Alpha Centauri

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Articles
Alpha Centauri Proxima Centauri Binary star 1 16 23

References
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Alpha Centauri

Alpha Centauri
Alpha Centauri A/B

The position of Alpha CentauriA and Alpha CentauriB Observation data Epoch J2000.0Equinox J2000.0 Constellation Centaurus Alpha Centauri A Right ascension Declination Apparent magnitude (V) 14 39 36.4951
h m s

605002.308 0.01 Alpha Centauri B

Right ascension Declination Apparent magnitude (V)

14 39 35.0803

605013.761 +1.33 Characteristics

Spectral type UB color index BV color index

G2V +0.23 +0.69 Characteristics

Spectral type UB color index BV color index

K1V +0.63 +0.90 Astrometry

Radial velocity (R )
v

21.6 km/s RA:3678.19mas/yr Dec.:481.84mas/yr 747.1 1.2

[1]

Proper motion () Parallax () Distance Absolutemagnitude(M )

V

mas

4.366 0.007 ly (1.339 0.002 pc) 4.38 / 5.71 Details Alpha Centauri A

Alpha Centauri

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Mass Radius Luminosity Surface gravity (logg) Temperature Metallicity Rotation Age 1.100M 1.227R 1.519L 4.30cgs 5790K 151% Sun ~22.5 5.9 days 6 1Gyr Alpha Centauri B Mass Radius Luminosity Surface gravity (logg) Temperature Metallicity Rotation 0.907M 0.865R 0.500L 4.37cgs 5260K 160% Sun 47 days Orbit Companion Period (P) Semi-major axis (a) Eccentricity (e) Inclination (i) Longitude of the node () Periastron epoch (T) Argument of periastron () (secondary) Alpha Centauri AB 79.91 0.011 yr 17.57 0.022" 0.5179 0.00076 79.205 0.041 204.85 0.084 1875.66 0.012 231.65 0.076 Other designations Rigil Kentaurus, Rigil Kent, Toliman, Bungula, FK5538, CP(D)605483, GC19728, CCDMJ14396-6050 Cen A 1Centauri, GJ559 A, HR5459, HD128620, GCTP3309.00, LHS50, SAO252838, HIP71683 Cen B 2Centauri, GJ559 B, HR5460, HD128621, LHS51, HIP71681 Cen C ( Proxima Cen) LHS49, HIP70890 Database references SIMBAD Exoplanet Archive ARICNS Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia data data data data
[2] [3] [4] [5]

Alpha Centauri

Location of Alpha Centauri in Centaurus (right-click on starmap to enlarge) Alpha Centauri ( Centauri, Cen; also known as Rigil Kent /radlHelp:IPA for English#Keyknt/see Names) is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus, and the third brightest star in the night sky.[6][7] The Alpha Centauri system is located 1.34 parsecs or 4.37 light years from the Sun, making it the closest star system to the Solar System. Although it appears to the unaided eye as a single object, Alpha Centauri is actually a binary star system (designated Alpha Centauri AB or Cen AB) whose combined visual magnitude of 0.27 makes it the third brightest star (other than the Sun) seen from Earth after the 1.46 magnitude Sirius and the 0.72 magnitude Canopus. Its component stars are named Alpha Centauri A ( Cen A), with 110% of the mass and 151.9% the luminosity of the Sun, and Alpha Centauri B ( Cen B), at 90.7% of the Sun's mass and 44.5% of its luminosity. During the pair's 79.91-year orbit about a common center, the distance between them varies from about that between Pluto and the Sun to that between Saturn and the Sun. A third star, known as Proxima Centauri, Proxima, or Alpha Centauri C ( Cen C), is probably gravitationally associated with Alpha Centauri AB. Proxima is at the slightly smaller distance of 1.29 parsecs or 4.24 light years from the Sun, making it the closest star to the Sun, even though it is not visible to the naked eye. The separation of Proxima from Alpha Centauri AB is about 0.06 parsecs, 0.2 light years or 13,000 astronomical units (AU); equivalent to 400 times the size of Neptune's orbit. The system may also contain at least one planet, the Earth-sized Alpha Centauri Bb, which if confirmed will be the closest known exoplanet to Earth. The planet has a mass at least 113% of Earth's and orbits Alpha Centauri B with a period of 3.236 days. Orbiting at a distance of 6 million kilometers from the star, 4% of the distance of the Earth to the Sun and a tenth of the distance between Mercury and the Sun, the planet has an estimated surface temperature of 1500 K (roughly 1200 C), too hot to be habitable.[8] More recently, on June 10, 2013, scientists reported that the earlier claims of an Earth-like exoplanet orbiting Alpha Centauri B may not be supported.

Nature and components

"Alpha Centauri" is the name given to what appears as a single star to the naked eye and the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus. At 0.27v visual magnitude, it is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. The next brightest star in the night sky is Arcturus. Actually a multiple star system, its two main stars are Alpha CentauriA ( Cen A) and Alpha CentauriB ( Cen B), usually defined to identify them as the different components of the binary Cen AB. A third companionProxima Centauri (or Proxima or Cen C)has a distance much greater than the observed separation between stars A andB and is probably gravitationally associated with the AB system. As viewed from Earth, it is located at an angular separation of

Mobile notation diagram of the system

Alpha Centauri 2.2 from the two main stars. If it were bright enough to be seen without a telescope, Proxima Centauri would appear to the naked eye as a star separate from Cen AB. Alpha CentauriAB and Proxima Centauri form a visual double star. Direct evidence that Proxima Centauri has an elliptical orbit typical of binary stars has yet to be found. Together all three components make a triple star system, referred to by double-star observers as the triple star (or multiple star), Cen AB-C. Alpha Centauri A is the principal member, or primary, of the binary system, being slightly larger and more luminous than the Sun. It is a solar-like main-sequence star with a similar yellowish color, whose stellar classification is spectral type G2V. From the determined mutual orbital parameters, Alpha CentauriA is about 10% more massive than the Sun, with a radius about 23% larger. The projected rotational velocity ( vsin i ) of this star is 2.7 0.7 kms1, resulting in an estimated rotational period of 22days, which gives it a slightly faster rotational period than the Sun's 25 days. When considered among the individual brightest stars in the sky (excluding the Sun), Alpha CentauriA is the fourth brightest at 0.01 magnitude, being fractionally fainter than Arcturus at 0.04v magnitude.

Artists impression of the planet around Alpha Centauri B

Alpha Centauri B is the companion star, or secondary, of the binary system, and is slightly smaller and less luminous than the Sun. It is a main-sequence star is of spectral type K1V, making it more an orange color than the primary star. Alpha CentauriB is about 90% the mass of the Sun and 14% smaller in radius. The projected rotational velocity ( vsin i ) is 1.1 0.8 kms1, resulting in an estimated rotational period of 41days. (An earlier, 1995 estimate gave a similar rotation period of 36.8days.) Although it has a lower luminosity than View of Alpha Centauri from the Digitized Sky Survey 2 componentA, star B emits more energy in the X-ray band. The light curve of B varies on a short time scale and there has been at least one observed flare. Alpha CentauriB at 1.33v magnitude would be twenty-first in brightness if it could be seen independently of Alpha Centauri A.

Alpha Centauri

Alpha Centauri C, also known as Proxima Centauri, is of spectral class M5Ve or M5VIe, suggesting this is either a small main-sequence star (TypeV) or subdwarf (VI) with emission lines. Its BV color index is+1.90 and its mass is about 0.123M,[9] or 129 Jupiter masses.
Component sizes and colors. Shows the relative sizes and colors of stars in the Together, the bright visible components of Alpha Centauri system and compares them with those of the Sun. the binary star system are called Alpha CentauriAB ( Cen AB). This "AB" designation denotes the apparent gravitational centre of the main binary system relative to other companion star(s) in any multiple star system. "AB-C" refers to the orbit of Proxima around the central binary, being the distance between the centre of gravity and the outlying companion. Some older references use the confusing and now discontinued designation ofAB. Since the distance between the Sun and Alpha CentauriAB does not differ significantly from either star, gravitationally this binary system is considered as if it were one object.

Asteroseismic studies, chromospheric activity, and stellar rotation (gyrochronology), are all consistent with the Cen system being similar in age to, or slightly older than, the Sun, with typical ages quoted between 4.5 and 7 billion years (Gyr). Asteroseismic analyses that incorporate the tight observational constraints on the stellar parameters for Cen A and/or B have yielded age estimates of 4.85 0.5 Gyr, 5.0 0.5 Gyr, 5.27.1 Gyr, 6.4 Gyr, and 6.52 0.3 Gyr. Age estimates for stars A and B based on chromospheric activity (Calcium H & K emission) yield 4.46.5 Gyr, while gyrochronology yields 5.0 0.3 Gyr.

Observation
The Alpha Centauri AB binary is too close to be resolved by the naked eye, because the angular separation varies between 2 and 22arcsec, but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in binoculars or small 5cm (2in) telescopes. In the southern hemisphere, Alpha Centauri forms the outer star of The Pointers or The Southern Pointers, so called because the line through Beta Centauri (Hadar/Agena), some 4.5 west, points directly to the constellation Crux the Southern Cross. The Pointers easily distinguish the true Southern Cross from the fainter asterism known as the False Cross. South of about 29 S latitude, Alpha Centauri is circumpolar and never sets below the horizon.[10] Both stars, including Crux, are too far south to be visible for mid-latitude northern observers. Below about 29 N latitude to the equator (roughly Hermosillo, Chihuahua in Mexico, Galveston, Texas, Ocala, Florida and Lanzarote, the Canary Islands of Spain) during the northern summer, Alpha Centauri lies close to the southern horizon. The star culminates each year at midnight on 24 April or 9 p.m. on 8 June. As seen from Earth, Proxima Centauri lies 2.2 southwest from Alpha Centauri AB. This is about four times the angular diameter of the Full Moon, and almost exactly half the distance between Alpha Centauri AB and Beta Centauri. Proxima usually appears as a deep-red star of 13.1v visual magnitude in a poorly populated star field, requiring moderately sized telescopes to see. Listed as V645 Cen in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars (G.C.V.S.) Version 4.2, this UV Ceti-type flare star can unexpectedly brighten rapidly to about 11.0v or 11.09V magnitude. Some amateur and professional astronomers regularly monitor for outbursts using either optical or radio telescopes.

Alpha Centauri

Observational history
English explorer Robert Hues brought Alpha Centauri to the attention of European observers in his 1592 work Tractatus de Globis, along with Canopus and Achernar, noting "Now, therefore, there are but three Stars of the first magnitude that I could perceive in all those parts which are never seene here in England. The first of these is that bright Star in the sterne of Argo which they call Canobus. The second is in the end of Eridanus. The third is in the right foote of the Centaure."[11] The binary nature of Alpha Centauri AB was first recognized in December 1689 by astronomer and Jesuit priest Jean Richaud. The finding was made incidentally while observing a passing comet from his station in Puducherry. Alpha Centauri was only the second binary star system to be discovered, preceded only by Alpha Crucis. By 1752, French astronomer Abb Nicolas Louis de Lacaille made astrometric positional measurements using a meridian circle while John Herschel, in 1834, made the first micrometrical observations. Since the early 20th century, measures have been made with photographic plates. By 1926, South African astronomer William Stephen Finsen calculated the approximate orbit elements close to those now accepted for this system.[12] All future positions are now sufficiently accurate for visual observers to determine the relative places of the stars from a binary star ephemeris. Others, like the Belgian astronomer D. Pourbaix (2002), have regularly refined the precision of any new published orbital elements. Alpha Centauri is the closest star system to the Solar System. It lies about 4.37 light-years in distance, or about 41.5 trillion kilometres, 25.8 trillion miles or 277,600 AU. Scottish astronomer Thomas Henderson made the original discovery from many exacting observations of the trigonometric parallaxes of the AB system between April 1832 and May 1833. He withheld the results because he suspected they were too large to be true, but eventually published in 1839 after Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel released his own accurately determined parallax for 61 Cygni in 1838.[13] For this reason, Alpha Centauri is considered as the second star to have its distance measured because it was not formally recognized first. Alpha Centauri is currently inside the G-cloud, and the nearest known system to it is Luhman 16 at 3.6 light years.

