used on dr" pavement without dama#in# the differentials$ althou#h the term ma" !e a!used when mar+etin# a vehicle. ABD can !e used on dr" pavement !ecause it emplo"s a center differential$ which allows each a8le to rotate at a different speed. This eliminates driveline !indin#$ wheel hop$ and other driveline issues associated with the use of :BD on dr" pavement. 7/D VS INDIVIDUAL /HEEL DRIVE+ The term Individual-wheel drive is coined to identif" those electric vehicles where!" each wheel is driven !" its own individual electric motor. This s"stem essentiall" has inherent characteristics in it that would !e #enerall" contri!uted to -our%Bheel drive s"stems li+e the distri!ution of the availa!le power to the wheels. The IBD drive is not limited to : wheels as there is #enerall" a motor that drives each wheel that can num!er upwards of :$ !ut could also identif" a sin#le wheeled vehicle.
ELECTRONIC STA*ILITY CONTROL+ Electronic Sta!ilit" Control &ESC( &also +nown for )ercedes%0en, proprietar" Electronic Sta!ilit" *ro#ram &ES*($ Acceleration Slip Re#ulation &ASR( and Electronic differential loc+ &EDL((. 9ses various sensors to intervene when the car senses a possi!le loss of control. The car.s control unit can reduce power from the en#ine and even appl" the !ra+es on individual wheels to prevent the car from understeerin# or oversteerin#. E-ec ro%ic S ,'i-i ! Co% ro- &ESC( is a computeri,ed technolo#" that improves safet" throu#h a vehicle.s sta!ilit" !" detectin# and minimi,in# s+ids. Bhen ESC detects loss of steerin# control$ it automaticall" applies the !ra+es to help IsteerI the vehicle where the driver intends to #o. 0ra+in# is automaticall" applied to individual wheel$ such as the outer front wheel to counter
*a#e ><
DRIVERLESS CAR
oversteer or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC s"stems also reduce en#ine power until control is re#ained. ESC does not improve a vehicle.s cornerin# performanceM instead$ it helps to minimi,e the loss of control. Accordin# to IIFS and /FTSA$ one%third of fatal accidents could have !een prevented !" the technolo#".
OPERATION+ Durin# normal drivin#$ ESC wor+s in the !ac+#round and continuousl" monitors steerin# and vehicle direction. It compares the driver.s intended direction &determined throu#h the measured steerin# wheel an#le( to the vehicle.s actual direction &determined throu#h measured lateral acceleration$ vehicle rotation &"aw($ and individual road wheel speeds(. ESC intervenes onl" when it detects loss of steerin# control$ i.e. when the vehicle is not #oin# where the driver is steerin#. This ma" happen$ for e8ample$ when s+iddin# durin# emer#enc" evasive swerves$ understeer or oversteer durin# poorl" jud#ed turns on slipper" roads$ or h"droplanin#. ESC estimates the direction of the s+id$ and then applies the !ra+es to individual wheels as"mmetricall" in order to create tor5ue a!out the vehicle.s vertical a8is$ opposin# the s+id and !rin#in# the vehicle !ac+ in line with the driver.s commanded direction. Additionall"$ the s"stem ma" reduce en#ine power or operate the transmission to slow the vehicle down.
ESC can wor+ on an" surface$ from dr" pavement to fro,en la+es. It reacts to and corrects s+iddin# much faster and more effectivel" than the t"pical human driver$ often !efore the driver is even aware of an" imminent loss of control. In fact$ this led to some concern that ESC could allow drivers to !ecome overconfident in their vehicle.s handlin# andDor their own drivin# s+ills. -or this reason$ ESC s"stems t"picall" inform the driver when the" intervene$ so that the driver +nows that the vehicle.s handlin# limits have !een approached. )ost activate a dash!oard indicator li#ht andDor alert toneM some intentionall" allow the vehicle.s corrected course to deviate ver" sli#htl" from the driver%commanded direction$ even if it is possi!le to more precisel" match it.
*a#e >3
DRIVERLESS CAR
Indeed$ all ESC manufacturers emphasi,e that the s"stem is not a performance enhancement nor a replacement for safe drivin# practices$ !ut rather a safet" technolo#" to assist the driver in recoverin# from dan#erous situations. ESC does not increase traction$ so it does not ena!le faster cornerin# &althou#h it can facilitate !etter%controlled cornerin#(. )ore #enerall"$ ESC wor+s within inherent limits of the vehicle.s handlin# and availa!le traction !etween the tires and road. A rec+less maneuver can still e8ceed these limits$ resultin# in loss of control. -or e8ample$ in a severe h"droplanin# scenario$ the wheels that ESC would use to correct a s+id ma" not even initiall" !e in contact with the road$ reducin# its effectiveness. In Cul" >44:$ on the Crown )ajesta$ To"ota offered a Vehicle D"namics Inte#rated )ana#ement &VDI)( s"stem that incorporated formerl" independent s"stems$ includin# ESC. This wor+ed not onl" after the s+id was detected !ut also to prevent the s+id from occurrin# in the first place. 9sin# electric varia!le #ear ratio steerin# power steerin# this more advanced s"stem could also alter steerin# #ear ratios and steerin# tor5ue levels to assist the driver in evasive maneuvers.
CO$PONENTS AND DESI)N+

