Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

6. RESERVOIR HETEROGENEITY AND VOLUMETRIC SWEEP

Most of the theory discussed up to this point is based on the assumption that the formation properties are uniform. In real life, petroleum-producing formations are usually very irregular in permeability, both vertically and horizontally. o!ever, zones of higher or lo!er permeability are often found to e"hibit lateral continuity. Thus, !hile structurally comparable stringers in ad#acent !ells may differ significantly in permeability, they can be easily recognised as being part of a continuous higher or lo!er permeability layer. $everal techni%ues for estimating !aterflooding performance in three dimensions are based on layered models that consider the reservoir to be composed of a series of layers, !ith displacement performance in each layer computed using a t!o dimensional areal model. The areal model for each layer assumes uniform properties for that layer, i.e. the areal variation in permeability is not considered. &or this reason, this discussion of reservoir heterogeneity !ill be confined to vertical variations. 'ne good reason for focusing mainly on the vertical variations is that the information on permeability variation !ith depth can be obtained more easily by e"amining core samples. (nother valid reason is that the sedimentary roc)s are deposited in layers, *a small layer at a time+ and the variations in the vertical direction can be much more severe. (dditionally, although the reservoir may be non-uniform in all intensive properties, such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, !ettability, connate !ater saturation, and crude oil properties, the permeability is the most important factor in !aterflooding. Permeability variation is an e"cellent measure of reservoir heterogeneity. Many other intensive properties correlate !ell !ith permeability, at least, in the same formation. Table 6.1: An exam le !" "#e$%en&' ()*+#)b%+)!n !" e#meab)l)+' (a+a Permeability to (ir *md+
1212 344 564 517 894 931 989 944 794 774 764 724 745 6:1 627 619 2:6

,umber 'f $amples With -arger Permeability

4 1 2 6 7 9 8 5 : 3 14 11 12 16 17 19 18

Cumulative &re%uency .istribution */ 0 )#+

4 9.: 11.: 15.5 26.9 23.7 69.6 71.2 75.1 92.3 9:.: 87.5 54.8 58.9 :2.7 ::.2 37.1

6.1

D',*+#a-Pa#*!n* C!e"")&)en+ !" Pe#meab)l)+' Va#)a+)!n

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

Permeabilities in most reservoirs have a log-normal distribution. The geological processes that create permeability in reservoir roc)s appear to leave permeabilities distributed around the geometric mean. If it is assumed that there are enough core samples to establish the true shape of the distribution curve, subdivision of the reservoir into layers using the distribution curve should give a good representation of the reservoir stratification.

.)/%#e 6.1 Pl!+ !" e#meab)l)+' (a+a !n l!/-n!#mal a e#. 6.1.1 .#e$%en&' D)*+#)b%+)!n To evaluate the permeability distribution it is necessary to determine the cumulative fre%uency distribution of the ra! data. Permeability data are log-normally distributed if the graph of permeability versus cumulative fre%uency distribution on log-normal probability paper can be appro"imated by a straight line. Consider the permeability data sho!n in Table 8.1. These data !ere arranged in descending order in the first column. Cumulative fre%uency distribution, i.e. the fraction of samples !ith permeability greater than the particular sample is sho!n in column 6. &igure 8.1 is a plot of the permeability fre%uency distribution on log-normal paper. The mid-point of the distribution *94 percentile+ is the log mean permeability. &or this data set it is 759 md. The straight line dra!n through the data is also a measure of the dispersion or heterogeneity of the reservoir roc). ,ote that if the roc) !as totally uniform, all samples !ill have the same permeability and the line !ill be parallel to the base line. (s the heterogeneity increases, the slope of the distribution line also increases. .y)stra and Parsons1 recognised this important feature and introduced the permeability variation, ;dp, !hich characterises a particular distribution.
Vdp = k 94 - k :7.1 k 94

*8.1+

.y)stra, . and Parsons, <.-.= >The prediction of oil recovery by !aterflood,> Secondary Recov ery of Oil in the United States, (PI *1394+ 184- 57.
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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

