Heat and Mass Transfer.

(me1351)
1. Define thermal conductivity of a material?
The amount of energy conducted through a body of unit area and
unit thickness in unit time when the difference in temperature between the faces
causing heat flow is unit temperature difference.
2. Write down the Fourier conduction equation:

(∂2T / ∂X2) + (∂2T /∂Y2) + (∂2T /∂Z2) = (1/α) ((∂t /∂ι)

▼2T = (1/α) ((∂t /∂ι)

3. Define overall heat transfer coefficient :
The overall heat transfer coefficient in the heat transmitted per
unit area per unit time per degree temp difference between the bulk fluids on
each side of the metal. It is denoted by U.
4. Give an expression for conduction heat transfer through a furnace wall of three
Layers:

Soln:

5. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?

i. Material structure
ii. Moisture content
iii. Density of the material
iv. Pressure and temperature.

6. Define thermal diffusivity?

It is the ratio of its thermal conductivity k to the thermal storage
capacity ρc.
α = (k/ρc).
It indicates the rate at which heat is distributed in the material.
7. Define thermal Resistance:
Heat transfer may be analogy with the flow of electricity in an
electrical resistance. As the flow of electric current in the electrical resistance is
 directly proportional to the potential difference heat flow is directly proportional
to temp diff (dt), the driving force for heat conduction through a medium

As per ohm’s law current (I) = Potential difference (dv)/ electrical resistance.

As per Fourier equation heat flow rate Q = temp diff (dt)/ (dx/KA)

Comparing to (1) & (2) I is analogous to Q , dv is analogous to dt , R is analogous

to (dx/KA).
The Quantity (dx/KA) is called the thermal conduction resistance.

8. Draw the diagram of electrical analogy for the composite layer of three concentric
Cylinders indicating the values of their thermal resistance.

where Ka , Kb , Kc , are the thermal conductivities of 3 cylinders

respectively.

9. State fouriers law of heat conduction.

The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is
directly proportional to the area of the section at right angles to the direction of
heat flow and to change of temperature with respect to the length of the heat flow.

Q α A. (dt/dx)

Q = -K.A (dt/dx)

10. Define and distinguish between steady state , unsteady state and transient state of
heat transfer .

Steady State:
It refers to the condition which prevails in a heat conducting
medium where temperature at fixed points do not change with time.

Unsteady State:
It designates a phenomenon which is time dependent .
Conduction of heat in unsteady refers to the transient conditions where in the heat
flow and the temp distribution at any point of the system vary continuously with
time
11. Give the example of heat generation application?

• Fuel rods – nuclear reactor

• Electrical conductors
• Chemical and combustion processes
• Drying and setting of concrete.

12. Write down the formula used for finding heat loss through a sphere by
conduction?

Q= 4лkr1r2(t1-t2)/(r2-r1)

13. Discuss on thermal conductivity of insulators?

In insulating materials the thermal conductivity may vary from
sample to sample due to variations in structure , composition , density , and
porosity.

14. What is critical thickness of insulation?

The thickness up to which heat flow increase and after which heat
flow decreases is termed as critical thickness.

Critical thickness or radius = (k/h0) = rc

15. In the case of liquids and gases heat transfer takes place according to?
Convection

16. Unit for thermal conductivity is?

17. Materials having different values of thermal conductivities are known as?

Non isotropic material.

18. Draw the electrical analogy diagram for the composite layers of sphere
indicating the values of their thermal resistance..
19. Give the reasons for low and high thermal conductivity in insulating and
conducting material?

Reason:
K may vary from sample to sample due to variations in structure,
composition and porosity.

Conducting Materials:
In metals the molecules are closely packed. Molecular activity is rather
small and so thermal conductivity is substantially due to the flow of free
electrons.

20. How conduction and convective heat transfer occurs in solids and liquids
respectively?

Conduction:
It is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part
of the same substance or from one substance to another in physical contact with
it, without displacement of molecules forming the substance.
In solids conduction takes place by
• Lattice vibration
• Transport of free electrons.

Convection:
It is the transfer of heat within the fluid by mixing of one portion of
the fluid with another.

21. When heat transferred by molecular collision it is referred to as heat transfer by?

Conduction.

22. Write the equation for calculating the heat transfer through a hollow cylinder
with variable thermal conductivity.

Q = - K0(1+βt).(2лrL(dt/dr))

23. Write the electrical analogy circuit for a composite plane wall having 4 layers of
different material.
24. Material in which thermal conductivity do not vary with respect to axis is called?
Isotropic material.

25. Write down the general heat conduction equation for an unsteady state 3-D heat
flow through a plane wall.

(∂2T / ∂X2) + (∂2T /∂Y2) + (∂2T /∂Z2)+(q/k) = (1/α) ((∂t /∂ι)

26. What are the three ways in which heat may be transferred?

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

27. Write steady state conduction equation for variable thermal conductivity.

Q = - K0(1+βt).(dt/dx).A

28. Give the expression for temperature distribution across a plane wall for one
dimensional steady state conduction.

(∂2T /∂X2)+(q/k) =0.