ESC incorporates "aw rate control into the anti%loc+ !ra+in# s"stem &A0S(. Raw is a rotation around the vertical a8isM i.e. spinnin# left or ri#ht. Anti%loc+ !ra+es ena!le ESC to !ra+e individual wheels. )an" ESC s"stems also incorporate a traction control s"stem &TCS or ASR($ which senses drive%wheel slip under acceleration and individuall" !ra+es the slippin# wheel or wheels andDor reduces e8cess en#ine power until control is re#ained. Fowever$ ESC achieves a different purpose than A0S or Traction Control. The ESC s"stem uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants &input(. ther sensors
indicate the actual state of the vehicle &response(. The control al#orithm compares driver input to vehicle response and decides$ when necessar"$ to appl" !ra+es andDor reduce throttle !" the amounts calculated throu#h the state space &set of e5uations used to model the d"namics of the vehicle(. The ESC controller can also receive data from an issue commands to other controllers on the vehicle such as an all wheel drive s"stem or an active suspension s"stem to improve vehicle sta!ilit" and controlla!ilit".
*a#e >6
DRIVERLESS CAR
The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possi!le defects as soon as possi!le. The" have to !e resistant to possi!le forms of interference &rain$ holes in the road$ etc.(. The most important sensors areJ
Steerin# wheel an#le sensorJ determines the driver.s intended rotationM i.e. where the driver wants to steer. This +ind of sensor is often !ased on A)R elements. Raw rate sensorJ measures the rotation rate of the carM i.e. how much the car is actuall" turnin#. The data from the "aw sensor is compared with the data from the steerin# wheel an#le sensor to determine re#ulatin# action.
Lateral acceleration sensorJ often !ased on the Fall%effect. )easures the lateral acceleration of the vehicle. Bheel speed sensorJ measures the wheel speed.
ther sensors can includeJ
Lon#itudinal acceleration sensorJ similar to the lateral acceleration sensor in desi#n !ut can offer additional information a!out road pitch and also provide another source of vehicle acceleration and speed.
Roll rate sensorJ similar to the "aw rate sensor in desi#n !ut improves the fidelit" of the controller.s vehicle model and correct for errors when estimatin# vehicle !ehavior from the other sensors alone.
ESC uses a h"draulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct !ra+e force. A similar modulator is used in A0S. A0S needs to reduce pressure durin# !ra+in#$ onl". ESC additionall" needs to increase pressure in certain situations and an active vacuum !ra+e !ooster unit ma" !e utili,ed in addition to the h"draulic pump to meet these demandin# pressure #radients.
*a#e A4
DRIVERLESS CAR
The !rain of the ESC s"stem is the Electronic Control 9nit &EC9(. The various control techni5ues are em!edded in it. ften$ the same EC9 is used for diverse s"stems at the same time &A0S$ Traction control s"stem climate control$ etc.(. The input si#nals are sent throu#h the input% circuit to the di#ital controller. The desired vehicle state is determined !ased upon the steerin# wheel an#le$ its #radient and the wheel speed. Simultaneousl"$ the "aw sensor measures the actual state. The controller computes the needed !ra+e or acceleration force for each wheel and directs via the driver circuits the valves of the h"draulic modulator. Via a CA/ interface the EC9 is connected with other s"stems &A0S$ etc.( in order to avoid #ivin# contradictor" commands. )an" ESC s"stems have an IoffI override switch so the driver can disa!le ESC$ which ma" !e desira!le when !adl" stuc+ in mud or snow$ or drivin# on a !each$ or if usin# a smaller%si,ed spare tire which would interfere with the sensors. Some s"stems also offer an additional mode with raised thresholds so that a driver can utili,e the limits of adhesion with less electronic intervention. Fowever$ ESC defaults to I nI when the i#nition is re%started. Some ESC s"stems that lac+ an Ioff switchI$ such as on man" recent To"ota and Le8us vehicles$ can !e temporaril" disa!led throu#h an undocumented series of !ra+e pedal and hand!ra+e operations. -urthermore$ unplu##in# a wheel speed sensor is another method of disa!lin# most ESC s"stems. The ESC implementation on newer -ord vehicles cannot !e completel" disa!led even throu#h the use of the Ioff switchI. The ESC will automaticall" reactivate at hi#hwa" speeds and !elow that if it detects a s+id with the !ra+e pedal depressed. ELECTRONIC DI##RERENTIAL LOC5+ A -oc6i%3 .i22ere% i,-$ .i22(-oc6 or -oc6er is a variation on the standard automotive differential. A loc+in# differential ma" provide increased traction compared to a standard or IopenI differential !" restrictin# each of the two wheels on an a8le to the same rotational speed without re#ard to availa!le traction or differences in resistance seen at each wheel. A loc+in# differential is desi#ned to overcome the chief limitation of a standard open differential !" essentiall" Iloc+in#I !oth wheels on an a8le to#ether as if on a common shaft. This forces !oth wheels to turn in unison$ re#ardless of the traction &or lac+ thereof( availa!le to either wheel individuall".
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e A1
DRIVERLESS CAR