&or the above data set,

Vdp = 475 - !" B 4.62 475

,ote= ( homogeneous reservoir has permeability variation *.y)stra-Parsons coefficient+ that approaches zero !hile an e"tremely heterogeneous reservoir !ould have a permeability variation approaching unity. 6.1.0 S%b()1)*)!n !" a #e*e#1!)# 2)+3 a l!/-n!#mal e#meab)l)+' ()*+#)b%+)!n The permeability in real reservoirs is distributed in layers of varying thic)ness. &or calculation purposes it is convenient to develop a model, !hich contains CnD, layers of e%ual thic)ness and still simulates the effects of actual permeability variation in the reservoir. This is done using the permeability distribution plot discussed above. The permeability in each layer is assigned from the log-normal distribution, !hich is presumed to be representative of the reservoir. Thus the n hypothetical layers !ill have the same permeability variation and geometric mean as the available core data. Table 6.0: Pe#meab)l)+' ()*+#)b%+)!n !" 14 la'e#* +3a+ 3a1e +3e *ame e#meab)l)+' 1a#)a+)!n a* +3e !#)/)nal ()*+#)b%+)!n.
-ayer

1 2 6 7 9 8 5 : 3 14

Mid-point of fre%uency distribution 9 19 29 69 79 99 89 59 :9 39

Permeability *md+ ::4 544 814 994 739 792 714 688 624 297

Permeability *md+ )avg B 964 md 368.5 574.: 877.6 958.6 921.7 756.2 72:.1 6:2.3 666.4 286.7

-et us consider the distribution sho!n in &ig. 8.1 and a desired subdivision of the reservoir thic)ness into 14 layers of e%ual thic)ness. The fre%uency distribution is divided into 14 increments as sho!n in Table 8.2. The permeability of each layer is selected at the mid-point of each interval. &or e"ample, the interval 4 to 14 percentile is assigned its permeability by reading the curve at 9 percent. The permeabilities selected appear in column 6, and can be chec)ed for consistency by noting that the geometric mean permeability, )E, defined by A%. 8.2 is e%ual to the log-mean permeability.
F= k
n

k " k ! k ###### k n

*8.2+

&or permeabilities in column 6, )E B 756.6 md, !hich is in good agreement !ith that obtained from

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

the graph *759 md+. 6.1.5 C#)+e#)a "!# #e*e#1!)# *%b()1)*)!n an( e#meab)l)+' a**)/nmen+ Gecause it is possible to subdivide a vertical cross-section into an arbitrary number of layers, criteria for determining the minimum number of layers needed to simulate the reservoir heterogeneity are re%uired. It is intuitively obvious that as the heterogeneity becomes more severe, a larger number of layers !ill be re%uired. 'bviously, a nearly homogeneous reservoir can be ade%uately represented by a single layer. It is less obvious but e%ually true that the number of layers re%uired to represent the !aterflood behaviour in a heterogeneous reservoir increases, as the mobility ratio increases *becomes more unfavourable+. Craig2 compared !ater-oil ratio and volumetric s!eep efficiency at brea)through using e%ual thic)ness layers numbering bet!een 1 and 94. Table 6.5: M)n)m%m n%mbe# !" e$%al +3)&,ne** la'e#* #e$%)#e( +! ma+&3 a 144-la'e# ")1e-* !+ 2a+e#"l!!( a+ #!(%&)n/ WOR6* ab!1e 0.7 *Confidence level= Mean s%uare difference #1/ s!eep+ Mobility Permeability ;ariation *.-P Coeff+ <atio 4.1 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.: 4.49 1 1 2 7 14 24 24 24 4.1 1 1 2 7 14 24 144 144 4.2 1 1 2 7 14 24 144 144 4.9 1 2 2 7 14 24 144 144 1.4 1 6 6 7 14 24 144 144 2.4 2 7 7 14 24 94 144 144 9.4 2 9 14 24 94 144 144 144 The minimum number of layers re%uired to appro"imate the performance of a 144-layer model !as determined as a function of mobility ratio and permeability variation. The criterion for agreement !as that the mean s%uare error in s!eep efficiency at e%ual !ater-oil ratio *W'<+ !as less than 1/. Tables 8.6, 8.7 and 8.9 summarize the results of these calculations and provide a guide to selecting the number of layers for five-spot patterns. Table 6.8: M)n)m%m n%mbe# !" e$%al +3)&,ne** la'e#* #e$%)#e( +! ma+&3 a 144-la'e# ")1e-* !+ 2a+e#"l!!( a+ #!(%&)n/ WOR6* ab!1e 7.4. *Confidence level= Mean s%uare difference #1/ s!eep+
2
.