Alpha Centauri A and B resolved over the limb of Saturn, as seen by CassiniHuygens

Scottish astronomer Robert Innes discovered Proxima Centauri in 1915 by blinking photographic plates taken at different times during a dedicated proper motion survey. This The two bright stars are (left) Alpha Centauri and (right) Beta Centauri. The showed the large proper motion and parallax of faint red star in the center of the red circle is Proxima Centauri. Taken with the star was similar in both size and direction to Canon 85mm f/1.8 lens with 11 frames stacked, each frame exposed 30 those of Alpha Centauri AB, suggesting seconds. immediately it was part of the system and slightly closer to us than Alpha Centauri AB. Lying 4.24 light-years away, Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the

Alpha Centauri Sun. All current derived distances for the three stars are from the parallaxes obtained from the Hipparcos star catalog (HIP).

Binary system
With the orbital period of 79.91years, the A and B components of this binary star can approach each other to 11.2 astronomical units, equivalent to 1.67 billion km or about the mean distance between the Sun and Saturn, or may recede as far as 35.6AU (5.3 billion kmapproximately the distance from the Sun to Pluto).[14] This is a consequence of the binary's moderate orbital eccentricity e=0.5179. From the orbital elements, the total mass of both stars is about 2.0M[15]or twice that of the Sun. The average individual stellar masses are 1.09M and 0.90M, respectively, though slightly higher masses have been quoted in recent years, such as 1.14M and 0.92M, or totalling 2.06M. Alpha Centauri A and B have absolute magnitudes of +4.38 and +5.71, respectively. Stellar evolution theory implies both stars are slightly older than the Sun at 5 to 6 billion years, as derived by both mass and their spectral characteristics.

Viewed from Earth, the apparent orbit of this binary star means that the separation and position angle (P.A.) are in continuous change throughout the projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2010 are separated by 6.74arcsec through the P.A. of 245.7, reducing to 6.04arcsec through 251.8 in 2011. Next closest approach will be in February 2016, at 4.0arcsec through 300. Observed maximum separation of these stars is about 22arcsec, while the minimum distance is 1.7arcsec.[16] Widest separation occurred during February 1976 and the next will be in January 2056. In the true orbit, closest approach or periastron was in August 1955, and next in May 2035. Furthest orbital separation at apastron last occurred in May 1995 and the next will be in 2075. The apparent distance between the two stars is presently rapidly decreasing, at least until 2019.

Apparent and true orbits of Alpha Centauri. The A component is held stationary and the relative orbital motion of the B component is shown. The apparent orbit (thin ellipse) is the shape of the orbit as seen by an observer on Earth. The true orbit is the shape of the orbit viewed perpendicular to the plane of the orbital motion. According to the radial velocity vs. time the radial separation of A and B along the line of sight had reached a maximum in 2007 with B being behind A. Since the orbit is divided here into 80 points, each step refers to a timestep of approx. 0.99888 years or 364.84 days.

Companion: Proxima Centauri

The much fainter red dwarf star named Proxima Centauri, or simply Proxima, is about 15,000 AU away from Alpha Centauri AB. This is equivalent to 0.24light years or 2.2trillion kilometresabout 5% the distance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri AB. Proxima is likely gravitationally bound to Alpha Centauri AB, orbiting it with a period between 100,000 and 500,000 years. However, it is also possible that Proxima is not gravitationally bound and thus moving along a hyperbolic trajectory with respect to Alpha Centauri AB. The main evidence for a bound orbit is that Proxima's association with Alpha Centauri AB is unlikely to be accidental, since they share approximately the same motion through space. Theoretically, Proxima could leave the system after several million years. It is not yet certain

Alpha Centauri whether Proxima and Alpha are truly gravitationally bound. Proxima is an M5.5V spectral class red dwarf with an absolute magnitude of +15.53, which is only a small fraction of the Sun's luminosity. By mass, Proxima is presently calculated as 0.123 0.06 M (rounded to 0.12M) or about one-eighth that of the Sun.

High-proper-motion star
All components of Alpha Centauri display significant proper motions against the background sky, similar to the first magnitude stars Sirius and Arcturus. Over the centuries, this causes the apparent stellar positions to slowly change. Such motions define the high-proper-motion stars. These stellar motions were unknown to ancient astronomers. Most assumed that all stars were immortal and permanently fixed on the celestial sphere, as stated in the works of the philosopher Aristotle. Edmond Halley in 1718 found that some stars had significantly moved from their ancient astrometric positions.[17] For example, the bright star Arcturus ( Boo) in the constellation of Botes showed an almost 0.5 difference in 1800 years,[18] as did the brightest star, Sirius, in Canis Major ( CMa). Halley's positional comparison was Ptolemy's catalogue of stars contained in the Almagest whose original data included portions from an earlier catalog by Hipparchos during the 1st century BCE.[19][20] Halley's proper motions were mostly for northern stars, so the southern star Alpha Centauri was not determined until the early 19thcentury. Scottish-born observer Thomas James Henderson in the 1830s at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope discovered the true distance to Alpha Centauri. He soon realised this system displayed an unusually high proper motion,[21] and therefore its observed true velocity through space should be much larger. In this case, the apparent stellar motion was found using Abb Nicolas Louis de Lacaille's astrometric observations of 17511752, by the observed differences between the two measured positions in different epochs. Using the Hipparcos Star Catalogue (HIP) data, the mean individual proper motions are 3678mas/yr or 3.678arcsec per year in right ascension and +481.84mas/yr or 0.48184arcsec per year in declination.[22][23] As proper motions are cumulative, the motion of Alpha Centauri is about 6.1arcmin each century, and 61.3arcmin or 1.02 each millennium. These motions are about one-fifth and twice, respectively, the diameter of the full moon. Using spectroscopy the mean radial velocity has been determined to be 25.1 0.3 km/s towards the Solar System.[24] As the stars of Alpha Centauri approach us, the measured proper motion and trigonometric parallax slowly increase. Changes are also observed in the size of the semi-major axis of the orbital ellipse, increasing by 0.03arcsec per century. This change slightly shortens the observed orbital period of Alpha Centauri AB by some 0.006 years per century. This small effect is gradually decreasing until the star system is at its closest to us, and is then reversed as the distance increases again. Consequently, the observed position angles of the stars are subject to changes in the orbital elements over time, as first determined by W. H. van den Bos in 1926.[25] Some slight differences of about 0.5% in the measured proper motions are caused by Alpha Centauri AB's orbital motion. Based on these observed proper motions and radial velocities, Alpha Centauri will continue to gradually brighten, passing just north of the Southern Cross or Crux, before moving northwest and up towards the celestial equator and away from the galactic plane. By about 29,700AD, in the present-day constellation of Hydra, Alpha Centauri will be 1.00pc or 3.26ly away. Then it will reach the stationary radial velocity (RVel) of 0.0km/s and the maximum apparent magnitude of 0.86V (which is comparable to present-day magnitude of Canopus). However, even during the time of this nearest approach, the apparent magnitude of Alpha Centauri will still not surpass that of Sirius (which will brighten incrementally over the next 60,000 years, and will continue to be the brightest star as seen from Earth for the next 210,000 years).[26] The Alpha Centauri system will then begin to move away from the Solar System, showing a positive radial velocity. Due to visual perspective, about 100,000years from now, these stars will reach a final vanishing point and slowly disappear among the countless stars of the Milky Way. Here this once bright yellow star will fall below naked-eye visibility somewhere in the faint present day southern constellation of Telescopium (this unusual location results

Alpha Centauri from the fact that Alpha Centauri's orbit around the galactic centre is highly tilted with respect to the plane of the Milky Way galaxy).

Apparent movement
In about 4000 years, the proper motion of Alpha Centauri will mean that from the point of view of Earth it will appear close enough to Beta Centauri to form an optical double star. Beta Centauri is in reality far more distant than Alpha Centauri.

Planets
Until the 1990s, technologies did not exist that could detect planets outside the Solar System.

Apparent motion of Alpha Centauri relative to Beta Centauri

The Alpha Centauri B system

Companion (in order from star) Mass Semimajor axis (AU) 0.04 Orbital period Eccentricity Inclination Radius (days)

1.13 0.09M

3.2357 0.0008

Alpha Centauri Bb
On 16 October 2012, researchers, mainly from the Observatory of Geneva and from the Centre for Astrophysics of the University of Porto, announced that an Earth-mass planet had been detected in orbit around Alpha Centauri B using the radial velocity technique.[27] Over three years of observations had been needed for the difficult analysis. The planet has a minimum mass of 1.13 times Earth's mass. It is not in the habitable zone, orbiting very close to the host star at just 0.04 AU and completing one orbit every 3.236 days. Its surface temperature is estimated to be 1200 C (about 1500 K), far too hot for liquid water and also above the melting temperatures of many silicate magmas. For comparison, the surface temperature of Venus, the hottest planet in the Solar System, is 462 C (735 K).

Possibility of additional planets

The discovery of planets orbiting other star systems, including similar binary systems (Gamma Cephei), raises the possibility that additional planets may exist in the Alpha Centauri system. Such planets could orbit Alpha CentauriA or Alpha CentauriB individually, or be on large orbits around the binary Alpha Centauri AB. Since both the principal stars are fairly similar to the Sun (for example, in age and metallicity), astronomers have been especially interested in making detailed searches for planets in the Alpha Centauri system. Several established planet-hunting teams have used various radial velocity or star transit methods in their searches around these two bright stars. All the observational studies have so far failed to find any evidence for brown dwarfs or gas giant planets.

Alpha Centauri In 2009, computer simulations (then unaware of the close-in planet Bb) showed that a planet might have been able to form near the inner edge of Alpha Centauri B's habitable zone, which extends from 0.5 to 0.9 AU from the star. Certain special assumptions, such as considering that Alpha Centauri A and B may have initially formed with a wider separation and later moved closer to each other (as might be possible if they formed in a dense star cluster) would permit an accretion-friendly environment farther from the star. Bodies around A would be able to orbit at slightly farther distances due to A's stronger gravity. In addition, the lack of any brown dwarfs or gas giants in close orbits around A or B make the likelihood of terrestrial planets greater than otherwise. Theoretical studies on the detectability via radial velocity analysis have shown that a dedicated campaign of high-cadence observations with a 1m class telescope can reliably detect a hypothetical planet of 1.8 Earth masses in the habitable zone of B within three years. Radial velocity measurements of Alpha Centauri B with HARPS spectrograph ruled out planets of more than 4 Earth masses to the distance of the habitable zone of the star (orbital period P = 200 days). Alpha Centauri is envisioned as the first target for unmanned interstellar exploration. Crossing the huge distance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri using current spacecraft technologies would take several millennia, though the possibility of solar sail or nuclear pulse propulsion technology could cut this down to a matter of decades.