Bhen the differential is unloc+ed &open differential($ it allows each wheel to rotate at different speeds &such as when ne#otiatin# a turn($ thus avoidin# tire scuffin#. An open &or unloc+ed( differential alwa"s provides the same tor5ue &rotational force( to each of the two wheels$ on that a8le. So althou#h the wheels can rotate at different speeds$ the" appl" the same rotational force$ even if one is entirel" stationar"$ and the other spinnin#. &E5ual tor5ue$ une5ual rotational speed(. TYPES AUTO$ATIC LOC5ERS+ Automatic loc+ers loc+ and unloc+ automaticall" with no direct input from the driver. Some automatic loc+in# differential desi#ns ensure that en#ine power is alwa"s transmitted to !oth wheels$ re#ardless of traction conditions$ and will Iunloc+I onl" when one wheel is re5uired to spin faster than the other durin# cornerin#. The" will never allow either wheel to spin slower than the differential carrier or a8le as a whole. The most common e8ample of this t"pe would !e the famous IDetroit Loc+er$I also +nown as the IDetroit /o%Spin$I which replaces the entire differential carrier assem!l". thers sometimes referred to as Ilunch!o8 loc+ers$I emplo" the stoc+ differential carrier and replace onl" the internal spider #ears and shafts with interloc+in# plates. An e8ample of a Ilunch!o8 loc+erI would !e the Spartan Loc+er$ manufactured !" 9SA Standard 'ear. 0oth t"pes of automatic loc+ers will allow for a de#ree of differential wheel speed while turnin# corners in conditions of e5ual traction$ !ut will otherwise loc+ !oth a8le shafts to#ether when traction conditions demand it.
o
*rosJ Automatic action$ no driver interaction necessar"$ no stoppin# for &dis%( en#a#ement necessar" ConsJ Intensified tire wear$ noticea!le impact on drivin# !ehaviour &most people often tend to understeer(.
Some other automatic loc+ers operate as an IopenI$ or unloc+ed differential until wheel spin is encountered and then the" loc+up. This st"le #enerall" uses an internal #overnor to sense a difference in wheel speeds. An e8ample of this would !e ').s I'ov%Lo+.I
*a#e A>
DRIVERLESS CAR
Some other automatic loc+ers operate as an Iopen$I or unloc+ed differential until hi#h tor5ue is applied and then the" loc+up. This st"le #enerall" uses internal #ears s"stems with ver" hi#h friction. An e8ample of this would !e P- Islidin# pins and camsI availa!le for use in earl" VBs. SELECTIVE LOC5ER+ AR0 Air loc+in# differential fitted to a )itsu!ishi Delica L:44 LB0 Diff Selecta!le loc+ers allow the driver to loc+ and unloc+ the differential at will from the driver.s seat. This can !e accomplished man" wa"s.
Compressed air &pneumatics( li+e AR0.s IAir Loc+erI or Ru+on 'ear T A8le.s IPip Loc+erI. Ca!le operated mechanism as is emplo"ed on the I 8 Loc+er.I Electronic solenoids and &electroma#netics( li+e Eaton.s IELoc+er.I Fowever$ E)s are !e#innin# to offer electronic loc+ers as well. /issan Corporations electric loc+er found as optional e5uipment on the -rontier &/avarra( T Nterra. >411 -ord super dut" -%>=4 and SRB -%A=4 :8: models have a electronic loc+er as A64.44 9SD option.
o
*rosJ Allows the differential to perform as an IopenI differential for improved drivea!ilit"$ maneuvera!ilit"$ provides full loc+in# capa!ilit" when it is desira!le or needed ConsJ )echanicall" comple8 with more parts to fail. Some loc+ers re5uire vehicle to stop for en#a#ement. /eeds human interaction and forward%thin+in# re#ardin# upcomin# terrain. re5uirin# a loc+er. n-s!illed drivers often put massive stress on driveline components when leavin# the differential in loc+ed operation on terrain not
SPOOL+
The internal spider #ears of an open differential ma" also !e welded to#ether to create a loc+ed a8leM however$ this method is not recommended as the weldin# process seriousl" compromises the metallur#ical composition of the welded components$ and can lead to failure of the unit under
*a#e AA
DRIVERLESS CAR
stress. If it is desira!le to have a spooled a8le$ the !etter option is to install either a mini%spool$ which uses the stoc+ carrier and replaces onl" the internal components of the differential$ similar in installation to the lunch!o8 loc+er$ or a full spool which replaces the entire carrier assem!l" with a sin#le machined piece. A full spool is perhaps the stron#est means of loc+in# an a8le$ !ut has no a!ilit" to differentiate wheel speeds whatsoever$ puttin# hi#h stress on all affected driveline components. UNDERSTEER+
U%.ers eer and overs eer are vehicle d"namics terms used to descri!e the sensitivit" of a vehicle to steerin#. Automotive en#ineers ori#inall" defined understeer and oversteer !ased on the #radient of the steerin# needed to ma+e a turn in a stead"%state condition &constant speed$ constant radius( on a flat and level #round surface. Car and motorsport enthusiasts often use the terminolo#" more #enerall" in ma#a,ines and !lo#s to descri!e vehicle response to steerin# in all +inds of maneuvers$ even on !an+ed turns. Simpl" put$ oversteer is what occurs when a car turns &steers( !" more than &over( the amount commanded !" the driver. Conversel"$ understeer is what occurs when a car steers under the amount commanded !" the driver.
CONTRI*UTIONS TO UNDERSTEER+ )an" properties of the vehicle affect the understeer #radient$ includin# tire cornerin# stiffness$ cam!er thrust$ lateral force compliance steer$ ali#nin# tor5ue$ lateral load transfer$ and compliance in the steerin# s"stem. These individual contri!utions can !e identified anal"ticall" or !" measurement in a 0undorf anal"sis. LI$IT CONDITIONS+ Bhen an understeer vehicle is ta+en to frictional limits where it is no lon#er possi!le to increase lateral acceleration$ the vehicle will follow a path with a radius lar#er than intended. Althou#h the vehicle cannot increase lateral acceleration$ it is d"namicall" sta!le.