Craig, &.&. Hr.= >Affect of <eservoir .escription on Performa n c e Prediction>, H. Pet. Tech. *'ct. 1354+ 1263- 79
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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

Mobility <atio 4.49 4.1 4.2 4.9 1.4 2.4 9.4

Permeability ;ariation 4.1 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.5 1 1 2 7 9 14 14 1 1 2 7 14 14 14 1 1 2 7 14 14 24 2 2 2 7 14 14 24 2 2 6 7 14 14 24 6 6 7 9 14 14 94 6 7 9 14 24 144 144

4.: 24 144 144 144 144 144 144

$ubdivision of a reservoir into a number of layers based on the log-normal permeability distribution should be done !ith care, especially !hen the actual distribution deviates significantly from log-normal. When the permeability variation is very high one layer can have an unreasonably large permeability. This layer can dominate the performance of a simulated !aterflood because it provides a path for !ater to flo! !ithout displacing much oil. Table 6.7: M)n)m%m n%mbe# !" e$%al +3)&,ne** la'e#* #e$%)#e( +! ma+&3 a 144-la'e# ")1e-* !+ 2a+e#"l!!( a+ #!(%&)n/ WOR6* ab!1e 14 *Confidence level= Mean s%uare difference #1/ s!eep+ Mobility Permeability ;ariation <atio 4.1 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.: 4.49 1 1 1 2 7 9 14 24 4.1 1 1 1 2 9 9 14 24 4.2 1 1 2 6 9 9 14 24 4.9 1 1 2 6 9 9 14 24 1.4 1 1 2 6 9 14 14 94 2.4 1 2 6 7 14 14 24 144 9.4 1 6 7 9 14 144 144 144

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

.)/%#e 6.0: C!##ela+)!n !" e#meab)l)+' !n l!/-n!#mal #!bab)l)+' a e#. (n e"ample of this situation is that sho!n in &ig. 8.2 !here permeability data from a !ell are plotted on lognormal paper. The straight line is the log-normal fit, !eighing the central points most heavily. The permeability variation is 4.5:, indicating a very heterogeneous reservoir. The curved line through the points is an empirical correlation of the data on log-normal probability paper. ,ote that the log-normal fit *straight line+ predicts higher layer permeabilities than the empirical correlation *or the actual data+ at the e"tremities of the data. The preferred method of subdividing a reservoir into layers is to use the empirical correlation as the basis for selecting layer permeabilities. This can be done !hen there are sufficient data points to define the distribution. Astimates of the permeability thic)ness product, kh are sometimes available from pressure transient !ell tests. If kh is )no!n, it is possible to subdivide the reservoir into layers that have *1+ a specified permeability variation, and *2+ a specified kh. When a reservoir is estimated by a series of e%ual thic)ness layers, kh, is appro"imated by

kh = k i hi
i="

*8.6+

!here k is the thic)ness averaged permeability. Considering Table 8.2, subdivision of the reservoir into ten e%ual layers that have a k of 964 md and a geometric mean as close to the original data as possible is given in column 7. This !as achieved using a trial and error approach. ,ote that the availability of kh provides another constraint on the subdivision of the reservoir into layers, and that in
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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

general, )E is not e%ual to )I .

6.0 L!#en9 C!e"")&)en+

In 1394, $chmalz and <ahme6 proposed another measure for characterizing the permeability distribution !ithin a single pay section. ?sing &ig. 8.6, they defined the -orenz coefficient of heterogeneity as
-orenz Coefficient B area (GC( area (.C(

*8.7+

.)/%#e 6.5: .l!2 &a a&)+' ()*+#)b%+)!n: 3' !+3e+)&al #e*e#1!)#.

&or ma)ing the plot sho!n in &ig 8.6, the variables are defined as=

&raction of total volume up to layer J # =

h h
i =1 i i =1 $ i

, !here , is the total number of layers.

&raction of total flo! capacity up to layer J # =

k h k h
i =1 i i =1 $ i

To create this graph, the reservoir layer properties are arranged in tabular form in the order of constantly decreasing values of permeability. The value of the -orenz coefficient ranges from zero to 1, a
6
.