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Theoretical planets
Early computer-generated models of planetary formation predicted the existence of terrestrial planets around both Alpha Centauri A andB,[28][29] but most recent numerical investigations have shown that the gravitational pull of the companion star renders the accretion of planets very difficult. Despite these difficulties, given the similarities to the Sun in spectral types, star type, age and probable stability of the orbits, it has been suggested that this stellar system could hold one of the best possibilities for harbouring extraterrestrial life on a potential planet. Some astronomers speculated that any possible terrestrial planets in the Alpha Centauri system may be bone dry or lack significant atmospheres. In the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar System. Here the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices but Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming enriching the area round Alpha Centauri A and B with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha CentauriB happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha CentauriA (or conversely, Alpha CentauriA for Alpha CentauriB), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to successfully perturb comets into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Because icy bodies probably also reside in Oort clouds of other planetary systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many of these icy bodies then travel starwards. There is no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort cloud around Alpha CentauriAB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation. To be in the star's habitable zone, any suspected Earth-like planet around Alpha CentauriA would have to be placed about 1.25AU away about halfway between the distances of Earth's orbit and Mars's orbit in the Solar System so as to have similar planetary temperatures and conditions for liquid water to exist. For the slightly less luminous and cooler Alpha CentauriB, the habitable zone would lie closer at about 0.7AU (100 million km), approximately the distance that Venus is from the Sun. With the goal of finding evidence of such planets, both Proxima Centauri and Alpha CentauriAB were among the listed "Tier1" target stars for NASA's Space Interferometry Mission (SIM). Detecting planets as small as three Earth-masses or smaller within two astronomical units of a "Tier1" target would have been possible with this new instrument.[30] The SIM mission, however, was cancelled due to financial issues in 2010.

Alpha Centauri

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View from this system

Viewed from near the Alpha Centauri system, the sky would appear very much as it does for earthbound observers, except that Centaurus would be missing its brightest star. The Sun would be a yellow +0.5 visual magnitude star in eastern Cassiopeia at the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri's current RA and Dec. at 02h39m35s +6050 (2000). This place is close to the 3.4 magnitude star Cassiopeiae. An interstellar or alien observer would find the \/\/ of Cassiopeia had become a /\/\/ shape [31] nearly in front of the Heart Nebula in Cassiopeia. Sirius lies less than a degree from Betelgeuse in the otherwise unmodified Orion and is with 1.2 a little fainter than from Earth but still the brightest star in the Alpha Centauri sky. Procyon is also displaced into the middle of Gemini, outshining Pollux, while both Vega and Altair are shifted northwestward relative to Deneb (which barely moves, due to its great distance)- giving the Summer Triangle a more equilateral appearance. From Proxima itself, Alpha Centauri AB would appear like two close bright stars with the combined magnitude of 6.8. Depending on the binary's orbital position, the bright stars would appear noticeably divisible to the naked eye, or occasionally, but briefly, as single unresolved star. Based on the calculated absolute magnitudes, the visual magnitudes of Alpha Centauri A and B would be 6.5 and 5.2, respectively.[32]

Looking toward the Sun from Alpha Centauri in Celestia

Looking toward the sky around Orion from Alpha Centauri with Sirius near Betelgeuse and the Sun between Perseus and Cassiopeia generated by Celestia

Alpha Centauri

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View from a hypothetical planet

An observer on a hypothetical planet orbiting around either Alpha CentauriA or Alpha CentauriB would see the other star of the binary system as an intensely bright object in the night sky, showing a small but discernible disk. For example, some theoretical Earth-like planet orbiting about 1.25 AU from Alpha CentauriA (so that the star appears roughly as bright as the Sun viewed from the Earth) would see Alpha CentauriB orbit the entire sky once roughly every one year and three months (or 1.3(4) a), the planet's own orbital period. Added to this would be the changing Artist's rendition of the view from a hypothetical airless planet orbiting Alpha apparent position of Alpha CentauriB Centauri A during its long eighty-year elliptical orbit with respect to Alpha CentauriA (comparable in speed to Uranus here). Depending on the position on its orbit, Alpha Centauri B would vary in apparent magnitude between 18.2 (dimmest) and 21.0 (brightest). These visual magnitudes are much dimmer than the currently observed 26.7 magnitude for the Sun as viewed from the Earth. The difference of 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes means Alpha CentauriB would appear, on a linear scale, 2500 to 190 times dimmer than Alpha CentauriA (or the Sun viewed from the Earth), but also 190 to 2500 times brighter than the 12.5 magnitude full Moon as seen from the Earth. Also, if another similar Earth-like planet orbited at 0.71AU from Alpha CentauriB (so that in turn Alpha Centauri B appeared as bright as the Sun seen from the Earth), this hypothetical planet would receive slightly more light from the more luminous Alpha CentauriA, which would shine 4.7 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer than Alpha CentauriB (or the Sun seen from the Earth), ranging in apparent magnitude between 19.4 (dimmest) and 22.1 (brightest). Thus Alpha CentauriA would appear between 830 and 70 times dimmer than the Sun but some 580 to 6900 times brighter than the full Moon. During such planet's orbital period of 0.6(3) a, an observer on the planet would see this intensely bright companion star circle the sky just as we see with the Solar System's planets. Furthermore, Alpha CentauriA sidereal period of approximately eighty years means that this star would move through the local ecliptic as slowly as Uranus with its eighty-four year period, but as the orbit of Alpha CentauriA is more elliptical, its apparent magnitude will be far more variable. Although intensely bright to the eye, the overall illumination would not significantly affect climate nor influence normal plant photosynthesis. An observer on the hypothetical planet would notice a change in orientation to VLBI reference points commensurate with the binary orbit periodicity plus or minus any local effects such as precession or nutation. Assuming this hypothetical planet had a low orbital inclination with respect to the mutual orbit of Alpha CentauriA and B, then the secondary star would start beside the primary at 'stellar' conjunction. Half the period later, at 'stellar' opposition, both stars would be opposite each other in the sky. Then, for about half the planetary year the appearance of the night sky would be a darker blue similar to the sky during totality at any total solar eclipse. Humans could easily walk around and clearly see the surrounding terrain, and reading a book would be quite possible without any artificial light. After another half period in the stellar orbit, the stars would complete their orbital cycle and return to the next stellar conjunction, and the familiar Earth-like day and night cycle would return.

Alpha Centauri

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Names
The colloquial name of Alpha Centauri is Rigel Kent or Rigil Kent,[33] short for Rigil/Rigel Kentaurus,[34][35] the romanization of the Arabic name Rijl Qanris, from the phrase Rijl al-Qanris "the foot of the Centaur".[36] This is sometimes further abbreviated to Rigel, though that is ambiguous with Beta Orionis, which is also called Rigel. Although the short form Rigel Kent is common in English, the stars are most often referred to by their Bayer designation Alpha Centauri. A medieval name is Toliman, whose etymology may be Arabic al-ulmn "the ostriches". During the 19th century, the northern amateur popularist Elijah H. Burritt used the now-obscure name Bungula,[37] possibly coined from "" and the Latin ungula ("hoof"). Together, Alpha and Beta Centauri form the "Southern Pointers" or "The Pointers", as they point towards the Southern Cross, the asterism of the constellation of Crux. In Chinese, Nn Mn, meaning Southern Gate, refers to an asterism consisting of Centauri and Centauri. Consequently, Centauri itself is known as Nn Mn r, the Second Star of the Southern Gate.[38] To the Australian aboriginal Boorong peopleWikipedia:Avoid weasel words of northwestern Victoria, Alpha and Beta Centauri are Bermbermgle, two brothers noted for their courage and destructiveness, who speared and killed Tchingal "The Emu" (the Coalsack Nebula). The form in Wotjobaluk is Bram-bram-bult.

Use in modern fiction

Alpha Centauri's relative proximity makes it in some ways the logical choice as "first port of call". Speculative fiction about interstellar travel often predicts eventual human exploration, and even the discovery and colonization of planetary systems. These themes are common to many works of science fiction and video games.

Notes
[1] See Table 3. [2] http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=alpha+ centauri [3] http:/ / exoplanetarchive. ipac. caltech. edu/ cgi-bin/ DisplayOverview/ nph-DisplayOverview?objname=alpha+ centauri [4] http:/ / wwwadd. zah. uni-heidelberg. de/ datenbanken/ aricns/ cnspages/ 4c01151. htm [5] http:/ / exoplanet. eu/ star. php?st=alf+ cen [6] http:/ / interstellar. jpl. nasa. gov/ interstellar/ probe/ introduction/ neighborhood. html, Our Local Galactic Neighborhood, NASA [7] http:/ / www. centauri-dreams. org/ ?p=14203, Into the Interstellar Void, Centauri Dreams [8] "The exoplanet next door: Earth-sized world discovered in nearby Centauri star system". (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ the-exoplanet-next-door-1. 11605) Eric Hand, Nature, October 16, 2012. Accessed October 16, 2012. [9] some of the data is located under "Measurements". [10] This is calculated for a fixed latitude by knowing the star's declination () using the formulae (90+ ). Alpha Centauri's declination is 60 50, so the latitude where the star is circumpolar will be south of 29 10S or 29. Similarly, the place where Alpha Centauri never rises for northern observers is north of the latitude (90+ ) N or +29N. [11] Knobel, p. 416. [12] Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, pp. 236237. [13] Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, pp. 3456 [14] Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 236. [15] UNIQ-math-0-13b91fa059fa7d74-QINU , see formula

Distances of the nearest stars from 20,000 years ago until 80,000 years in the future. .

Alpha Centauri
[16] Aitken, R.G., "The Binary Stars", Dover, 1961, p. 235. [17] Berry, A., "A History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, pp. 357358 [18] Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989 [19] Newton R.R., "The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy", T. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, (1977) [20] Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, p. 157 [21] Pannekoek, A., "A Short History of Astronomy", Dover, 1989, p. 333 [22] European Space Agency: The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues Search facility(2008) (http:/ / www. rssd. esa. int/ index. php?project=HIPPARCOS& page=hipsearch) [23] Proper motions are expressed in smaller angular units than arcsec, being measured in milli-arcsec (mas.) or one-thousandth of an arcsec. A negative value for proper motion in RA indicates the sky motion is east to west, in declination north to south. [24] HD 128620/1 (http:/ / webviz. u-strasbg. fr/ viz-bin/ VizieR-5?-out. add=. & -source=V/ 117A/ newcat. dat& recno=9988), database entry, The Geneva-Copenhagen Survey of Solar neighbourhood, J. Holmberg et al., 2007, CDS ID V/117A (http:/ / vizier. u-strasbg. fr/ viz-bin/ Cat?V/ 117A). Accessed on line 19November 2008 [25] Calculated as; o=sin(tto), where; = right ascension (in degrees), is the common proper motion (cpm.) expressed in degrees, and and o are the current position angle and calculated position angle at the different epochs. [26] Sky and Telescope, April 1998 (p60), based on computations from HIPPARCOS data. [27] Planetary Habitability Laboratory, UPR Arecibo: A Planetary System Around Our Nearest Star is Emerging (http:/ / phl. upr. edu/ press-releases/ aplanetarysystemaroundourneareststarisemerging) [28] Javiera Guedes, Terrestrial Planet Formation Around Alpha Cen B (http:/ / www. ucolick. org/ ~javiera/ alphacen. shtml) [29] see Lissauer and Quintana in references below [30] " Planet Hunting by Numbers (http:/ / www. jpl. nasa. gov/ news/ features. cfm?feature=1209)", (Press Release), NASA, Stars and Galaxies, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 18 October 2006. Retrieved 24 April 2007. [31] The coordinates of the Sun would be diametrically opposite Alpha Centauri AB, at =, = [32] Computed; using in solar terms: 1.1M and 0.92M, luminosities 1.57 and 0.51L*/L, Sun magnitude 26.73(v), 11.2 to 35.6 AU orbit; The minimum luminosity adds planet's orbital radius to AB distance (max) (conjunction). Max. luminosity subtracts the planet's orbital radius to AB distance (min) (opposition). [33] Kunitzsch P., & Smart, T., A Dictionary of Modern star Names: A Short Guide to 254 Star Names and Their Derivations, Cambride, Sky Pub. Corp., 2006, p. 27 [34] Bailey, F., "The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulugh Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley, and Hevelius", Memoirs of Royal Astronomical Society, vol. XIII, London, 1843. [35] Spellings include Rigjl Kentaurus, Hyde T., "Ulugh Beighi Tabulae Stellarum Fixarum", Tabulae Long. ac Lat. Stellarum Fixarum ex Observatione Ulugh Beighi, Oxford, 1665, p. 142., Hyde T., "In Ulugh Beighi Tabulae Stellarum Fixarum Commentarii", op. cit., p. 67., Portuguese Riguel Kentaurus da Silva Oliveira, R., "Crux Australis: o Cruzeiro do Sul" (http:/ / www. asterdomus. com. br/ Artigo_crux_australis. htm), Artigos: Planetario Movel Inflavel AsterDomus. [36] Davis Jr., G. A., "The Pronunciations, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names," (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1944PA. . . . . 52. . . . 8D)Popular Astronomy, Vol. LII, No. 3, Oct. 1944, p. 16. [37] Burritt, E. H., Atlas, Designed to Illustrate the Geography of the Heavens, (New Edition), New York, F. J. Huntington and Co., 1835, pl. VII. [38] [ AEEA (Activities of Exhibition and Education in Astronomy) 2006 6 27 ]