*a#e A:
DRIVERLESS CAR
Bhen an oversteer vehicle is ta+en to frictional limits$ it !ecomes d"namicall" unsta!le with a tendenc" to spin out. Althou#h the vehicle is unsta!le in open%loop control$ a s+illed driver can maintain control a little past the point of insta!ilit" with counter%steerin#. Fowever$ at some limit in lateral acceleration$ it is not ph"sicall" possi!le for even the most s+illed driver to maintain a stead" state and spinout will occur. OVERSTEER+ Overs eer is a term for a car handlin# condition in which the slip an#le of the rear tires is #reater than the slip an#le of the front tires. In other words$ the amount that the car steers is over that commanded !" the driver. The effect is opposite to that of understeer.
An oversteerin# car is referred to as IlooseI or IfreeI.
versteer is a d"namicall" unsta!le
conditionM in other words$ if control is lost$ the vehicle will spin. CAUSES+ The tendenc" of a car to oversteer is affected !" several factors such as mechanical traction$ aerod"namics and suspension$ and driver control$ and ma" !e applica!le at an" level of lateral acceleration. 'enerall"$ oversteer is the condition when the slip an#le of the rear tires e8ceeds that of the front tires$ even when the" are !oth small. Limit oversteer occurs when the rear tires reach the limits of their lateral traction durin# a cornerin# situation !ut the front tires have not$ thus causin# the rear of the vehicle to head towards the outside of the corner. YA/ RATE+ The terms oversteer and understeer are related to "aw rate and not to sideways movement. A car under#oes a circular spinnin# motion &"aw( as it turns$ as well as sideways movement &towards the inside of the corner(. 9ndersteer and oversteer refer to the "aw motion. The difference !etween "aw and sidewa"s movement is !est demonstrated !" practisin# turnin# an aircraft$ !ecause separate controls control each of the two movement t"pes in aircraft. Consider a car with its steerin# wheel turned part wa" to one side and loc+ed in that position. /ow ima#ine that car rollin# forward ver" slowl" on a flat surface. It will move alon# an arc of a circle whose radius is
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e A=
DRIVERLESS CAR
determined solel" !" the position of the wheels$ since centrifu#al force is minimal. Its sidewa"s motion and "aw rate are hence interlin+ed and set !" the steerin# wheel position. CRITICAL SPEED+ versteerin# cars have an associated insta!ilit" mode$ which occurs at and a!ove the critical speed. As this speed is approached$ with the car on an appro8imatel" strai#ht course$ the steerin# !ecomes pro#ressivel" more sensitive. At the critical speed the "aw velocit" #ain !ecomes infinite$ that is$ the car will turn violentl" in response to the sli#htest steerin# input or e8ternal distur!ance. A!ove the critical speed anal"sis shows that the "aw response will !e reversed for a #iven steerin# wheel input$ such as a car turnin# left in response to turnin# the wheel to the ri#ht. This is an oversimplification$ however$ as the model used is linearised in man" important wa"s. 9ndersteerin# cars do not suffer from this$ which is one of the reasons wh" hi#h speed cars tend to !e set up to understeer. AERODYNA$IC STA*ILITY+ At first$ aerod"namic oversteer was counteracted !" settin# the cars up with stron# mechanical understeer$ resultin# in e8cessive understeer at lower speeds. Various means of achievin# aerod"namic sta!ilit" have since !een developed$ such as tail fins to move the centre of pressure !ac+$ the ;amm tail and the spoiler to reduce lift$ rear win#s to #enerate downward actin# lift force$ and air dams and s+irts to reduce air pressure under the car$ causin# down force due to #round effect. )ost of those features improve sta!ilit" !ut increase dra#$ reducin# top speed and increasin# fuel consumption. DYNA$IC STEERIN) RESPONSE 0DSR1+ D"namic steerin# response &DSR( corrects the rate of power steerin# s"stem to adapt it to vehicle.s speed and road conditions.
D!%,&ic s eeri%3 respo%se &DSR( is a car safet" techni5ue that corrects the rate of h"draulic or electric power steerin# s"stem to adapt it to vehicle.s speed and road conditions. Similar to
*a#e AG
DRIVERLESS CAR
DIRAVI$ this s"stem was first featured in the SEAT Leon Cupra R and has since !een used in a wide ran#e of models includin# the I!i,a$ Cordo!a$ new Leon$ Altea and new Toledo. PO/ER STEERIN)+ The term power s eeri%3 is usuall" used to descri!e a s"stem that provides mechanical steerin# assistance to the driver of a land vehicle$ for e8ample$ a car or truc+. The power steerin# s"stem in a vehicle is a t"pe of servomechanism. -or man" drivers$ turnin# the steerin# wheel in a vehicle that doesn.t have power steerin# re5uires more force &tor5ue( than the driver finds comforta!le$ especiall" when the vehicle is movin# at a ver" slow speed. Steerin# force is ver" sensitive to the wei#ht of the vehicle$ and nearl" so much to its len#th$ so this is most important for lar#e vehicles. In a vehicle e5uipped with power steerin#$ when the driver turns the steerin# wheel$ he feels onl" a sli#ht retardin# force$ so a