$chm alz, H.P. and <ahme , ...= >The variation of !aterflood performa n c e !ith variation in perm e a bility profile>, Prod. Monthly *1394+ ;ol. 19, ,o. 3, pp. 3- 12.
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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

uniform permeability reservoir having a -orenz coefficient of zero. The -orenz coefficient is not a uni%ue measure of reservoir heterogeneity. $everal different permeability distributions can yield the same value of -orenz coefficient. A"ample 8.1 belo! illustrates the steps involved in calculating the -orenz coefficient. Exam le P#!blem 6.1 The information listed in Table 8.8 !as obtained from routine core analysis of a recently drilled !ell. Calculate the -orenz coefficient for this reservoir. Table 6.6: Pe#meab)l)+' an( .epth, ft 544 541 542 546 547 549 548 545 54: 543 514 511 512 516 517 !#!*)+' "#!m #!%+)ne &!#e anal'*)* ), air, md 69 4.4: 2: 4.11 85 4.1: 148 4.13 2:3 4.28 729 4.2: 28 4.11 9 4.45 53 4.43 194 4.17 87 4.1 96 4.12 22 4.4: 75 4.43 55 4.43

S!l%+)!n= The first step in calculating the -orenz coefficient is to rearrange the list of layer properties in the order of decreasing permeabilities. This is sho!n in Table 8.5.

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

Table 6.;: La'e# #! e#+)e* a##an/e( )n !#(e# !" (e&#ea*)n/ e#meab)l)+' .epth ), air, ft md 549 729 4.2: 547 2:3 4.28 543 194 4.17 546 148 4.13 54: 53 4.43 517 55 4.43 542 85 4.1: 514 87 4.1 511 96 4.12 516 75 4.43 544 69 4.4: 541 2: 4.11 548 28 4.11 512 22 4.4: 545 9 4.45

The ne"t step is to calculate the cumulative fraction of total volume and cumulative fraction of total flo! capacity associated !ith each layer. This is sho!n in Table 8.:. <eferring to this table, column 1 lists the layer thic)ness for each layerK column 2 lists the product of layer thic)ness and porosityK Column 6 is the cumulative sum of LMh from the first layer to this layer and column 7 is the fraction of total volume up to this layer. It is obtained by dividing the numbers in column 6 by the last entry in column 6 *!hich is e%ual to the sum of column 2+. The fraction of total flo! capacity varies from 4 to 1. ( similar calculation is done for the product of permeability and thic)ness of each layer. This is sho!n in columns 9, 8 and 5. &igure 8.7 sho!s a plot of column 5 against column 7. The area bet!een the curve and the diagonal line is calculated by the trapezoidal rule and is listed in column : for the curve segment corresponding to each layer. The total area is obtained as the sum of column :. The total area bet!een the curve and the diagonal line divided by 4.9 gives the -orenz coefficient for this reservoir. &or the numbers listed in Table 8.:, -orenz coefficient B 4.1955@.9 B 4.619

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

Table 8.:= Calculation of -orenz coefficient from measured thic)ness, porosity and permeability of layers 1 h 2 h 6 h 7 &raction of Total ;olume 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4.2: 4.28 4.17 4.13 4.43 4.43 4.1: 4.1 4.12 4.43 4.4: 4.11 4.11 4.4: 4.45 4.2: 4.97 4.8: 4.:5 4.38 1.49 1.26 1.66 1.79 1.97 1.82 1.56 1.:7 1.32 1.33 4.1745 4.2517 4.6715 4.7652 4.7:27 4.9258 4.81:1 4.88:6 4.52:8 4.5563 4.:171 4.:836 4.3278 4.387: 1.4444 729 2:3 194 148 53 55 85 87 96 75 69 2: 28 22 9 729 517 :87 354 1473 1128 1136 1295 1614 1695 1632 1724 1778 178: 1756 9 ).h 8 )h 5 :

&raction of total Incremental (rea &lo! capacity 4 4.2::9 4.7:75 4.9:88 4.89:9 4.5122 4.5877 4.:433 4.:967 4.::36 4.3212 4.3794 4.3874 4.3:15 4.3388 1.4444 Total area 4 4.4147 4.4268 4.4181 4.4226 4.4142 4.4149 4.4137 4.4439 4.4147 4.4454 4.4498 4.4482 4.4472 4.441: 4.4448 4.1955