14

References External links

SIMBAD observational data (http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?protocol=html&Ident=alpha+centauri) Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars U.S.N.O. (http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/orb6.html) The Imperial Star Alpha Centauri (http://www.southastrodel.com/PageAlphaCen001.htm) Alpha Centauri A Voyage to Alpha Centauri (http://www.southastrodel.com/PageAlphaCen006.htm) Immediate History of Alpha Centauri (http://www.southastrodel.com/PageAlphaCen006.htm) eSky : Alpha Centauri (http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/stars/alphacentauri.html)

Alpha Centauri

15

Hypothetical planets or exploration

"A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System" (http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=11016). SpaceRef.com. Retrieved 21 March 2003. Alpha Centauri System (http://jumk.de/astronomie/near-stars/alpha-centauri.shtml) O Sistema Alpha Centauri (Portuguese) (http://www.uranometrianova.pro.br/astronomia/AA002/alphacen. htm) Alpha Centauri Associao de Astronomia (Portuguese) (http://www.alpha-centauri.pt) http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/080307-another-earth.html Thompson, Andrea (2008-03-07). "Nearest Star System Might Harbor Earth Twin" (http://www.space.com/ scienceastronomy/080307-another-earth.html). SPACE.com. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/ 20080602011008/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/080307-another-earth.html) from the original on 2 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-17. Coordinates: 14h 39m 36.4951s, 60 50 02.308 (http:/ / www. wikisky. org/ ?ra=14. 660137527778& de=-60. 833974444444& zoom=2& show_grid=1& show_constellation_lines=1& show_constellation_boundaries=1& show_const_names=1&show_galaxies=1&img_source=IMG_all)

Proxima Centauri

16

Proxima Centauri
Coordinates: 14h 29m 42.9487s, 62 40 46.141 [1]
Proxima Centauri

Proxima Centauri (center inset) as seen by Hubble Observation data Epoch J2000.0Equinox J2000.0 (ICRS) Constellation Pronunciation Right ascension Declination Apparentmagnitude(V) Centaurus /prksmHelp:IPA for English#Keysntri/ 14 29 42.9487
h m s

[2]

624046.141 11.05 Characteristics

Spectral type Apparent magnitude(J) UB color index BV color index Variable type

M5.5Ve 5.35 0.02 1.43 1.90 Flare star Astrometry

Radial velocity (R )
v

21.7 1.8 km/s RA:3775.40mas/yr Dec.:769.33mas/yr 768.7 0.3 mas 4.243 0.002 ly (1.3009 0.0005 pc)
V

Proper motion () Parallax () Distance Absolutemagnitude(M )

15.49 Details

Mass Radius Luminosity (bolometric) Surface gravity (logg)

0.123 0.006M 0.141 0.007R 0.0017L

5.20 0.23cgs

Proxima Centauri

17
3,042 117K 0.21dex 83.5days 2.7 0.3km/s 4.85Gyr Other designations

Temperature Metallicity [Fe/H] Rotation Rotational velocity (vsini) Age

Alpha Centauri C, CCDMJ14396-6050C, GCTP3278.00, GJ551, HIP70890, LFT1110, LHS49, LPM526, LTT5721, NLTT37460, V645 Centauri Database references SIMBAD data
[3]

Proxima Centauri (Latin proxima, meaning "next to" or "nearest to") is a red dwarf about 4.24light-years from the Sun, inside the G-cloud, in the constellation of Centaurus. It was discovered in 1915 by Scottish astronomer Robert Innes, the Director of the Union Observatory in South Africa, and is the nearest known star to the Sun, although it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye (apparent magnitude 11.05). Its distance to the second- and third-nearest stars, which form the bright binary Alpha Centauri, is 0.2370.011ly (15,000700 AU). Proxima Centauri is very likely part of a triple star system with Alpha Centauri A and B. Because of the proximity of this star, its distance from the Sun and angular diameter can be measured directly, from which it can be determined that its diameter is about one-seventh of that of the Sun. Proxima Centauri's mass is about an eighth of the Sun's, and its average density is about 40 times that of the Sun. Although it has a very low average luminosity, Proxima is a flare star that undergoes random dramatic increases in brightness because of magnetic activity. The star's magnetic field is created by convection throughout the stellar body, and the resulting flare activity generates a total X-ray emission similar to that produced by the Sun. The mixing of the fuel at Proxima Centauri's core through convection and the star's relatively low energy-production rate suggest that it will be a main-sequence star for another four trillion years, or nearly 300 times the current age of the universe. Searches for companions orbiting Proxima Centauri have been unsuccessful, ruling out the presence of brown dwarfs and supermassive planets. Precision radial velocity surveys have also ruled out the presence of super-Earths within the star's habitable zone.[4] The detection of smaller objects will require the use of new instruments, such as the proposed James Webb Space Telescope. Because Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf and a flare star, whether a planet orbiting this star could support life is disputed. Nevertheless, because of the star's proximity to Earth, it has been proposed as a destination for interstellar travel.

Observation
In 1915, Scottish astronomer Robert Innes, Director of the Union Observatory in Johannesburg, South Africa, discovered a star that had the same proper motion as Alpha Centauri. He suggested it be named Proxima Centauri. In 1917, at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, the Dutch astronomer Joan Vote measured the star's trigonometric parallax at 0.755 0.028 and determined that Proxima Centauri was approximately the same distance from the Sun as Alpha Centauri. It was also found to be the lowest-luminosity star known at the time. An equally accurate parallax determination of Proxima Centauri was made by American astronomer Harold L. Alden in 1928, who confirmed Innes's view that this star is closer, with a parallax of 0.783 0.005. In 1951, American astronomer Harlow Shapley announced that Proxima Centauri is a flare star. Examination of past photographic records showed that the star displayed a measurable increase in magnitude on about 8% of the images, making it the most active flare star then known. The proximity of the star allows for detailed observation of its flare activity. In 1980, the Einstein Observatory produced a detailed X-ray energy curve of a stellar flare on Proxima

Proxima Centauri Centauri. Further observations of flare activity were made with the EXOSAT and ROSAT satellites, and the X-ray emissions of smaller, solar-like flares were observed by the Japanese ASCA satellite in 1995. Proxima Centauri has since been the subject of study by most X-ray observatories, including XMM-Newton and Chandra. Because of Proxima Centauri's southern declination, it can only be viewed south of latitude 27N.[5] Red dwarfs such as Proxima Centauri are far too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Even from Alpha Centauri A or B, Proxima would only be seen as a fifth magnitude star. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 11, so a telescope with an aperture of at least 8cm (3.1in.) is needed to observe this star even under ideal viewing conditionsunder clear, dark skies with Proxima Centauri well above the horizon.

18

Characteristics
Proxima Centauri is classified as a red dwarf because it belongs to the main sequence on the HertzsprungRussell diagram and is of spectral class M5.5. It is further classified as a "late M-dwarf star", meaning that at M5.5, it falls to the low-mass extreme of M-type stars. This star's absolute visual magnitude, or its visual magnitude as viewed from a distance of 10 parsecs, is 15.5. Its total luminosity over all wavelengths is 0.17% that of the Sun,[] although when observed in the wavelengths of visible light the eye is most sensitive to, it is only 0.0056% as luminous as the Sun.[6] More than 85% of its radiated power is at infrared wavelengths.[7]

This illustration shows the comparative sizes of (from left to right) the Sun, Centauri A, Centauri B, and Proxima Centauri

The two bright stars are (left) Alpha Centauri and (right) Beta Centauri. The faint red star in the center of the red circle is Proxima Centauri. Taken with Canon 85mm f/1.8 lens with 11 frames stacked, each frame exposed 30 seconds. In 2002, optical interferometry with the Very Large Telescope (VLTI) found that the angular diameter of Proxima Centauri was 1.020.08 milliarcsec. Because its distance is known, the actual diameter of Proxima Centauri can be

Proxima Centauri calculated to be about 1/7 that of the Sun, or 1.5 times that of Jupiter. The star's estimated mass is only 12.3% of a solar mass, or 129 Jupiter masses. The mean density of a main-sequence star increases with decreasing mass, and Proxima Centauri is no exception: it has a mean density of 56.8103kg/m3 (56.8g/cm3), compared with the Sun's mean density of 1.411103kg/m3 (1.411g/cm3).[] Because of its low mass, the interior of the star is completely convective, causing energy to be transferred to the exterior by the physical movement of plasma rather than through radiative processes. This convection means that the helium ash left over from the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen does not accumulate at the core, but is instead circulated throughout the star. Unlike the Sun, which will only burn through about 10% of its total hydrogen supply before leaving the main sequence, Proxima Centauri will consume nearly all of its fuel before the fusion of hydrogen comes to an end. Convection is associated with the generation and persistence of a magnetic field. The magnetic energy from this field is released at the surface through stellar flares that briefly increase the overall luminosity of the star. These flares can grow as large as the star and reach temperatures measured as high as 27million Khot enough to radiate X-rays. Indeed, the quiescent X-ray luminosity of this star, approximately (416)1026erg/s ((416)1019W), is roughly equal to that of the much larger Sun. The peak X-ray luminosity of the largest flares can reach 1028erg/s (1021 W.) The chromosphere of this star is active, and its spectrum displays a strong emission line of singly ionized magnesium at a wavelength of 280nm. About 88% of the surface of Proxima Centauri may be active, a percentage that is much higher than that of the Sun even at the peak of the solar cycle. Even during quiescent periods with few or no flares, this activity increases the corona temperature of Proxima Centauri to 3.5million K, compared to the 2million K of the Sun's corona. However, the overall activity level of this star is considered low compared to other M-class dwarfs, which is consistent with the star's estimated age of 4.85109years, since the activity level of a red dwarf is expected to steadily wane over billions of years as its stellar rotation rate decreases. The activity level also appears to vary with a period of roughly 442 days, which is shorter than the solar cycle of 11 years. Proxima Centauri has a relatively weak stellar wind, resulting in no more than 20% of the Sun's mass loss rate from the solar wind. Because the star is much smaller than the Sun, however, the mass loss per unit surface area from Proxima Centauri may be eight times that from the solar surface. A red dwarf with the mass of Proxima Centauri will remain on the main sequence for about four trillion years. As the proportion of helium increases because of hydrogen fusion, the star will become smaller and hotter, gradually transforming from red to blue. Near the end of this period it will become significantly more luminous, reaching 2.5% of the Sun's luminosity and warming up any orbiting bodies for a period of several billion years. Once the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, Proxima Centauri will then evolve into a white dwarf (without passing through the red giant phase) and steadily lose any remaining heat energy.