vehicle e5uipped with power steerin# can !e driven !" an" health" driver$ even when the vehicle is !ein# par+ed. This is !ecause the power steerin# s"stem furnishes most of the ener#" re5uired to turn the steered wheels of the car. )ost power steerin# s"stems in cars and li#ht truc+s toda" are h"draulic &that is$ the force to turn the wheels is provided !" a h"draulic piston$ which is powered !" hi#h pressure h"draulic fluid($ !ut in some cars and truc+s$ the steerin# force is provided !" an electric motor. ELECTRIC SYSTE$S+ E-ec ric power s eeri%3 &EPS or EPAS( is desi#ned to use an electric motor to reduce effort !" providin# steerin# assist to the driver of a vehicle. Sensors detect the motion and tor5ue of the steerin# column$ and a computer module applies assistive tor5ue via an electric motor coupled directl" to either the steerin# #ear or steerin# column. This allows var"in# amounts of assistance to !e applied dependin# on drivin# conditions. The s"stem allows en#ineers to tailor steerin#% #ear response to varia!le%rate and varia!le%dampin# suspension s"stems achievin# an ideal !lend of ride$ handlin#$ and steerin# for each vehicle. n -iat #roup cars the amount of assistance can !e re#ulated usin# a !utton named ICITRI that switches !etween two different assist curves$ while most other E*S s"stems have varia!le assist$ which allows for more assistance as the speed of a vehicle decreases and less assistance from the s"stem durin# hi#h%speed situations. In the
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e A<
DRIVERLESS CAR
event of component failure$ a mechanical lin+a#e such as a rac+ and pinion serves as a !ac+%up in a manner similar to that of h"draulic s"stems.
Electric power steerin# should not !e confused with drive%!"%wire or steer%!"%wire s"stems which use electric motors for steerin#$ !ut without an" mechanical lin+a#e to the steerin# wheel. Electric s"stems have a sli#ht advanta#e in fuel efficienc" !ecause there is no !elt%driven h"draulic pump constantl" runnin#$ whether assistance is re5uired or not$ and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another major advanta#e is the elimination of a !elt%driven en#ine accessor"$ and several hi#h%pressure h"draulic hoses !etween the h"draulic pump$ mounted on the en#ine$ and the steerin# #ear$ mounted on the chassis. This #reatl" simplifies manufacturin# and maintenance. 0" incorporatin# electronic sta!ilit" control electric power steerin# s"stems can instantl" var" tor5ue assist levels to aid the driver in evasive manoeuvres. The first electric power steerin# s"stems appeared on the Fonda /SN in 1664$ the -IAT *unto )+> in 1666$ the Fonda S>444 in 1666$ and on the 0)B P: in >44>. Toda" a num!er of manufacturers use electric power steerin#. 3.3.3 SYSTE$IC+ Automatic par+in# technolo#" from -ord or To"ota sellin# for L<44 ta+e%up rate .The Le8us LS can par+ itself&parallelDreverse( via the UAdvanced *ar+in# 'uidance s"stemV%thou#h onl" controllin# the steerin#. -ollow another car on a motorwa". AUTO$ATIC PAR5IN)+ Au o&, ic p,r6i%3 is an autonomous car maneuverin# from a traffic lane into a par+in# place to perform parallel par+in#$ perpendicular or an#le par+in#. The automatic par+in# aims to enhance the comfort and safet" of drivin# in constrained environments where much attention and e8perience is re5uired to steer the car. The par+in# maneuver is achieved !" means of
*a#e A3
DRIVERLESS CAR
coordinated control of the steerin# an#le and speed which ta+es into account the actual situation in the environment to ensure collision%free motion within the availa!le space.
ADVANCED PAR5IN) )UIDANCE SYSTE$J I% e--i3e% P,r6i%3 Assis S!s e& &I*AS($ also +nown as the A.v,%ce. P,r6i%3 )ui.,%ce S!s e& &A*'S( for Le8us models in the 9nited States$ is the first production automatic par+in# s"stem developed !" To"ota )otor Corporation in >44: initiall" for the Capanese mar+et h"!rid *rius models and later Le8us models.
TECHNOLO)Y+ The I*ASDA*'S uses computer processors which are tied to the vehicle.s &sonar warnin# s"stem( feature$ !ac+up camera$ and two additional forward sensors on the front side fenders. The sonar par+ sensors$ +nown as IIntuitive *ar+in# AssistI or ILe8us *ar+ AssistI$ includes multiple sensors on the forward and rear !umpers which detect o!stacles$ allowin# the vehicle to sound warnin#s and calculate optimum steerin# an#les durin# re#ular par+in#. These sensors plus the two additional par+in# sensors are tied to a central computer processor$ which in turn is inte#rated with the !ac+up camera s"stem to provide the driver par+in# information. Bhen the sonar par+ sensors feature is used$ the processor&s( calculate steerin# an#le data which are displa"ed on the navi#ationDcamera touchscreen alon# with o!stacle information. The Intelli#ent *ar+in# Assist S"stem e8pands on this capa!ilit" and is accessi!le when the vehicle is shifted to reverse &which automaticall" activates the !ac+up camera(. Bhen in reverse$ the !ac+up camera screen features par+in# !uttons which can !e used to activate automated par+in# procedures. Bhen the Intelli#ent *ar+in# Assist S"stem is activated$ the central processor calculates the optimum parallel or reverse par+ steerin# an#les and then interfaces with the Electric *ower Steerin# s"stems of the vehicle to #uide the car into the par+in# spot.
*a#e A6
DRIVERLESS CAR
CHAPTER 7 E9ISTIN) AND $ISSIN) TECHNOLO)IES