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

1.0 Fraction of flow capacity 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Fraction of volume 0.8 1.0

.)/%# e 6. 8: L!#e n 9 Pl!+ "!# +3 e (a+ a !" Tabl e 6. 6

6.5 VERTICAL AND VOLUMETRIC SWEEP E..ICIENCIES

(s a conse%uence of the non-uniform permeabilities in the vertical dimension, the in#ected !ater !ill not move as a uniform vertical front. In the more permeable portions of the reservoir, the in#ected !ater !ill travel rapidly, and in the less permeable portions it !ill move more slo!ly. ( measure of the uniformity of the invasion is the vertical s!eep efficiency, A I. It is defined as the cross-sectional area contacted by the in#ected !ater divided by the cross-sectional area enclosed in all layers behind the !ater front *refer to &ig. 8.9a+. The vertical s!eep efficiency is a measure of the t!o-dimensional *vertical cross-section+ effect of reservoir heterogeneities.

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

.)/%#e 6.7: S2ee E"")&)en&' S&3ema+)&*

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

( closely related term is the volumetric s!eep efficiency, A;, !hich is a measure of the three-dimensional effect of reservoir heterogeneities. It is e%uivalent to the product of the pattern areal s!eep and vertical s!eep, i.e.
A; B A ( . AI

*8.9+

The volumetric s!eep efficiency can also be defined as the pore volume contacted by the in#ected fluid divided by the total pore volume of a pattern or portion of the reservoir of interest. Thus, assuming a piston li)e displacement, the !aterflood recovery is calculated as

A( AI *(h + *$o i - $or + ,P B Go

*8.8+

6.8 .a&+!#* A""e&+)n/ V!l%me+#)& S2ee E"")&)en&'

The t!o most important factors affecting vertical s!eep efficiency are the permeability heterogeneity and the mobility ratio. The other factors !hich affect volumetric s!eep efficiency include gravity forces and crossflo! bet!een layers.

6.8.1 R!le !" M!b)l)+' Ra+)!:

The mobility ratio has a dominant role in both the areal s!eep efficiency and vertical s!eep efficiency. If the displacing fluid mobility is greater than the oil mobility, the flo! becomes easier in the parts of the reservoir !here oil has been replaced by the more mobile !ater. The fluid velocity !ill thus tend to increase in these parts, so that any initial irregularity in the displacement pattern !ill tend to increase. 'n the contrary, if the displacing fluid mobility is less than oil mobility, the same argument sho!s that the initial irregularities in the displacement pattern !ill tend to be reduced.

6.8.0 Re*e#1!)# He+e#!/ene)+'

<eservoir heterogeneities, i.e. areal and vertical variations in permeability, have very important effect on volumetric s!eep. -et us loo) at a simple reservoir model made up of t!o layers !ith very different permeabilities. *&ig. 8.8+.

.)/%#e 6.6: D)* la&emen+ !" !)l b' 2a+e# )n a +2!-la'e# #e*e#1!)# The flo! velocity is greater in the more permeable layer, and therefore displacement occurs earlier
8 - 16

Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

in that layer. The displacing !ater can reach production !ell through the more permeable layer, !hile a large %uantity of oil remains unrecovered in the less permeable layer. ,ote that there is a strong interaction bet!een the mobility ratio effects and the heterogeneity effects. If the mobility ratio is unfavourable, the effect of heterogeneity is amplified. &or e"ample in the t!o layer model discussed above, if the mobility ratio is unfavourable, the velocity contrast in the t!o layers !ill become larger as the displacement front races ahead in the more permeable layer, and the amount of oil left in the lo! permeability layer at the time of brea)through in the higher permeability layer !ill be larger compared to the unit mobility ratio case. 'ther mechanisms may help reduce the effects of heterogeneities in some cases or increase the effect in other cases. &or e"ample, gravity forces due to the density difference may reduce the effect of the type of heterogeneity sho!n in &ig. 8.8, if the more permeable layer is at the top of the reservoir. The gravity !ill tend to ma)e the !ater flo! from the top layer to the bottom layer, thereby partially reducing the effect of high !ater velocity in the top layer. Capillary forces may also have significant interactions !ith the heterogeneity effects. In some cases these effects are beneficial. -et us again consider the reservoir model of &ig. 8.8 and assume that !ater is the !etting phase. Capillary forces act mainly in the transition zone bet!een oil and !ater, !hich !ill be along the boundary bet!een the t!o layers. These forces !ill induce fluid e"changes bet!een the t!o layers in a bid to e%ualize the capillary pressure on both sides. This !ill result in !ater imbibition from the s!ept portions of the high permeability layer into the uns!ept portions of the lo! permeability layer. This !ill drive oil from the lo! permeability layer into the high permeability layer. If the total flood velocity is very small, this type of capillary driven e"change of fluids can mas) the effect of heterogeneity. In other cases the capillary forces may have detrimental effects. &or e"ample, !hen a lo! permeability zone is surrounded by high permeability zones and the oil is the !etting fluid, it may ma)e the oil in the lo! permeability zone difficult to recover. <eferring to &ig. 8.5, once the displacing fluid has s!ept the high permeability roc) past the lo! permeability inclusion, the oil saturation in the lo! permeability zone may be significantly higher than the residual oil saturation. o!ever this oil is no! trapped since the non-!etting phase !ater has to overcome higher capillary pressure for entering the lo! permeability zone of higher oil saturation.