19

Distance and motion

Based on the parallax of 768.7 0.3 milliarcseconds, measured using the Hipparcos astrometry satellite, and more precisely with the Fine Guidance Sensors on the Hubble Space Telescope, Proxima Centauri is about 4.24 light years from the Sun, or 270,000 times more distant than the Earth is from the Sun. From Earth's vantage point, Proxima is separated by 2.18 from Alpha Centauri, or four times the angular diameter of the full Moon. Proxima also has a relatively large proper motionmoving 3.85 arcseconds per year across the sky. It has a radial velocity toward the Sun of 21.7km/s.[9]

Proxima Centauri

20

Among the known stars, Proxima Centauri has been the closest star to the Sun for about 32,000years and will be so for about another 33,000years, after which the closest star to the Sun will be Ross 248. In 2001, J. Garca-Snchez et al. predicted that Proxima will make its closest approach to the Sun, coming within 3.11light years of the latter, in approximately 26,700years. A 2010 study by V. V. Bobylev predicted a closest approach distance of 2.90ly in about 27,400years. Proxima Centauri is orbiting through the Milky Way at a distance from the Galactic Center that varies from 8.3 to 9.5kpc, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.07.

Distances of the nearest stars from 20,000 years ago until 80,000 years in the future. Proxima Centauri is in yellow

Ever since the discovery of Proxima it has been suspected to be a true companion of the Alpha Centauri binary star system. At a distance to Alpha Centauri of just 0.21ly (15,000700 astronomical units [AU]), Proxima Centauri may be in orbit around Alpha Centauri, with an orbital period of the order of 500,000years or more. For this reason, Proxima is sometimes referred to as Alpha Centauri C. Modern estimates, taking into account the small separation between and relative velocity of the stars, suggest that the chance of the observed alignment being a coincidence is roughly one in a million. Data from the Hipparcos satellite, combined with ground-based observations, is consistent with the hypothesis that the three stars are truly a bound system. If so, Proxima would currently be near apastron, the farthest point in its orbit from the Alpha Centauri system. Such a triple Proxima Cen-alpha Cen A/B system can form naturally through a low-mass star being dynamically captured by a more massive binary of 1.52 solar masses within their embedded star cluster before the cluster disperses. More accurate measurement of the radial velocity is needed to confirm this hypothesis. If Proxima was bound to the Alpha Centauri system during its formation, the stars would be likely to share the same elemental composition. The gravitational influence of Proxima may also have stirred up the Alpha Centauri protoplanetary disks. This would have increased the delivery of volatiles such as water to the dry inner regions. Any terrestrial planets in the system may have been enriched by this material. Six single stars, two binary star systems, and a triple star share a common motion through space with Proxima Centauri and the Alpha Centauri system. The space velocities of these stars are all within 10km/s of Alpha Centauri's peculiar motion. Thus, they may form a moving group of stars, which would indicate a common point of origin, such as in a star cluster. If it is determined that Proxima Centauri is not gravitationally bound to Alpha Centauri, then such a moving group would help explain their relatively close proximity. Though Proxima Centauri is the nearest bona fide star, it is still possible that one or more as-yet undetected sub-stellar brown dwarfs may lie closer.

Proxima Centauri

21

Possible companions RV-derived Upper Mass Limits of Companion

Orbital period (days) Separation Maximum (AU) Mass (Earth) 23 8.5 16

3.613.8 0.0220.054 <100 <1000 <0.21 <1

If a massive planet is orbiting Proxima Centauri, some displacement of the star would occur over the course of each orbit. If the orbital plane of the planet is not perpendicular to the line of sight from the Earth, then this displacement would cause periodic changes in the radial velocity of Proxima Centauri. The fact that multiple measurements of the star's radial velocity have detected no such shifts has lowered the maximum mass that a possible companion to Proxima Centauri could possess. The activity level of the star adds noise to the radial velocity measurements, limiting future prospects for detection of a companion using this method. In 1998, an examination of Proxima Centauri using the Faint Object Spectrograph on board the Hubble Space Telescope appeared to show evidence of a companion orbiting at a distance of about 0.5AU. However, a subsequent search using the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 failed to locate any companions. Proxima Centauri, along with Alpha Centauri A and B, was among the "Tier1" target stars for NASA's now-canceled Space Interferometry Mission (SIM), which would theoretically have been able to detect planets as small as three Earth-masses within two AU of a "Tier1" target star.

Habitable zone
The TV documentary Alien Worlds hypothesized that a life-sustaining planet could exist in orbit around Proxima Centauri or other red dwarfs. Such a planet would lie within the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri, about 0.0230.054AU from the star, and would have an orbital period of 3.614days. A planet orbiting within this zone will experience tidal locking to the star, so that Proxima Centauri moves little in the planet's sky, and most of the surface experiences either day or night perpetually. However, the presence of an atmosphere could serve to redistribute the energy from the star-lit side to the far side of

Artist's concept of a red dwarf

the planet. Proxima Centauri's flare outbursts could erode the atmosphere of any planet in its habitable zone, but the documentary's scientists thought that this obstacle could be overcome (see continued theories). Gibor Basri of the University of California, Berkeley, even mentioned that "no one [has] found any showstoppers to habitability." For example, one concern was that the torrents of charged particles from the star's flares could strip the atmosphere off any nearby planet. However, if the planet had a strong magnetic field, the field would deflect the particles from the atmosphere; even the slow rotation of a tidally locked dwarf planet that spins once for every time it orbits its star would be enough to generate a magnetic field, as long as part of the planet's interior remained molten. Other scientists, especially proponents of the Rare Earth hypothesis, disagree that red dwarfs can sustain life. The tide-locked rotation may result in a relatively weak planetary magnetic moment, leading to strong atmospheric erosion by coronal mass ejections from Proxima Centauri.

Proxima Centauri

22

Interstellar travel
Proxima Centauri has been suggested as a possible first destination for interstellar travel. The star is in motion toward Earth at a rate of 21.7km/s. owever, after 26,700 years, when it will come as close as 3.11 light-years, it will begin to move farther away. If non-nuclear propulsion were used, a voyage of a spacecraft to a planet orbiting Proxima Centauri would probably require thousands of years. For example, Voyager 1, which is now travelling 17.043km/s (38,120mph) relative to the Sun, would reach Proxima in 73,775 years, were the spacecraft traveling in the direction of that star. A The Sun as seen from the Alpha Centauri system, slow-moving probe would have only several tens of thousands of years using Celestia to catch Proxima Centauri near its closest approach, and could end up watching it recede into the distance. Nuclear pulse propulsion might enable such interstellar travel with a trip timescale of a century, beginning within the next century, inspiring several studies such as Project Orion, Project Daedalus, and Project Longshot. From Proxima Centauri, the Sun would appear as a bright 0.4-magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia.[8]

References
Explanatory notes
[1] http:/ / www. wikisky. org/ ?ra=14. 495263527778& de=-62. 679483611111& zoom=2& show_grid=1& show_constellation_lines=1& show_constellation_boundaries=1& show_const_names=1& show_galaxies=1& img_source=IMG_all [2] Proxima is pronounced . Centauri may be pronounced or . [3] http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=V645+ Cen [4] This is actually an upper limit on the quantity m sin i, where i is the angle between the orbit normal and the line of sight. If the planetary orbits are close to face-on as observed from Earth, more massive planets could have evaded detection by the radial velocity method. [5] For a star south of the zenith, the angle to the zenith is equal to the Latitude minus the Declination. The star is hidden from sight when the zenith angle is 90 or more, i.e. below the horizon. Thus, for Proxima Centauri:

Highest latitude = 90 + 62.68 = 27.32.

See: [6] See p. 8. [7] See p. 357. [8] The coordinates of the Sun would be diametrically opposite Proxima, at =, =. The absolute magnitude Mv of the Sun is 4.83, so at a parallax of 0.77199 the apparent magnitude m is given by 4.83 5(log10(0.77199) + 1) = 0.40. See:

Citations

External links
"Proxima Centauri: The Closest Star" (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020715.html). NASA. Astronomy Picture of the Day. 2002-07-15. Retrieved 2008-06-25. "Proxima Centauri: The Nearest Star to the Sun" (http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2004/proxima/). Chandra X-ray Observatory. Astronomy Picture of the Day. 2008-07-01. Retrieved 2008-07-01. James, Andrew (2008-03-11). "A Voyage to Alpha Centauri" (http://www.southastrodel.com/ PageAlphaCen006.htm). The Imperial Star - Alpha Centauri. Southern Astronomical Delights. Retrieved 2008-08-05. "Alpha Centauri 3" (http://www.solstation.com/stars/alp-cent3.htm). SolStation. Retrieved 2008-08-05. "O Sistema Alpha Centauri" (http://www.uranometrianova.pro.br/astronomia/AA002/alphacen.htm). Astronomia & Astrofsica (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2008-06-25.

Proxima Centauri Wikisky image (http://www.wikisky.org/?ra=14.495264&de=-62.67948000000001&zoom=8& show_grid=1&show_constellation_lines=1&show_constellation_boundaries=1&show_const_names=0& show_galaxies=1&show_box=1&box_ra=14.495264&box_de=-62.67948&box_width=50&box_height=50& img_source=DSS2) of Proxima Centauri

23

Binary star
A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common center of mass. The more massive star is called the primary and the other is its companion star, comes /komiz/, or secondary. Systems of two, three, four, or even more stars are called multiple star systems. These systems, especially when more distant, often appear to the unaided eye as a single point of light, and are then revealed as double (or more) by other means. Research over the last two centuries suggests that half or more of visible stars are part of multiple star systems.[1]

Artist's impression of the evolution of a hot high-mass binary star.

The term double star is often used synonymously with binary star; however, double star can also mean optical double star. Optical doubles are so called because the two stars appear close together in the sky as seen from the Earth; they are almost on the same line of sight. Nevertheless, their "doubleness" depends only on this Hubble image of the Sirius binary system, in optical effect; the stars themselves are which Sirius B can be clearly distinguished distant from one another and share no (lower left) physical connection. A double star can be revealed as optical by means of differences in their parallax measurements, proper motions, or radial velocities. Even so, in most cases of known double stars, it is not known whether they are optical doubles or they are doubles physically bound through gravitation into a multiple star system. Binary star systems are very important in astrophysics because calculations of their orbits allow the masses of their component stars to be directly determined, which in turn allows other stellar parameters, such as radius and density, to be indirectly estimated. This also determines an empirical mass-luminosity relationship (MLR) from which the masses of single stars can be estimated. Binary stars are often detected optically, in which case they are called visual binaries. Many visual binaries have long orbital periods of several centuries or millennia and therefore have orbits which are uncertain or poorly known.

Binary star They may also be detected by indirect techniques, such as spectroscopy (spectroscopic binaries) or astrometry (astrometric binaries). If a binary star happens to orbit in a plane along our line of sight, its components will eclipse and transit each other; these pairs are called eclipsing binaries, or, as they are detected by their changes in brightness during eclipses and transits, photometric binaries. If components in binary star systems are close enough they can gravitationally distort their mutual outer stellar atmospheres. In some cases, these close binary systems can exchange mass, which may bring their evolution to stages that single stars cannot attain. Examples of binaries are Sirius and Cygnus X-1 (Cygnus X-1 being a well known black hole). Binary stars are also common as the nuclei of many planetary nebulae, and are the progenitors of both novae and type Ia supernovae.

