Professional Documents
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Detergents
Soaps TYPES OF CLEANSING AGENTS
a)
Ash
Lime
boil C a u s t i c P o t a s h
4.In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838 -1922) discovered the process to make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium carbonate. 5.This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium carbonate cheapl y for industrial use. Sodium carbonate (often called soda or soda ash) is used for making glass, soaps and detergents. 6.Michel Chevreul (1786 -1889), a French chemist, was noted for his research in the composition of animal fats is composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This discovery contributed to the rapid development of the soap and candle industry.
Figure 5.2
5. The figure 5.3 shows the molecular model of the palmitate ion and the simple representation of the structure of the palmitate ion:
Figure 5.3
DETERGENTS
1.Detergents are synthetic cleaning agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals. 2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on the detergent ion. a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains negatively charged ion. Example: R - O - SO 3 - Na + b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains positively charged ion. Example: R - N (CH 3 ) 3 + Br c) Non-ionic detergents. Example:
R - O - CH 2 CH 2 OH
PREPARATION OF DETERGENTS
1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps. Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid
R -O - H + H -O - S -O - H R -O - S -O - H + H 2O
|| O
long-chain alcohol concentrated suphuric acid
O ||
O ||
|| O
alkyl hydrogen suplate
O || || O
Alkyl hydrogen sulphate
O || || O
sodium alkyl sulpathe
R - O - S - O - H + NaOH R - O - S - O- Na+ + H 2 O
2.An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH 3 (CH 2 )10 CH 2 OH . The detergent prepared from dodecan -1ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name), CH 3 (CH 2 )10 CH 2 O - SO 3 - Na+ .
Figure 5.4
ADDITIVES IN DETERGENTS
1.Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of additives to : a)Increase their cleaning power. b)Make them attractive and saleable. 2.Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are additives. The examples of addictives and their functions are described as follows : a)Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate ( Na 5 P 3 0 10 ) i) Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water and compromises about 40% of the subtances in the detergent. In the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca 2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are removed. ii)Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way, muddy dirt can be removed. b)Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate i) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process. When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear. ii) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonl y used in detergent are sodium perborate. ( NaBo 2 . H 2 O 2 . 3H 2 O ) .Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to release ox ygen (an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action. c) Biological enzymes: Amylase, lipase amd protease. i)Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by the ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in water. ii)Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing.
d)Brighteners i) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.
ii)Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them look white. e) Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate ( Na 2 . SiO 3 ) are used as drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition. f) Stabilisers i)The functions of stabilizers is to prevent the formation of foam. ii)In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump working. So,washing powders for automatic washing machine are made using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam. g) Perfumes Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.
Disadvantages of Soaps
1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium salts. 2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and Ca 2+ to form a precipitate called scum. Thus, soaps do not lather in hard water. 3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium stearate.
4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing dissolves acids. H + ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular size that are insoluble in water.
5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (heads) that dissolves in water.
Advantages of Detergents
1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg2+ and Ca 2+ ions found in hard water. 2. The detergents ions (R O SO 3 ) a n d react with Mg2+ and Ca 2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are soluble in water.
DISADVANTAGES OF DETERGENTS
1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-biodegradable, that is, they cannot decompose by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents cause water pollution. 2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of water plants and algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives. 3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the water surface will prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and other aquatic life to die from oxygen starvation. 4. Additives such as sodium hypochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.
FOOD ADDITIVES
dyes
Table 5.2 Type of preservatives and their uses Preservatives Molecular formula Uses Sodium nitrite NaNO 2 To preserve meat, sausage, cheese Sodium nitrate and dried fish NaNO 3 To prevent food poisoning in canned food To maintain the natural colour of meat and to make them look fresh Benzoic acid To preserve sauces C 6 H 5 COOH (oyster, tomato or Sodium benzoate chili) , fruit juice, C 6 H 5 COONA jam and margarine SO 2 Suplhur dioxide Used as bleaches and antioxidants to Sodium sulphite prevent browning Na 2 SO 3 in fruit juices Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables To prevent the growth of yeast
Antioxidants 1. Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air. 2. Food containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air. This makes the food unpalatable. The rancid products are volatile organic compound with foul odour. ( Example: Butanoic acid, C 3 H 7 COOH ) 3. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried food to slow down the oxidation process.
Flavouring Agents 1. Flavouring agents are used to make food taste better. 2. There are two types of flavouring agents:
flavour enhancers
artificial flavours
FLAVOURING AGENTS
3. Flavour enhancers have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours or to enance the tastes of food. An example of a flavor enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). 4. Artificial flavours include sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners.
5. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to enhace the sweeteners in food and drinks. However the use of saccharin is banned is most countries because it is carcinogenic. 6. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours. Table 5.3 shows some examples of esters that are used in making drinks. Table 5.3 Uses of esters as flavouring agents Benzyl Octyle ethanoate ethanoate Strawberry Orange
Ester Flavour
Stabilizers and thickening agents 1. Stabilizers and thickening agents are used to improve the texture and blending of foods. 2. Stabilizers are chemicals that are added to enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form emulsion of water and oil. Examples of stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum. 3. Stabilizers are added to improve the texture of food. For example, stabilizers are added to ice cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth and creamy. 4. Without stabilizers, ice crystals would form in ice creams, particles of chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad dressing will separate as soon as the mixing is stopped. 3. Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from becoming liquid. Thickening agents ( also called thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in food to produce to produce jelly-like structure. 6. Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin are added to help jams and jellies settle.
Dyes 1. Dyes ( colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to food to give them colour so as to improve their appearance. 2. Some food are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing. The food industry uses synthetic food colours to: a) restore the colour of food lost during food processing b) enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of food c) give colour to food that do not have colour 3. Some dyes are natural plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared. The synthetic colours used in food are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these compounds are organic compunds. 4. The synthetic dye, brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compounds. The synthetic dye tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of compounds. 5. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N - , and are usually yellow, red, brown or black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic compunds containing three phenyl groups, -C 6 H 5 , and are usually green, blue or purple in colour.
Cancer
Brain damage
Hyperactivity
Disease will occur oftenly Malnutrition will occur particularly Life without food additives
MEDICINE
SOURCES AND USES OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
1. Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illness. 2. Traditional medicine is a medicine derived from natural resources without being processed chemically. 3. Medicine obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal medicine are shown in Table 5.4. Table 5.4 Some examples of herbal medicines Plant Garlic Ginger Part of the plant used Corm Rhizome ( horizontal underground stems) Uses Lemon grass Stem/ Leaves For preventing flue or asthma attacks. For reducing high blood pressure. For treating stomach pain due to wind in stomach. For supplying heat energy to keep the body warm. For preveting flu attack. For treating itchy skin For trating burn (scalding) on the skin For treating boils or abscesses on the skin For preventing flu attack For treating skin diseases For treating malaria For preventing muscle cramps As a tonic to improve the overall health of human beings For increasing energy, endurance and reduce fatigue Has antibacterial and antifungal properties For treating coughs As a tonic for after birth and general
Leaves Fruits
Quinine Ginseng
Tongkat ali
Roots
health
MODERN MEDICINE
1. Modern medicine can be classified as follows based on their effects on the human body: a) Analgesics b) Antibiotics c) Psychotherapeutic drugs
Psychotherapeutic medicines
1. Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of dugs for treating mental and emotional illness. 2. Table 5.7 shows the types and functions of psychotherapeutic medicines.
Type of analgesic Aspirin Pain relief and antiinflammatory action. Acetyl salicylic acid (IUPAC name) Contains 2 functional groups (carboxylic acid/ester) Acidic. Paracetamol neutral
o o
o o
Uses Reduce fever Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches Treat arthritis Acts as an anti coagulant prevent clotting blood. Reduce the risk of heart attack and strokes.
Side effects Cause brain and liver damage of ill children. Cause bleeding in the stomach. Cause allergy reactions, skin rashes, asthmatic attacks
Codeine Is an organic compounds that contains carbon, hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen elements
o To relieve mild to moderate pain (headache ,muscle and joint pain, back ache , period pains) o Does not irritate the stomach to bleed o Used to relieve minor to moderate pain. It is more powerful than aspirin and paracetamol but less powerful than morphine. Codein and morphine are narcotic drugs. o Also used in cough mixtures for suppressing
Causes skin rashes, blood disorders and acute inflammation of the pancreas. Cause liver damage.
Uses Treat diseases caused by bacteria such as: o pneumonia o gonorrhea o syphilis. Streptomycin Treat: o tuberculosis Produced by soil o whooping cough and bacteria at the o some forms of genus streptomyces pneumonia.
Side effects Cause allergic reactions Cause death for people who are allergic to it Cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever. Loss of hearing following long term use
Psychotherapeutic Medicines Stimulants A medicine which activates the level of arousal and alertness of the central nervous system to reduce fatigue and elevate mood in most people.
Uses i) Adrenaline A need in demanding energeticactivities. ii) Caffeine weak, naturally occuring stimulant found in coffee, tea and cola drinks. iii)Amphetamines Strong synthetic stimulants Increase alertness and physical ability. Increase the heart respiration rates and blood pressure. i) tranquilizers - to calm down a person, reduce tension & anxiety
cause drowsiness, poor coordination and light headedness, respiratory difficulties ,sleeplessness ,
Cause sleep (high dose) Cause addiction and habit forming Cause death To treat psychiatric illness such as Cause dry mouth, blurred Antipsychotic medicine schizophrenia vision, urinary retention, ( loses touch with reality) tremor and less rest as well as sedation (more calmer/sleepy) Table 5.7 Types, functions and side effects of psychotherapeutic medicines
Avoid selfmedication
4. Modern living depends on chemical substances. Try to imagine the world without chemicals. For example, without petroleum, the transport system will break down. Without modern medicine, diseases will spread and without soap and detergent, the world will become more dirty and unhygienic.