.)/%#e 6.;: L!2 e#meab)l)+' )n&l%*)!n )n a 3)/3 e#meab)l)+' la'e#. The combined effect of reservoir heterogeneity and mobility ratio on volumetric s!eep efficiency *for piston li)e displacement calculation+ at flood-out can be estimated by

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

A; B

*1 - ;2 + M

*8.5+

!here, ; is the permeability variation and M is the mobility ratio.

6.8.5 G#a1)+' .!#&e*

Gecause of its higher density, in#ected !ater !ould tend to move preferentially along the bottom of the formation. The degree of gravity segregation of the in#ected fluid depends upon the ratio of the viscous to the gravity forces

P orizontal ;iscous force B P ;ertical Nravitational force

*8.:+

The viscous pressure drop !ould be proportional to the flo! velocity, oil viscosity and the distance bet!een the in#ection and production !ells *uto-@)"+. The gravitational pressure difference is given by gh. The effect of the ratio of these t!o !as studied in detail by Craig et al.7 !ho measured the degree of gravity segregation in terms of volumetric s!eep efficiency at brea)through for linear systems *&ig. 8.:+ and five-spot uniform systems *&ig. 8.3+. In these figures y is the formation thic)ness. In &igure 8.:, u i represents the total !ater in#ection rate divided by the cross-sectional area of the reservoir, i.e. barrels of !ater in#ected per day per s%uare foot of cross-sectional area. In &igure 8.3, CiD represents the in#ection rate per !ell, i.e. barrels of !ater in#ected per day per in#ection !ell.

Craig, &.&., Hr. $ande rlin, H.-., Moore, ..W. and Neffen, T.M.= >( -aboratory $tudy of Nravity $egre ga tion in &rontal .rives>, Trans. (IMA *1395+ ;ol. 214, pp. 259- 2:2.

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

.)/%#e 6.<: V!l%me+#)& *2ee e"")&)en&' a+ b#ea,+3#!%/3 )n l)nea# %n)"!#m *'*+em*

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

.)/%#e 6.=: V!l%me+#)& *2ee e"")&)en&' a+ b#ea,+3#!%/3 )n ")1e * !+ %n)"!#m *'*+em*. igher in#ection rates resulted in higher volumetric s!eep efficiencies. 'ver the e"pected range of viscous@gravity force ratio in the field operations, gravity effects in flat, uniformpermeability formations could result in oil recoveries at brea)through as lo! as 24 percent of that other!ise e"pected.

6.8.8 C#!**"l!2 >e+2een La'e#*

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

In layered reservoirs, the !aterflood performance is affected significantly by the e"tent of fluid interchange bet!een different layers. &luid interchange bet!een ad#oining layers is called crossflo!. utchinson9 presented e"perimental results indicating that at favourable mobility ratios, the crossflo! effects can increase the vertical coverage at brea)through, and that at unfavourable mobility ratios the crossflo! results in poorer s!eep than is obtained !ith insulated layers *refer to &ig. 8.14+. Al-Ohatib8 developed a mathematical model for !aterflood performance in linear stratified systems !ith complete crossflo!. ?sing this model he also found that crossflo! bet!een layers enhances the oil recovery for systems !ith favourable mobility ratios and retards oil recovery for systems !ith unfavourable mobility ratios. Thus, in general, crossflo! causes the effect of mobility ratio to become more pronounced.

utchinson, C.(., Hr.= ><eservoir Inhomoge n eity (ssess m e n t *$ept., 1393+ ;ol. 61, G13- 28.
.

and Control>, Pet. Ang.