29. Define log mean area for a cylinder and a sphere:

Cylinder:
It is an expression for the heat flow through a hollow cylinder of
the same form as that for a plane wall .Then thickness will be equal to (r2-r1)
and the area A will be an equivalent area Am.

Am = (A0 –Ai)/(ln(A0/Ai)

= 2лL(r2-r1)/(ln(r2/r1)).
Sphere:

Am2 = Ai*A0
Am = (Ai*A0)0.5
= 4лr1r2
rm = (r1r2)0.5
30. Give the general expression for heat flow in three dimensions in cylindrical
coordinates.

(∂2t / ∂r2) +(1/r) (∂t /∂r) + (1/r2)(∂2t /∂φ2)+ (∂2t / ∂x2) +(q/k) = (1/α) ((∂t /∂ι)

31. Cork is a good (insulator) because it has porous body.

32. Derive the unit of thermal conductivity:

33. Define efficiency of fin

η fin=Actual heat transferred by the fin[Q fin]
maximum head that would be transferred if whole surface of the fin is
maintained at the base temp[Qmax]

34. Define effectiveness of fin

Effectiveness of fin is the ratio of the fin heat transfer to the heat transfer rate
that would exist without a fin
Є fin=Q with fin
Q without fin

35. What is the advantage of insulating the fin at its end.

If the tip of the fin is insulated there is no heat loss from the end of the fin.

36. Name some good conductors of heat.

Silver, copper, aluminium and cast iron.

37. Mention four application of fin.

Finned surface are used in
I. Economizers for steam power plants
II. Radiators of automobiles
III. Air cooled engine cylinder heads
IV. Transformer and electronic components etc.

38. Define Newtonian heating or cooling?

The process in which the internal resistance is assumed negligible in
comparison with its surface resistance is called the Newtonian heating or
cooling process.
39. Define lumped system?
In lumped system the whole solid, whole energy at any time is a function of
its temperature and total heat capacity is treated as one lump. The temperature
in this process is considered to be uniform at a given time.

40. What is mean by unsteady heat conduction?

If there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature, the body attains an
equilibrium temperature or a steady state after some period. During this period
the temperature varies with time and the body is said to be in an unsteady or
transient state.

41. Define error function and its significance?

erf [ ] is known as Gaussian error function. It is defined

by

erf [ ] = (2/л).0∫z e-n2 dn.

With erf (0)=0,erf(α)=1.

42. What is the shape of steady state conduction in cylindrical wall?

Shape Factor S = (2лL)/(ln(r0/r1)

43. Define conduction shape factor?

In order to solve the problem in 2-D,3-D conduction heat transfer
we need to construct a potential field consisting of curvilinear squares and
thereafter count the number of temperature increment and heat flow lanes.

44. Define Biot Number and what are its significance?

Bi = (hlc)/k
Where,
h= convective heat transfer coefficient
lc = characteristic length.
Significance:
• It gives an indication of the ratio of internal resistance to surface
resistance.
• When Bi is small it indicates that the system has a small internal
(conduction) resistance.
45. Define periodic variation in transient state?
In periodic transient state temperatures under go periodic changes
which are either regular or irregular but definitely cyclic.
Example:
The temperature variations in
• Cylinder of an IC engine
• Building during a period of 24 hours.

46. Name any numerical methods in the solution of transient heat conduction in
solids.
• Relaxation method
• Newton raphson method.

47. Define semi-infinite solid and infinite solids.

Infinite Solid:
A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space
is termed as an infinite solid.
Semi-infinite Solid:
If an infinite solid is split in the middle by a plane , each half is
known as semi-infinite solid.

48. Define fourier number.

Fourier number F0 = (α ι)/ Lc2

It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a
solid.

49. Define time constant for a thermocouple.

The quantity (ρ Vc / h As) (which has units of time) is called time

constant and is denoted by ι.
Ι = (ρ Vc)/(h As)

= (k/αh) (V/As)

50. Define response of a thermocouple.

It is defined as the time required for the thermocouple to attain
the source temperature.
 UNIT 2
1. What is meant by Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids?
The fluids which obey the Newton's law of viscosity are called
Newtonian fluids and those which do not obey are called non-Newtonian fluids.

2. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow?

Laminar flow : Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In
this type of flow, the fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth
continuous path. The fluid particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence
without mixing with each other.
Velocity

Turbulent flow

Laminar flow

Time

Turbulent flow : In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct

irregular flow is frequently observed in nature. This type of flow is called turbulent
flow. The path of any individual particle is zig-zag and irregular. Fig. shows the
instantaneous velocity in laminar and turbulent flow.

3. What is hydrodynamic boundary layer ?

In hydrodynamic boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less99%
thanof
free stream velocity.

4. What is thermal boundary layer ?

In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less thanof99%
free stream temperature.

5. Define convection .
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between solid
surface and a fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.
6. State Newton's law of convection.
Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surface is given by
the equation
Q = h A (Tw - T∞) this equation is referred to as Newton's
law of cooling.
Where h - Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K
A - Surface area in m2
 Tw - Surface (or) wall temperature in K
T∞ - Temperature of fluid in K

7. What is meant by free or natural convection?

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting
from temperature gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or
natural convection.