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Discovery
The term binary was first used in this context by Sir William Herschel in 1802, when he wrote: "If, on the contrary, two stars should really be situated very near each other, and at the same time so far insulated as not to be materially affected by the attractions of neighbouring stars, they will then compose a separate system, and remain united by the bond of their own mutual gravitation towards each other. This should be called a real double star; and any two stars that are thus mutually connected, form the binary sidereal system which we are now to consider." By the modern definition, the term binary star is generally restricted to pairs of stars which revolve around a common centre of mass. Binary stars which can be resolved with a telescope or interferometric methods are known as visual binaries. For most of the known visual binary stars one whole revolution has not been observed yet, they are observed to have travelled along a curved path or a partial arc. The more general term double star is used for pairs of stars which are seen to be close together in the sky.[] This distinction is rarely made in languages other than English. Double stars may be binary systems or may be merely two stars that appear to be close together in the sky but have vastly different true distances from the Sun. The latter are termed optical doubles or optical pairs.

This figure shows a system with two stars

Since the invention of the telescope, many pairs of double stars have been found. Early examples include Mizar and Acrux. Mizar, in the Big Dipper (Ursa Major), was observed to be double by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1650[2][3] (and probably earlier by Benedetto Castelli and Galileo).[4] The bright southern star Acrux, in the Southern Cross, was discovered to be double by Father Fontenay in 1685. John Michell was the first to suggest that double stars might be physically attached to each other when he argued in 1767 that the probability that a double star was due to a chance alignment was small.[5][6] William Herschel began observing double stars in 1779 and soon thereafter published catalogs of about 700 double stars. By 1803, he had observed changes in the relative positions in a number of double stars over the course of 25 years, and concluded that they must be binary systems;[7] the first orbit of a binary star, however, was not computed until 1827, when Flix Savary computed the orbit of Xi Ursae Majoris.[8] Since this time, many more double stars have been catalogued and measured. The Washington Double Star Catalog, a database of visual double stars compiled by the United States Naval Observatory, contains over 100,000 pairs of double stars,[9] including optical doubles as well as binary stars. Orbits are known for only a few thousand of these double stars,[10] and most have not been ascertained to be either true binaries or optical double stars.[11] This can be determined by observing the relative motion of the pairs. If the motion is part of an orbit, or if the stars have similar radial velocities and the difference in their proper motions is small compared to their common proper motion, the pair is probably physical. One of the tasks that remains for visual observers of double stars is to obtain sufficient observations to prove or disprove gravitational connection.

Binary star

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Classifications
Methods of observation
Binary stars are classified into four types according to the way in which they are observed: visually, by observation; spectroscopically, by periodic changes in spectral lines; photometrically, by changes in brightness caused by an eclipse; or astrometrically, by measuring a deviation in a star's position caused by an unseen companion. Any binary star can belong to several of these classes; for example, several spectroscopic binaries are also eclipsing binaries. Visual binaries A visual binary star is a binary star for which the angular separation between the two components is great enough to permit them to be observed as a double star in a telescope, or even high-powered binoculars. The angular resolution of the telescope is an important factor in the detection of visual binaries, and as better angular resolutions are applied to binary star observations increasing number of visual binaries will be detected. The relative brightness of the two stars is also an important factor, as glare from a bright star may make it difficult to detect the presence of a fainter component. The brighter star of a visual binary is the primary star, and the dimmer is considered the secondary. In some publications (especially older ones), a faint secondary is called the comes (plural comites; companion). If the stars are the same brightness, the discoverer designation for the primary is customarily accepted.[12] The position angle of the secondary with respect to the primary is measured, together with the angular distance between the two stars. The time of observation is also recorded. After a sufficient number of observations are recorded over a period of time, they are plotted in polar coordinates with the primary star at the origin, and the most probable ellipse is drawn through these points such that the Keplerian law of areas is satisfied. This ellipse is known as the apparent ellipse, and is the projection of the actual elliptical orbit of the secondary with respect to the primary on the plane of the sky. From this projected ellipse the complete elements of the orbit may be computed, where the semi-major axis can only be expressed in angular units unless the stellar parallax, and hence the distance, of the system is known. Spectroscopic binaries Sometimes, the only evidence of a binary star comes from the Doppler effect on its emitted light. In these cases, the binary consists of a pair of stars where the spectral lines in the light emitted from each star shifts first toward the blue, then toward the red, as each moves first toward us, and then away from us, during its motion about their common center of mass, with the period of their common orbit. In these systems, the separation between the stars is usually very small, and the orbital velocity very high. Unless the plane of the orbit happens to be perpendicular to the line of sight, the orbital velocities will have components in the line of sight and the observed radial velocity of the system will vary periodically. Since radial velocity can be measured with a spectrometer by observing the Doppler shift of the stars' spectral lines, the binaries detected in this manner are known as spectroscopic binaries. Most of these cannot be resolved as a visual binary, even with telescopes of the highest existing resolving power. In some spectroscopic binaries, spectral lines from both stars are visible and the lines are alternately double and single. Such a system is known as a double-lined spectroscopic binary (often denoted "SB2"). In other systems, the spectrum of only one of the stars is seen and the lines in the spectrum shift periodically towards the blue, then towards red and back again. Such stars are known as single-lined spectroscopic binaries ("SB1"). The orbit of a spectroscopic binary is determined by making a long series of observations of the radial velocity of one or both components of the system. The observations are plotted against time, and from the resulting curve a period is determined. If the orbit is circular then the curve will be a sine curve. If the orbit is elliptical, the shape of the curve will depend on the eccentricity of the ellipse and the orientation of the major axis with reference to the line

Binary star of sight. It is impossible to determine individually the semi-major axis a and the inclination of the orbit plane i. However, the product of the semi-major axis and the sine of the inclination (i.e. a sin i) may be determined directly in linear units (e.g. kilometres). If either a or i can be determined by other means, as in the case of eclipsing binaries, a complete solution for the orbit can be found. Binary stars that are both visual and spectroscopic binaries are rare, and are a precious source of valuable information when found. Visual binary stars often have large true separations, with periods measured in decades to centuries; consequently, they usually have orbital speeds too small to be measured spectroscopically. Conversely, spectroscopic binary stars move fast in their orbits because they are close together, usually too close to be detected as visual binaries. Binaries that are both visual and spectroscopic thus must be relatively close to Earth. Eclipsing binaries An eclipsing binary star is a binary star in which the orbit plane of the two stars lies so nearly in the line of sight of the observer that the components undergo mutual eclipses. In the case where the binary is also a spectroscopic binary and the parallax of the system is known, the binary is quite valuable for stellar analysis. Algol is the best-known example of an eclipsing binary. In the last decade, measurement of extragalactic eclipsing binaries' fundamental parameters has become possible with 8 meter class telescopes. This makes it feasible to use them to directly measure the distances to external galaxies, a process that is more accurate than using standard candles. Recently, they have been used to give direct distance estimates to the LMC, SMC, Andromeda Galaxy and Triangulum Galaxy. Eclipsing binaries offer a direct method to gauge the distance to galaxies to a new improved 5% level of accuracy.

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Algol B orbits Algol A. This animation was assembled from 55 images of the CHARA interferometer in the near-infrared H-band, sorted according to orbital phase.

Eclipsing binaries are variable stars, not because the light of the individual components vary but because of the eclipses. The light curve of an eclipsing binary is characterized by periods of practically constant light, with periodic drops in intensity. If one of the stars is larger than the other, one will be obscured by a total eclipse while the other will be obscured by an annular eclipse. The period of the orbit of an eclipsing binary may be determined from a study of the light curve, and the relative sizes of the individual stars can be determined in terms of the radius of the orbit by observing how quickly the brightness changes as the disc of the near star slides over the disc of the distant star. If it is also a spectroscopic binary the orbital elements can also be determined, and the mass of the stars can be determined relatively easily, which means that the relative densities of the stars can be determined in this case. Astrometric binaries Astronomers have discovered some stars that seemingly orbit around an empty space. Astrometric binaries are relatively nearby stars which can be seen to wobble around a point in space, with no visible companion. The same mathematics used for ordinary binaries can be applied to infer the mass of the missing companion. The companion could be very dim, so that it is currently undetectable or masked by the glare of its primary, or it could be an object that emits little or no electromagnetic radiation, for example a neutron star. The visible star's position is carefully measured and detected to vary, due to the gravitational influence from its counterpart. The position of the star is repeatedly measured relative to more distant stars, and then checked for periodic shifts in position. Typically this type of measurement can only be performed on nearby stars, such as those

Binary star within 10 parsecs. Nearby stars often have a relatively high proper motion, so astrometric binaries will appear to follow a wobbly path across the sky. If the companion is sufficiently massive to cause an observable shift in position of the star, then its presence can be deduced. From precise astrometric measurements of the movement of the visible star over a sufficiently long period of time, information about the mass of the companion and its orbital period can be determined. Even though the companion is not visible, the characteristics of the system can be determined from the observations using Kepler's laws. This method of detecting binaries is also used to locate extrasolar planets orbiting a star. However, the requirements to perform this measurement are very exacting, due to the great difference in the mass ratio, and the typically long period of the planet's orbit. Detection of position shifts of a star is a very exacting science, and it is difficult to achieve the necessary precision. Space telescopes can avoid the blurring effect of the Earth's atmosphere, resulting in more precise resolution.

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Configuration of the system

Another classification is based on the distance of the stars, relative to their sizes: Detached binaries are binary stars where each component is within its Roche lobe, i.e. the area where the gravitational pull of the star itself is larger than that of the other component. The stars have no major effect on each other, and essentially evolve separately. Most binaries belong to this class. Semidetached binary stars are binary stars where one of the Artist's conception of a cataclysmic variable system components fills the binary star's Roche lobe and the other does not. Gas from the surface of the Roche-lobe-filling component (donor) is transferred to the other, accreting star. The mass transfer dominates the evolution of the system. In many cases, the inflowing gas forms an accretion disc around the accretor. A contact binary is a type of binary star in which both components of the binary fill their Roche lobes. The uppermost part of the stellar atmospheres forms a common envelope that surrounds both stars. As the friction of the envelope brakes the orbital motion, the stars may eventually merge.

Cataclysmic variables and X-ray binaries

When a binary system contains a compact object such as a white dwarf, neutron star or black hole, gas from the other (donor) star can accrete onto the compact object. This releases gravitational potential energy, causing the gas to become hotter and emit radiation. Cataclysmic variable stars, where the compact object is a white dwarf, are examples of such systems. In X-ray binaries, the compact object can be either a neutron star or a black hole. These binaries are classified as low-mass or high-mass according to the mass of the donor star. High-mass X-ray binaries contain a young, early type, high-mass donor star which transfers mass by its stellar wind, while low-mass X-ray binaries are semidetached binaries in which gas from a late-type donor star overflows the Roche lobe and falls towards the neutron star or black hole.[13] Probably the best known example of an X-ray binary at present is the high-mass X-ray binary Cygnus X-1. In Cygnus X-1, the mass of the unseen companion is believed to be about nine times that of our sun, far exceeding the TolmanOppenheimerVolkoff limit for the maximum theoretical mass of a neutron star. It is therefore believed to be a black hole; it was the first object for which this was widely believed.[14]

Binary star

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Orbital period
Orbital periods can be less than an hour (for AM CVn stars), or a few days (components of Beta Lyrae), but also hundreds of thousands of years (Proxima Centauri around Alpha Centauri AB).

Designations
A and B
The components of binary stars are denoted by the suffixes A and B appended to the system's designation, A denoting the primary and B the secondary. The suffix AB may be used to denote the pair (for example, the binary star Centauri AB consists of the stars Centauri A and Centauri B.) Additional letters, such as C, D, etc., may be used for systems with more than two stars. In cases where the binary star has a Bayer designation and is widely separated, it is possible that the members of the pair will be designated with superscripts; an example is Zeta Reticuli, whose components are 1 Reticuli and 2 Reticuli.