Al-Ohatib, ,.= >The effect of crossflo! on !aterflooding of stratified reservoirs> $PA Hour. *(pril 13:9+ 231- 642.

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

.)/%#e 6.14: E""e&+ !" &#!**-"l!2 )n a +2!-*+#a+a *'*+em a* a "%n&+)!n !" &!n(%&+)1)+' #a+)! an( m!b)l)+' #a+)!.

A"ample 8.2= Astimate the volume of oil that can be recovered per acre-ft at flood-out from the

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

follo!ing )no!n parameters of a reservoir. Initial oil saturation <esidual oil saturation Porosity Mobility ratio .y)stra-Parsons coefficient of permeability variation

4.56 4.66 4.15 1.59 4.89

Astimated volumetric s!eep from A%uation 8.5, Av B *1 - 4.892+@1.59 B 4.66 Movable oil volume per acre-ft B 76984 " 4.15 " *4.56 - 4.66+@9.819 B 92: bbl Per acre-ft oil recovery at flood-out B 92: " A v B 92: " 4.66 B 157 bbl

A"ample 8.6: ( linear !aterflood is to be carried out in a single-layer *homogeneous+ reservoir. The follo!ing data are available for this flood. <eservoir length *in direction of the flood+, ft 594 <eservoir !idth, ft 794 <eservoir thic)ness, ft 112 Porosity, percent 29 Water in#ection rate, bbl@d 2294 'il viscosity, cp 4.59 'il density, gm@cc 4.53 Water density, gm@cc 4.33 orizontal permeability, md 2644 Mobility ratio 1.4 Astimate the e"pected volumetric s!eep efficiency at brea)through for this flood. SOLUTION ;olumetric s!eep efficiency can be estimated using the correlation presented in &igure 8.:. ui B 2294@*794 " 112+ B 4.47787 bbl@*d s%-ft+
(h ( v ' i o & 4.47787 & 4.59 & 594 = 2494 k y = 2494 2644 & 4.2 & 112 & l = 4.333

;olumetric s!eep efficiency read from &igure 8.: is 87 ?

P#a&+)&e P#!blem* *1+ The permeability and porosity distribution in a layered reservoir is given belo! in Table 1. Table 1= Permeability and Thic)ness .ata
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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

-ayer J

-ayer Thic)ness *ft+ 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4

Permeability of the layer *md+ 689 259 189 121 56 65 13 3.6 6.9 1.3

Porosity of the layer *Percent+ 29 26 1: 13 22 18 17 12 14 3

1 2 6 7 9 8 5 : 3 14 i. ii. iii.

Calculate the .y)stra-Parsons coefficient of Permeability ;ariation for this reservoir. Calculate the -orenz Coefficient for the reservoir. Ma)e a layered model for the reservoir containing 9 e%ual thic)ness layers *calculate the thic)ness and permeability of each layer+, such that the model !ill have the same .y)stra-Parsons Coefficient of Permeability ;ariation. *2+ The net pay thic)ness, .y)stra-Parsons Coefficient of permeability variation and the logmean permeability of a reservoir are 24 ft, 4.89 and 644 md respectively. .evelop a layered model for this reservoir comprising five e%ual thic)ness layers *calculate the permeability and thic)ness of each layer+ such that the model !ill have the same log-mean permeability and same coefficient of permeability variation as the original reservoir. *6+ .etermine the e"pected volumetric s!eep efficiency at brea)through for a linear !aterflood in a single-layer *homogeneous+ reservoir. The follo!ing data are available= <eservoir length *in direction of the flood+, ft 594 <eservoir !idth, ft <eservoir thic)ness, ft Porosity, percent Water in#ection rate, bbl@d 'il viscosity, cp 'il density, gm@cc Water density, gm@cc orizontal permeability, md Mobility ratio 794 112 29 2294 4.59 4.53 4.33 6694 1.4

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Waterflooding Theory and Practical Considerations

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