In order to drive a car$ a s"stem would need toJ
1. 9nderstand its immediate environment &Sensors( 2. ;now where it is and where it wants to #o &/avi#ation( 3. -ind its wa" in the traffic&motion plannin#( 4.
perate the mechanics of the vehicle &Actuation(
Ar#ua!l"$ >W of these pro!lems are alread" solvedJ /avi#ation and Actuation completel"$ and Sensors partiall"$ !ut improvin# fast. The main unsolved part is the motion plannin#. 7.1 SENSORS+ Sensors emplo"ed in driverless cars var" from the minimalist AR' project.s monochrome
stereoscop" to )o!ile"e.s inter%modal &video$ infra%red$ laser$ radar( approach. The minimalist approach imitates the human situation most closel"$ while the multi%modal approach is I#reed"I in the sense that it see+s to o!tain as much information as is possi!le !" current technolo#"$ even at the occasional cost of one car.s detection s"stem interferin# with another.s. )o!ile"e /.V. is a technolo#" compan" that focuses on the development of vision%!ased Advanced Driver Assistance S"stems &ADAS( providin# warnin#s for collision prevention and miti#ation. )o!ile"e offers a wide ran#e of driver safet" solutions com!inin# artificial vision ima#e processin#$ multiple technolo#ical applications and information technolo#". )o!ile"e.s vehicle detection s"stems$ are currentl" onl" used for driver assistance$ !ut are eminentl" suita!le for a full%fled#ed driverless car. This video demonstrates the capa!ilities of the s"stemJ all pedestrians$ cars$ motor!i+es etc. are clearl" displa"ed in video$ with a frame around them and the distance !etween IourI car and the o!ject o!served. The s"stem also detects the o!jects. motion &direction and speed( and can so calculate relative speeds$ and predict collisions.
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e :4
DRIVERLESS CAR
X Capanese infra%red article X Some thin#s from the DAR*A challen#e.... X Road%si#n reco#nition 7.2 NAVI)ATION+ The a!ilit" to plot a route from where the vehicle is to where the user wants to !e has !een availa!le for several "ears. These s"stems$ !ased on the 9S militar".s 'lo!al *ositionin# S"stem are now availa!le as standard car fittin#s$ and use satellite transmissions to ascertain the current location$ and an on%!oard street data!ase to derive a route to the tar#et. The more sophisticated s"stems also receive radio updates on road !loc+a#es$ and adapt accordin#l". There are also sensors that #reatl" affect the whole nature of it. )LO*AL POSITIONIN) SYSTE$+ The 'lo!al *ositionin# S"stem &'*S( is a space%!ased #lo!al navi#ation satellite s"stem &'/SS( that provides relia!le location and time information in all weather and at all times and an"where on or near the Earth when and where there is an uno!structed line of si#ht to four or more '*S satellites. It is maintained !" the 9nited States #overnment and is freel" accessi!le !" an"one with a '*S receiver.
Artist.s conception of '*S 0loc+ II%- satellite in or!it
Civilian '*S receiver &I'*S navi#ation deviceI( in a marine application. '*S was created and reali,ed !" the 9.S. Department of Defense &9SD D( and was ori#inall" run with >: satellites. It was esta!lished in 16<A to overcome the limitations of previous navi#ation s"stems. STRUCTURE+ The current '*S consists of three major se#ments. These are the space se#ment &SS($ a control se#ment &CS($ and a user se#ment &9S(. The 9.S. Air -orce develops$ maintains$ and operates the space and control se#ments. '*S satellites !roadcast si#nals from space$ and each '*S
*a#e :1
DRIVERLESS CAR
receiver uses these si#nals to calculate its three%dimensional location &latitude$ lon#itude$ and altitude( and the current time. The space se#ment is composed of >: to A> satellites in medium Earth or!it and also includes the pa"load adapters to the !oosters re5uired to launch them into or!it. The control se#ment is composed of a master control station$ an alternate master control station$ and a host of dedicated and shared #round antennas and monitor stations. The user se#ment is composed of hundreds of thousands of 9.S. and allied militar" users of the secure '*S *recise *ositionin# Service$ and tens of millions of civil$ commercial$ and scientific users of the Standard *ositionin# Service &see '*S navi#ation devices(. SPACE SE)$ENT+ A visual e8ample of the '*S constellation in motion with the Earth rotatin#. /otice how the num!er of satellites in view from a #iven point on the Earth.s surface$ in this e8ample at :=Y/$ chan#es with time.
A visual e8ample of the '*S constellation in motion with the Earth rotatin#. /otice how the num!er of satellites in view from a #iven point on the Earth.s surface$ in this e8ample at :=Y/$ chan#es with time. The space se#ment &SS( is composed of the or!itin# '*S satellites or Space Vehicles &SV( in '*S parlance. The '*S desi#n ori#inall" called for >: SVs$ ei#ht each in three circular or!ital planes$ZA=[ !ut this was modified to si8 planes with four satellites each.ZAG[ The or!ital planes are centered on the Earth$ not rotatin# with respect to the distant stars.ZA<[ The si8 planes have appro8imatel" ==Y inclination &tilt relative to Earth.s e5uator( and are separated !" G4Y ri#ht ascension of the ascendin# node &an#le alon# the e5uator from a reference point to the or!it.s intersection(.ZA3[ The or!its are arran#ed so that at least si8 satellites are alwa"s within line of si#ht from almost ever"where on Earth.s surface.ZA6[ The result of this o!jective is that the four satellites are not evenl" spaced &64 de#rees( apart within each or!it. In #eneral terms$ the an#ular difference !etween satellites in each or!it is A4$ 14=$ 1>4$ and 14= de#rees apart which$ of course$ sum to AG4 de#rees.