8. What is forced convection?

If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an y external
force like a blower or fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced
convection.

9. According to Newton's law of cooling the amount of heat transfer

from a solid surface of area A at a temperature T w , a fluid at a
temperature T∞ is given by _____________
=
Q hA (T w - T∞)

10. Indicatethe concept or significance of boundary layer.

In the boundary layer concept the flow field over a body is
divided into two regions:

• A thin region near the body called the boundary layer where the
velocity and the temperature gradients are large.
• The region outside the boundary layer where the velocity and the
temperature gradients are very nearly equal to their free stream values.

UNIT 3
1. What is meant by pool boiling?
If heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the boiling
process is referred to as pool boiling. In this case the liquid above the hot surface is
essentially stagnant and its motion near the surface is due to free convection and
mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment.

2. What is mean t by Film wise condensation?

The liquid condensate wets the solid surface, spreads out and forms a
continuous film over the entire surface is known as film wise condensation

3. What is meant by Drop wise condensation?

In drop wise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in a random fashion.

4. What is heat exchanger?

A heat exchanger is defined as equipment which transfers the
heat from a hot fluid to a cold fluid.

5. What are the types of heat exchangers?

The types of heat exchangers are as follows
1. Direct contact heat exchangers
2. Indirect contact heat exchangers
3. Surface heat exchangers
4. Parallel flow heat exchangers
5. Counter flow heat exchangers
6. Cross flow heat exchangers
7. Shell and tube heat exchangers
8. Compact heat exchangers

6. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in the
same direction.

7. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in parallel
but opposite directions.

8. What is meant by compact heat exchangers?

There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact heat
exchangers. They are generally employed when convective heat transfer co-
efficient associated with one of the fluids is much smaller than that associated with
the other fluid.

9. What is meant by Fouling Factor?

We know, the surfaces of heat exchangers do not remain clean after it
has been in use for some time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or deposits.
Tube effect of these deposits affecting the value of overall heat transfer co-efficient.
This effect is taken care of by introducing an additional thermal resistance called
the fouling resistance.

10. What is meant by Effectiveness?

The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat
transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer.
Actual heat transfer
Effectiveness є = __________________________
 Maximum possible heat transfer

UNIT 4
1. Define Radiation.
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting
medium is known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave
phenomenon.

2. Define emissive power

The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by
a body per unit time and unit area.
It is expressed in W/m
2

3. Define monochromatic emissive power Ebλ

The energy emitted by the surface at a given lengthper unit time
per unit area in all directions is known as monochromatic emissive power.

4. What is meant by absorptivity

Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation
a b so rb e and
d incident
radiation.

Radiation absorbed
Absorbitivity, α=_______________________________
Incident radiation

5. What is meant by reflectivity?

Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident
radiation
Reflectivity, p =Radiation reflected
Incident radiation

6. What is Black body?

Black body is an ideal surface having the following
properties.
I. A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and
direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more
energy than black body.

7. State Wien's displacement law.

The Wien's law gives the relationship between temperature
and wave length corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power of
the black body at that temperature.
Amax T = c3
Where c3=2.9 x 10-3 mK

8. Define Emissivity.
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate h e a. tIt is
also defined as the ratio of emissive power of any body to the
emissive power of a black body of equal temperature.
E
Emissivity,s=
Eb

9. What is meant by gray body?

If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation
irrespective of their wave length, the body is known as gray body. The
emissive power of a gray body is always less than t h a oft the black
body.
10. Define irradiation (G).
It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit
time per unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.

UNIT 5

1. What is mass transfer?

The process of transfer of mass as a result of the species
concentration difference in a mixture is known as mass transfer

2. Give the examples of mass transfer.

Some examples of mass transfer are
1. Humidification of air in cooling tower
2. Evaporation of petrol in the carburetor of an IC engine
3.The transfer of water vapour into dry air

3. What are the modes of mass transfer?

There are basically two modes of mass transfer,
 1. Diffusion mass transfer
2. Convective mass transfer
4. What is molecular diffusion?
The transport of water on a microscopic level as a result of diffusion
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration in a mixture of liquids or gases is known as molecular
diffusion.

5. What is Eddy diffusion?

When one of the diffusion fluids is in turbulent motion, e d d y
diffusion takes place

6. What is convective mass transfer?

Convective mass transfer is a process of mass transfer
that will occur between a surface and a fluid medium when they are
at different concentrations.

7. What is free convective mass transfer?

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density
resulting from concentration gradients, the mode of mass transfer is
said to be free or natural convective mass transfer.
Example: Evaporation of alcohol.

8.Define forced convective mass transfer

If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an
external force like a blower or fan, that type of mass transfer is
known as convective mass transfer.

Example: The evaporation of water from an ocean when air blows

over it.
9. 10. Define Schmidt Number
It is defined as the ratio of the molecular diffusivity of
momentum to the molecular diffusivity of mass.
 Molecular diffusivity of momentum
sc = ------------- --------------------------------
Molecular diffusivity of mass

10. . Give two examples of convective mass transfer.

1. Evaporation of alcohol
2. Evaporation of water from an ocean when air blows over it