Discoverer designations
Double stars are also designated by an abbreviation giving the discoverer together with an index number.[15] Centauri, for example, was found to be double by Father Richaud in 1689, and so is designated RHD 1.[16] These discoverer codes can be found in the Washington Double Star Catalog.[17]

Hot and cold

The components of a binary star system may be designated by their relative temperatures as the hot companion and cool companion. Examples: Antares (Alpha Scorpii) is a red supergiant star in a binary system with a hotter blue main sequence star Antares B. Antares B can therefore be termed a hot companion of the cool supergiant.[18] Symbiotic stars are binary star systems composed of a late-type giant star and a hotter companion object. Since the nature of the companion is not well-established in all cases, it may be termed a "hot companion". The luminous blue variable Eta Carinae has recently been determined to be a binary star system. The secondary appears to have a higher temperature than the primary and has therefore been described as being the "hot companion" star. It may be a WolfRayet star. R Aquarii shows a spectrum which simultaneously displays both a cool and hot signature. This combination is the result of a cool red supergiant accompanied by a smaller, hotter companion. Matter flows from the supergiant to the smaller, denser companion. NASA's Kepler mission has discovered examples of eclipsing binary stars where the secondary is the hotter component. KOI-74b is a 12,000K white dwarf companion of KOI-74 (KIC6889235 [19]), a 9,400K early A-type main sequence star. KOI-81b is a 13,000K white dwarf companion of KOI-81 (KIC8823868 [20]), a 10,000K late B-type main sequence star.

Evolution
Formation
While it is not impossible that some binaries might be created through gravitational capture between two single stars, given the very low likelihood of such an event (three objects are actually required, as conservation of energy rules out a single gravitating body capturing another) and the high number of binaries, this cannot be the primary formation process. Also, the observation of binaries consisting of pre main sequence stars, supports the theory that

Binary star binaries are already formed during star formation. Fragmentation of the molecular cloud during the formation of protostars is an acceptable explanation for the formation of a binary or multiple star system. The outcome of the three-body problem, where the three stars are of comparable mass, is that eventually one of the three stars will be ejected from the system and, assuming no significant further perturbations, the remaining two will form a stable binary system.

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Mass transfer and accretion

As a main-sequence star increases in size during its evolution, it may at some point exceed its Roche lobe, meaning that some of its matter ventures into a region where the gravitational pull of its companion star is larger than its own. The result is that matter will transfer from one star to another through a process known as Roche Lobe overflow (RLOF), either being absorbed by direct impact or through an accretion disc. The mathematical point through which this transfer happens is called the first Lagrangian point.[21] It is not uncommon that the accretion disc is the brightest (and thus sometimes the only visible) element of a binary star. If a star grows outside of its Roche lobe too fast for all abundant matter to be transferred to the other component, it is also possible that matter will leave the system through other Lagrange points or as stellar wind, thus being effectively lost to both components.[22] Since the evolution of a star is determined by its mass, the process influences the evolution of both companions, and creates stages that cannot be attained by single stars. Studies of the eclipsing ternary Algol led to the Algol paradox in the theory of stellar evolution: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones, it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the main sequence, while the less massive Algol B is a subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by mass transfer: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its Roche lobe, and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can actually be seen.

Runaways and novae

It is also possible for widely separated binaries to lose gravitational contact with each other during their lifetime, as a result of external perturbations. The components will then move on to evolve as single stars. A close encounter between two binary systems can also result in the gravitational disruption of both systems, with some of the stars being ejected at high velocities, leading to runaway stars. If a white dwarf has a close companion star that overflows its Roche lobe, the white dwarf will steadily accrete gases from the star's outer atmosphere. These are compacted on the white dwarf's surface by its intense gravity, compressed and heated to very high temperatures as additional material is drawn in. The white dwarf consists of degenerate matter, and so is largely unresponsive to heat, while the accreted hydrogen is not. Hydrogen fusion can occur in a stable manner on the surface through the CNO cycle, causing the enormous amount of energy liberated by this process to blow the remaining gases away from the white dwarf's surface. The result is an extremely bright outburst of light, known as a nova. In extreme cases this event can cause the white dwarf to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit and trigger a supernova that destroys the entire star, and is another possible cause for runaways. An example of such an event is the supernova SN 1572, which was observed by Tycho Brahe. The Hubble Space Telescope recently took a picture of the remnants of this event.

Binary star

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Astrophysics
Binaries provide the best method for astronomers to determine the mass of a distant star. The gravitational pull between them causes them to orbit around their common center of mass. From the orbital pattern of a visual binary, or the time variation of the spectrum of a spectroscopic binary, the mass of its stars can be determined. In this way, the relation between a star's appearance (temperature and radius) and its mass can be found, which allows for the determination of the mass of non-binaries.

A simulated example of a binary star, where two bodies with similar mass orbit around a common barycenter in elliptic orbits

Because a large proportion of stars exist in binary systems, binaries are particularly important to our understanding of the processes by which stars form. In particular, the period and masses of the binary tell us about the amount of angular momentum in the system. Because this is a conserved quantity in physics, binaries give us important clues about the conditions under which the stars were formed.

Calculating the center of mass in binary stars

In a simple binary case, r1, the distance from the center of the first star to the center of mass, is given by:

where: a is the distance between the two stellar centers and m1 and m2 are the masses of the two stars. If a is taken to be the semi-major axis of the orbit of one body around the other, then r1 will be the semimajor axis of the first body's orbit around the center of mass or barycenter, and r2 = a r1 will be the semimajor axis of the second body's orbit. When the center of mass is located within the more massive body, that body will appear to wobble rather than following a discernible orbit.

Center of mass animations

Images are representative, not simulated. The position of the red cross indicates the center of mass of the system.

(a.) Two bodies of similar mass orbiting around a common center of mass, or barycenter.

(b.) Two bodies with a difference in mass (c.) Two bodies with a major difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter, like the orbiting around a common barycenter (similar to Charon-Pluto system the EarthMoon system)

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(d.) Two bodies with an extreme difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter (similar to the SunEarth system) (e.) Two bodies with similar mass orbiting in an ellipse around a common barycenter.

Research findings
It is estimated that approximately 1/3 of the star systems in the Milky Way are binary or multiple, with the remaining 2/3 consisting of single stars.[23] There is a direct correlation between the period of revolution of a binary star and the eccentricity of its orbit, with systems of short period having smaller eccentricity. Binary stars may be found with any conceivable separation, from pairs orbiting so closely that they are practically in contact with each other, to pairs so distantly separated that their connection is indicated only by their common proper motion through space. Among gravitationally bound binary star systems, there exists a so-called log normal distribution of periods, with the majority of these systems orbiting with a period of about 100 years. This is supporting evidence for the theory that binary systems are formed during star formation. In pairs where the two stars are of equal brightness, they are also of the same spectral type. In systems where the brightnesses are different, the fainter star is bluer if the brighter star is a giant star, and redder if the brighter star belongs to the main sequence. The mass of a star can be directly determined only from its gravitational attraction. Apart from the Sun and stars which act as gravitational lenses, this can be done only in binary and multiple star systems, making the binary stars an important class of stars. In the case of a visual binary star, after the orbit and the stellar parallax of the system has been determined, the combined mass of the two stars may be obtained by a direct application of the Keplerian harmonic law. Unfortunately, it is impossible to obtain the complete orbit of a spectroscopic binary unless it is also a visual or an eclipsing binary, so Artist's impression of the sight from a from these objects only a determination of the joint product of mass (hypothetical) moon of planet HD 188753 Ab (upper left), which orbits a triple star system. The and the sine of the angle of inclination relative to the line of sight is brightest companion is just below the horizon. possible. In the case of eclipsing binaries which are also spectroscopic binaries, it is possible to find a complete solution for the specifications (mass, density, size, luminosity, and approximate shape) of both members of the system. Planets Science fiction has often featured planets of binary or ternary stars as a setting, for example George Lucas' Tatooine from Star Wars, Greg Farshtey's Spherus Magna from Bionicle, and one notable story, "Nightfall", even takes this to a six-star system. In reality, some orbital ranges are impossible for dynamical reasons (the planet would be expelled from its orbit relatively quickly, being either ejected from the system altogether or transferred to a more inner or outer orbital range), whilst other orbits present serious challenges for eventual biospheres because of likely extreme

Binary star variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. Planets that orbit just one star in a binary pair are said to have "S-type" orbits, whereas those that orbit around both stars have "P-type" or "circumbinary" orbits. It is estimated that 5060% of binary stars are capable of supporting habitable terrestrial planets within stable orbital ranges. Simulations have shown that the presence of a binary companion can actually improve the rate of planet formation within stable orbital zones by "stirring up" the protoplanetary disk, increasing the accretion rate of the protoplanets within. Detecting planets in multiple star systems introduces additional technical difficulties, which may be why they are only rarely found. Examples include the white dwarf-pulsar binary PSR B1620-26, the subgiant-red dwarf binary Gamma Cephei, and the white dwarf-red dwarf binary NN Serpentis. More planets around binaries are listed in: [Muterspaugh; Lane; Kulkarni; Maciej Konacki; Burke; Colavita; Shao; Hartkopf et al. (2010). "The PHASES Differential Astrometry Data Archive. V. Candidate Substellar Companions to Binary Systems". arXiv:1010.4048 [24] [astro-ph.SR [25]].]. A study of fourteen previously known planetary systems found three of these systems to be binary systems. All planets were found to be in S-type orbits around the primary star. In these three cases the secondary star was much dimmer than the primary and so was not previously detected. This discovery resulted in a recalculation of parameters for both the planet and the primary star.

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Examples
The large distance between the components, as well as their difference in color, make Albireo one of the easiest observable visual binaries. The brightest member, which is the third brightest star in the constellation Cygnus, is actually a close binary itself. Also in the Cygnus constellation is Cygnus X-1, an X-ray source considered to be a black hole. It is a high-mass X-ray binary, with the optical counterpart being a variable star.[26] Sirius is another binary and the brightest star in the night time sky, with a visual apparent magnitude of 1.46. It is located in the constellation Canis Major. In 1844 Friedrich Bessel deduced that Sirius was a binary. In 1862 Alvan Graham Clark discovered the companion (Sirius B; the visible star is Sirius A). In 1915 astronomers at the Mount Wilson Observatory determined that Sirius B was a white dwarf, the first to be discovered. In 2005, using the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers determined Sirius B to be 12,000km (7,456mi) in diameter, with a mass that is 98% of the Sun.

The two visibly distinguishable components of Albireo

An example of an eclipsing binary is Epsilon Aurigae in the constellation Auriga. The visible component belongs to the spectral class F0, the other (eclipsing) component is not visible. The last such eclipse occurred from 20092011, and it is hoped that the extensive observations that will likely be carried out may yield further insights into the nature of this system. Another eclipsing binary is Beta Lyrae, which is a semi-detached binary star system in the constellation of Lyra. Other interesting binaries include 61 Cygni (a binary in the constellation Cygnus, composed of two K class (orange) main sequence stars, 61 Cygni A and 61 Cygni B, which is known for its large proper motion), Procyon (the brightest star in the constellation Canis Minor and the eighth brightest star in the night time sky, which is a binary consisting of the main star with a faint white dwarf companion), SS Lacertae (an eclipsing binary which stopped eclipsing), V907 Sco (an eclipsing binary which stopped, restarted, then stopped again) and BG Geminorum (an eclipsing binary which is thought to contain a black hole with a K0 star in orbit around it).