*a#e :>
DRIVERLESS CAR
CONTROL SE)$ENT+ The control se#ment is composed of 1. a master control station &)CS($ >. an alternate master control station$ A. four dedicated #round antennas and :. si8 dedicated monitor stations The )CS can also access 9.S. Air -orce Satellite Control /etwor+ &A-SC/( #round antennas &for additional command and control capa!ilit"( and /'A &/ational 'eospatial%Intelli#ence A#enc"( monitor stations. The fli#ht paths of the satellites are trac+ed !" dedicated 9.S. Air -orce monitorin# stations in Fawaii$ ;wajalein$ Ascension Island$ Die#o 'arcia$ Colorado Sprin#s$ Colorado and Cape Canaveral$ alon# with shared /'A monitor stations operated in En#land$ Ar#entina$ Ecuador$ 0ahrain$ Australia and Bashin#ton DC. The trac+in# information is sent to the Air -orce Space Command.s )CS at Schriever Air -orce 0ase >= +m &1G miles( ESE of Colorado Sprin#s$ which is operated !" the >nd Space perations S5uadron &> S *S( of the 9nited States Air -orce &9SA-(. Then > S *S contacts each '*S satellite re#ularl" with a navi#ational update usin# dedicated or shared &A-SC/( #round antennas &'*S dedicated #round antennas are located at ;wajalein$ Ascension Island$ Die#o 'arcia$ and Cape Canaveral(. These updates s"nchroni,e the atomic cloc+s on !oard the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other$ and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite.s internal or!ital model. The updates are created !" a ;alman filter that uses inputs from the #round monitorin# stations$ space weather information$ and various other inputs.
'round monitor station used from 163: to >44<$ on displa" at the Air -orce Space T )issile )useum Satellite maneuvers are not precise !" '*S standards. So to chan#e the or!it of a satellite$ the satellite must !e mar+ed unhealth"$ so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the maneuver can !e carried out$ and the resultin# or!it trac+ed from the #round. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite mar+ed health" a#ain.
*a#e :A
DRIVERLESS CAR
USER SE)$ENT+ The user se#ment is composed of hundreds of thousands of 9.S. and allied militar" users of the secure '*S *recise *ositionin# Service$ and tens of millions of civil$ commercial and scientific users of the Standard *ositionin# Service. In #eneral$ '*S receivers are composed of an antenna$ tuned to the fre5uencies transmitted !" the satellites$ receiver%processors$ and a hi#hl" sta!le cloc+ &often a cr"stal oscillator(. The" ma" also include a displa" for providin# location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often descri!ed !" its num!er of channelsJ this si#nifies how man" satellites it can monitor simultaneousl". have !etween 1> and >4 channels. AUTO$OTIVE NAVI)ATION SYSTE$+ An automotive navi#ation s"stem is a satellite navi#ation s"stem desi#ned for use in automo!iles. It t"picall" uses a '*S navi#ation device to ac5uire position data to locate the user on a road in the unit.s map data!ase. 9sin# the road data!ase$ the unit can #ive directions to other locations alon# roads also in its data!ase. Dead rec+onin# usin# distance data from sensors attached to the drivetrain$ a #"roscope and an accelerometer can !e used for #reater relia!ilit"$ as '*S si#nal loss andDor multipath can occur due to ur!an can"ons or tunnels. ri#inall" limited to four or five$ this has pro#ressivel" increased over the "ears so that$ as of >44<Zupdate[$ receivers t"picall"
A ta8i e5uipped with '*S navi#ation device TECHNOLO)Y+ Visuali,ation Road data!ase )ap formats CARi/ S%Dal *h"sical Stora#e -ormat )edia Real%time data
*a#e ::
DRIVERLESS CAR
Inte#ration and other functions
CONTROL O# VEHICLE+ As automotive technolo#" matures$ more and more functions of the underl"in# en#ine$ #ear!o8 etc. are no lon#er directl" controlled !" the driver !" mechanical means$ !ut rather via a computer$ which receives instructions from the driver as inputs and delivers the desired effect !" means of electronic throttle control$ and other drive%!"%wire elements. Therefore$ the technolo#" for a computer to control all aspects of a vehicle is well understood. ELECTRONIC THROTTLE CONTROLJ Electronic throttle control &ETC( is an automo!ile technolo#" which severs the mechanical lin+ !etween the accelerator pedal and the throttle. )ost automo!iles alread" use a throttle position sensor &T*S( to provide input to traction control$ antiloc+ !ra+es$ fuel injection$ and other s"stems$ !ut use a !owden ca!le to directl" connect the pedal with the throttle. An ETC% e5uipped vehicle has no such ca!le. Instead$ the electronic control unit &EC9( determines the re5uired throttle position !" calculations from data measured !" other sensors such as an accelerator pedal position sensor$ en#ine speed sensor$ vehicle speed sensor etc. The electric motor within the ETC is then driven to the re5uired position via a closed%loop control al#orithm within the EC9. Throttle !od" with inte#rated motor actuator The !enefits of ETC are lar#el" unnoticed !" most drivers !ecause the aim is to ma+e the vehicle power%train characteristics seamlessl" consistent irrespective of prevailin# conditions$ such as en#ine temperature$ altitude$ accessor" loads etc. Fowever$ acceleration response ma" occasionall" !e slower than with ca!le%driven throttle. The ETC is also wor+in# .!ehind the scenes. to dramaticall" improve the ease with which the driver can e8ecute #ear chan#es and deal with the dramatic tor5ue chan#es associated with rapid accelerations and decelerations.