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Multiple star examples

Systems with more than two stars are termed multiple stars. Algol is the most noted ternary (long thought to be a binary), located in the constellation Perseus. Two components of the system eclipse each other, the variation in the intensity of Algol first being recorded in 1670 by Geminiano Montanari. The name Algol means "demon star" (from Arabic: al-ghl), which was probably given due to its peculiar behavior. Another visible ternary is Alpha Centauri, in the southern constellation of Centaurus, which contains the fourth brightest star in the night sky, with an apparent visual magnitude of 0.01. This system also underscores the fact that binaries need not be discounted in the search for habitable planets. Alpha Centauri A and B have an 11AU distance at closest approach, and both should have stable habitable zones. There are also examples of systems beyond ternaries: Castor is a sextuple star system, which is the second brightest star in the constellation Gemini and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. Astronomically, Castor was discovered to be a visual binary in 1719. Each of the components of Castor is itself a spectroscopic binary. Castor also has a faint and widely separated companion, which is also a spectroscopic binary. The AlcorMizar visual binary in Ursa Majoris also consists of six stars, four comprising Mizar and two comprising Alcor.

Notes and references

[1] Filippenko, Alex, Understanding the Universe (of The Great Courses on DVD), Lecture 46, time 1:17, The Teaching Company, Chantilly, VA, USA, 2007 [2] The Binary Stars, Robert Grant Aitken, New York: Dover, 1964, p. 1. [3] Vol. 1, part 1, p. 422, Almagestum Novum (http:/ / leo. astronomy. cz/ mizar/ riccioli. htm), Giovanni Battista Riccioli, Bononiae: Ex typographia haeredis Victorij Benatij, 1651. [4] A New View of Mizar (http:/ / leo. astronomy. cz/ mizar/ article. htm), Leos Ondra, accessed on line May 26, 2007. [5] pp. 1011, Observing and Measuring Double Stars, Bob Argyle, ed., London: Springer, 2004, ISBN 1-85233-558-0. [6] pp. 249250, An Inquiry into the Probable Parallax, and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars, from the Quantity of Light Which They Afford us, and the Particular Circumstances of Their Situation (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 105952), John Michell,Philosophical Transactions (16831775) 57 (1767), pp. 234264. [7] Account of the Changes That Have Happened, during the Last Twenty-Five Years, in the Relative Situation of Double-Stars; With an Investigation of the Cause to Which They Are Owing (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 107080), William Herschel, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 93 (1803), pp. 339382. [8] p. 291, French astronomers, visual double stars and the double stars working group of the Socit Astronomique de France, E. Souli, The Third Pacific Rim Conference on Recent Development of Binary Star Research, proceedings of a conference sponsored by Chiang Mai University, Thai Astronomical Society and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, 26 October-1 November 1995, ASP Conference Series 130 (1997), ed. Kam-Ching Leung, pp. 291294, . [9] "Introduction and Growth of the WDS", The Washington Double Star Catalog (http:/ / ad. usno. navy. mil/ wds/ wdstext. html#intro), Brian D. Mason, Gary L. Wycoff, and William I. Hartkopf, Astrometry Department, United States Naval Observatory, accessed on line August 20, 2008. [10] Sixth Catalog of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars (http:/ / ad. usno. navy. mil/ wds/ orb6. html), William I. Hartkopf and Brian D. Mason, United States Naval Observatory, accessed on line August 20, 2008. [11] The Washington Double Star Catalog (http:/ / ad. usno. navy. mil/ wds/ ), Brian D. Mason, Gary L. Wycoff, and William I. Hartkopf, United States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line December 20, 2008. [12] The Binary Stars, Robert Grant Aitken, New York: Dover, 1964, p. 41. [13] Neutron Star X-ray binaries (http:/ / www. mporzio. astro. it/ ~gianluca/ phdthesis/ node11. html), A Systematic Search of New X-ray Pulsators in ROSAT Fields, Gian Luca Israel, Ph. D. thesis, Trieste, October 1996. [14] Black Holes (http:/ / imagine. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ science/ know_l2/ black_holes. html), Imagine the Universe!, NASA. Accessed on line August 22, 2008. [15] pp. 307308, Observing and Measuring Double Stars, Bob Argyle, ed., London: Springer, 2004, ISBN 1-85233-558-0. [16] Entry 14396-6050, discoverer code RHD 1AB, The Washington Double Star Catalog (http:/ / ad. usno. navy. mil/ wds/ Webtextfiles/ wdsnewframe3. html), United States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line August 20, 2008. [17] References and discoverer codes, The Washington Double Star Catalog (http:/ / ad. usno. navy. mil/ wds/ Webtextfiles/ wdsnewframe. html), United States Naval Observatory. Accessed on line August 20, 2008. [18] (http:/ / simbad. u-strasbg. fr/ simbad/ sim-id?Ident=* alf Sco B) see essential notes: "Hot companion to Antares at 2.9arcsec; estimated period: 678yr." [19] http:/ / archive. stsci. edu/ kepler/ kic10/ search. php?kic_kepler_id=6889235& action=Search [20] http:/ / archive. stsci. edu/ kepler/ kic10/ search. php?kic_kepler_id=8823868& action=Search

Binary star
[21] " Contact Binary Star Envelopes (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ ContactBinaryStarEnvelopes/ )" by Jeff Bryant, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. [22] " Mass Transfer in Binary Star Systems (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ MassTransferInBinaryStarSystems/ )" by Jeff Bryant with Waylena McCully, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. [23] Most Milky Way Stars Are Single (http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ press/ pr0611. html), Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics [24] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 1010. 4048 [25] http:/ / arxiv. org/ archive/ astro-ph. SR [26] See sources at Cygnus X-1

34

External links
The Double Star Library (http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/dsl.html), at the U.S. Naval Observatory ianridpath.com: List of the best visual binaries (http://www.ianridpath.com/binaries.htm), for amateurs, with orbital elements Pictures of binaries at Hubblesite.org (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/category/ star/multiple star systems/) Chandra X-ray Observatory (http://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/binary_stars.html) Binary Stars (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Stars/Binary_Stars) at DMOZ An extensive simulation for the Algol system by North Carolina State University (http://wonka.physics.ncsu. edu/Astro/Research/Algol/) Selected visual double stars and their relative position as a function of time (http://astroclub.tau.ac.il/ephem/ VisualDoubleStars/) Artistic representations of binary stars by Mark A. Garlick (http://www.space-art.co.uk/gallery. php?gallery=Stars2) Orbits and Velocity Curves of Spectroscopic Binaries, J. Miller Barr (1908) (http://www.datasync.com/~rsf1/ barr1908.htm) Eclipsing Binaries in the 21st CenturyOpportunities for Amateur Astronomers (http://www.aavso.org/ ejaavso401467)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Alpha Centauri Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=603290000 Contributors: 68Kustom, AKYF, ALK, Aarghdvaark, Abtract, Acalamari, Acoma Magic, Adam78, AdultSwim, Aecis, Ajstov, Ajuk, Aldaron, Aldebaran66, Alexander Mikhalenko, Alexikoua, Alexwcovington, Alfakim, Alfio, Algebraist, All Is One, AlphaZelda, Alvaro, Andycjp, Aqwis, Aranel, Arctic Kangaroo, Argo Navis, Arianewiki1, Ariochiv, Armetrek, Arsia Mons, Arthena, Artman40, Ashley Pomeroy, Ashmoo, Asiaticus, AssegaiAli, Astrobiologist, Ataleh, Attilios, B.d.mills, B00P, BRW, Babbage, Bad Astronomer, BartBenjamin, Basalisk, Baseball437, Bay Flam, Bazonka, Bellerophon5685, Ben Arnold, Benbest, Bender235, Benhocking, Bgwhite, Bilconixon, Blart Versenwald III, Bluecollarchessplayer, Bob A, Bob rulz, Bongwarrior, Brockert, Bronger, Brother Officer, Bryan Derksen, Burningdwarf, C17GMaster, Cadiomals, Calvin 1998, CambridgeBayWeather, Casliber, Catolishis, Catskul, Changeup, Chaos syndrome, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Alpha centauri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alpha_centauri.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ESO File:Position Alpha Cen.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Position_Alpha_Cen.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zwergelstern File:Mobile diagram of Alpha Centauri system.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mobile_diagram_of_Alpha_Centauri_system.png License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: EvenGreenerFish File:Artists impression of the planet around Alpha Centauri B (Annotated).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Artists_impression_of_the_planet_around_Alpha_Centauri_B_(Annotated).jpg License: unknown Contributors: Denniss, Hekerui, IgniX, Quantanew, Stas1995, 2 anonymous edits File:The bright star Alpha Centauri and its surroundings.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_bright_star_Alpha_Centauri_and_its_surroundings.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Courcelles, JorisvS, Stas1995 File:Alpha Centauri relative sizes.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alpha_Centauri_relative_sizes.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Original MetaPost program by David Benbennick Program rendered as SVG by Qef File:Alpha Centauri AB over limb of Saturn PIA10406.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alpha_Centauri_AB_over_limb_of_Saturn_PIA10406.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute Original uploader was Kwamikagami at en.wikipedia File:Alpha, Beta and Proxima Centauri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alpha,_Beta_and_Proxima_Centauri.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Skatebiker File:Orbit Alpha Centauri AB arcsec.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit_Alpha_Centauri_AB_arcsec.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: SiriusB Image:Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: DynV, Juiced lemon, Maksim, Ranveig, File:Sol View from AlpCenA.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sol_View_from_AlpCenA.png License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Calle Cool, Ckatz, Dandaman32, DynV, LERK, Misza13, Paddu, RandyKaelber, 2 anonymous edits File:Sky-from-alpha-centauri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sky-from-alpha-centauri.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Skatebiker File:Planet-alphacen1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Planet-alphacen1.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: The plague File:Near-stars-past-future-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Near-stars-past-future-en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:FrancescoA File:Celestia.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Celestia.png License: GNU General Public License Contributors: 555, Bourrichon, Cody escadron delta, ComputerHotline, CyberSkull, Czeror, Gildemax, Go for it!, Nnemo, Rocket000, Rursus, Tony Wills, XBrain130 File:New shot of Proxima Centauri, our nearest neighbour.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_shot_of_Proxima_Centauri,_our_nearest_neighbour.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Jmencisom, Stas1995 file:Alpha centauri size.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alpha_centauri_size.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: RJHall file:Alpha, Beta and Proxima Centauri.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alpha,_Beta_and_Proxima_Centauri.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Skatebiker File:RedDwarfNASA-hue-shifted.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RedDwarfNASA-hue-shifted.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:RedDwarfNASA.jpg: NASA/Walt FeimerDerivative: Original uploader was Klamasa at en.wikipedia File:Sol View from AlpCenA1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sol_View_from_AlpCenA1.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: FrancescoA File:Artist's impression of the evolution of a hot high-mass binary star.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Artist's_impression_of_the_evolution_of_a_hot_high-mass_binary_star.ogv License: unknown Contributors: ESO/L. Calada/M. Kornmesser/S.E. de Mink Image:Sirius A and B Hubble photo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: NASA, ESA, H. Bond (STScI), and M. Barstow (University of Leicester) File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vectorized by , based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber Image:Gwiazda podwjna zamieniowa schemat.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gwiazda_podwjna_zamieniowa_schemat.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: MesserWoland File:Algol AB movie imaged with the CHARA interferometer - labeled.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Algol_AB_movie_imaged_with_the_CHARA_interferometer_-_labeled.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Stigmatella aurantiaca Image:Accretion Disk Binary System.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Accretion_Disk_Binary_System.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 84user, Ilmari Karonen, 3 anonymous edits Image:orbit5.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit5.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zhatt Image:orbit1.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit1.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zhatt Image:orbit2.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit2.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zhatt Image:orbit3.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit3.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zhatt Image:orbit4.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit4.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zhatt Image:Triple-star sunset.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Triple-star_sunset.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech Original uploader was SnoopY at en.wikipedia Image:Albireo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Albireo.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: ComputerHotline, Dbenbenn, Maxim Razin

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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/