CHAPTER :
*a#e :=
DRIVERLESS CAR
5EY PLAYERS
INTERNATIONAL+ The European 9nion has a multi%!illion Euro pro#ramme to support Research and Development !" ad%hoc consortia from the various mem!er countries$ called -ramewor+ *ro#rammes for Research and Technolo#ical Development. Several of these projects pertain to the su!ject of driverless cars$ e.#.J I/RIA.s La Route Automatis\e project #athered much useful data a!out the actual and possi!le deplo"ments of Driverless Cars for pu!lic transport. The main s"stem discussed is !ased on -R '. )an" of the E9%sponsored projects are coordinated !" a #roup called Ertico. ' VER/A)E/TSJ 9SAJ ITS % Turner%-air!an+ Fi#hwa" Research Center Ice Detection and Cooperative Curve Barnin# D Current AVCS Deplo"ment % /TL Catalo# 9/IVERSITIES A/D *R -ESSI /AL 0 DIESJ X 9C 0er+ele" % California *ATF X )IT )edia La! Cit"Car X VisLa!J Artificial Vision and Intelli#ent S"stems La! at 9niversit" of *arma$ Ital" X Department of Computin# at Imperial Colle#e London. X Vir#inia Tech X Austin Ro!ot Technolo#" D 9T Austin X IEEE has a Societ" &the Intelli#ent Transportation S"stems Societ"($ runs an important scientific Cournal$ and or#ani,es conferences X Capanese Automo!ile Research Institution
DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT *a#e :G
DRIVERLESS CAR
X Advanced Cruise%Assist Fi#hwa" S"stem Research r#ani,ation X Carne#ie )ellon 9niversit" /avla! X 'ra")atter Inc. % a division of the 'ra" Team. X Institute of Autonomous S"stems Technolo#"JZ>:[ at 0undeswehr 9niversit" of )unich X ACE La! &Automotive Control and Electronics La!( at Fan"an# 9niversit"$ Seoul$ ;orea *RIVATE C )*A/IESJ 'oo#le driverless car 'eneral )otors E/%V V L9/TARR A/D F 00RIST 'R 9*SJ X Autonomous Ro!ots )a#a,ine X American Industrial )a#ic httpJDDaima#ic.or# entered A vehicles in the >44: DAR*A challen#e. X pen Source Driverless Car *roject &*"thonDCOO( httpJDD!it!uc+et.or#Ddjl"onDsmp%driverless%
car%ro!ot
CHAPTER ; IN #IL$
*a#e :<
DRIVERLESS CAR
X ;ITT$ the automated *ontiac TransAm in the TV series ;ni#ht Rider could drive !" itself upon command X The 1636 film 0atman$ starrin# )ichael ;eaton$ the 0atmo!ile is shown to !e a!le to drive itself to 0atman.s current location. X The 1664 film Total Recall$ starrin# Arnold Schwar,ene##er$ features ta8is apparentl" controlled !" artificial intelli#enceM it is not clear$ however$ whether these are trul" autonomous vehicles or simpl" conventional vehicles driven !" androids. X The 166A film Demolition )an$ starrin# S"lvester Stallone$ set in >4A>$ features vehicles that can !e self%driven or commanded to IAuto )odeI where a voice controlled computer operates the vehicle. X The 166: film Timecop$ starrin# Cean%Claude Van Damme$ set in >44: and 166:$ has cars that can either !e self%driven or commanded to drive to specific locations such as IhomeI. X Another Arnold Schwar,ene##er movie$ The Gth Da" &>444($ features a driverless car in which )ichael Rapaport sets the destination and vehicle drives itself while Rapaport and Schwar,ene##er converse. X The >44> film )inorit" Report$ set in Bashin#ton$ D.C. in >4=:$ features an e8tended chase se5uence involvin# driverless personal cars. The vehicle of prota#onist Cohn Anderton is transportin# him when its s"stems are overridden !" police in an attempt to !rin# him into custod". X The >44: film I$ Ro!ot feature vehicles with automated drivin# on future hi#hwa"s$ allowin# the car to travel safer at hi#her speeds than if manuall" controlled. An interestin# concept of automated drivin# in this film is that people aren.t trusted to drive manuall"$ as opposed !" people not trustin# automated drivin# nowada"s. X Anthropomorphic cars &capa!le of thin+in# and movin# around on their own( have also shown up in movies$ such as the series concernin# Fer!ie and the movie Cars. &The name of Vol+swa#en.s =AO1 car was a nod to Fer!ieM Fer!ie was conspicuousl" decorated with the num!er =A.(
*a#e :3
DRIVERLESS CAR
CONCLUSION
As we are #oin# searchin# and searchin# new technolo#" we !ecomes a mem!er advance societ".
*a#e :6
DRIVERLESS CAR
As we found new technolo#" for the ?Driverless Car@$ which made our life more easier that finall" meansJ % ?Technolo#"% The spice of Life@.
*a#e =4

Driverless Car Documentation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Driverless Car Documentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DRIVERLESS CAR

Scope n the Road Toda". In

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

The ;L )onorail in ;uala Lumpur )ala"sia$ a straddle%!eam monorail

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

LANE DEPARTURE /ARNIN) SYSTE$J

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

CO$PONENTS AND DESI)N+

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

ther sensors can includeJ

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

An oversteerin# car is referred to as IlooseI or IfreeI.

versteer is a d"namicall" unsta!le

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

CHAPTER 7 E9ISTIN) AND $ISSIN) TECHNOLO)IES

perate the mechanics of the vehicle &Actuation(

Artist.s conception of '*S 0loc+ II%- satellite in or!it

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

Inte#ration and other functions

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

DE*ART)E/T - ELECTRICAL A/D ELECTR /ICS E/'I/EERI/'$ V0IT

You might also like