Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 1

dUUnit I
Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction
When classical theory fails to give a satisfactory explanation about the phenomenon of photoelectric
effect and Compton Effect etc. Max Planck in 1901 gives a new concept called planks hypothesis.
According to this:
A black body consists of a large number of oscillators vibrating with all possible frequencies.
The oscillator of frequency can exist in states whose energy E is an integral multiple of a
constant h and the frequency of the oscillator is
E = nh; n = 1, 2, 3
The oscillator emits energy only when it passes from higher energy level to lower energy level.

Wave-Particle duality of Matter
Light when considered as a wave based on interference, diffraction and polarization prove the wave
nature of radiations because they require two waves at the same position at the same time. On the other
hand, it is impossible for two particles to occupy the same position at the same time. But for the
experiments like photoelectric effect or Compton Effect radiation is considered as particle and interacts
with matter. So, there are two contradictory aspects:
A wave spreads out and occupies a relatively large space.
A particle occupies a definite position in space and hence occupies small space.
If one has to explain the results of the experiments performed with radiation then it becomes necessary
to accept this contradictory nature of light.

De-Broglie Matter Waves
In 1924, De-Broglie said that matter has dual characteristic just like radiation. His concept was based on
his observations:
The whole universe is composed of matter and electromagnetic radiations. Since both are forms
of energy so can be transformed into each other.
The nature loves symmetry. As the radiation has dual nature, matter should also posses dual
character.
The waves associated with moving particles are matter waves or de-Broglie waves.

Wavelength of de-Broglie Matter waves
Consider a photon whose energy is given by
E = h = hc/.(1)
If a photon posses mass, then according to the theory of relativity, its energy is given by
E = mc
2
.(2)
From (1) & (2)
Mass of photon m = h/c
Therefore, Momentum of photon
p = mc = (h/c).c = h/
If instead of a photon, we consider a material particle of mass m moving with velocity v, then the
momentum of the particle, p = mv. Therefore, the wavelength of the wave associated with the moving
particle is given by,
= h/mv
This is called de-Broglie wavelength.

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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 2

Different Expressions:
a) If E is the kinetic energy of a material, then
E = mv
2
/2 = P
2
/2m
Or P = 2mE
Therefore, the De-Broglie wavelength
2
h
mE
=
b) When a charge particle carrying a charge q is accelerated by potential difference V volts, then its
kinetic energy is
E qV =
Therefore, the De-Broglie wavelength
2
h
mqV
=
c) When a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, then
3
2
E kT =
Where k is Boltzmanns constant =
23
1.38 10 / J K

Therefore, the De-Broglie wavelength

3 3
2 ( )
2
h h
mkT
m kT
= =
d) If the velocity of the particle is comparable with the velocity of light, then the mass of the particle
is given by

0
2
2
1
m
m
v
c
=

Where
0
m is the rest mass of the particle.
Therefore, the De-Broglie wavelength

2
2
0
1
v
h
h
c
mv m v

= =
e) De-Broglie wavelength associated with electrons:
Let us consider the case of an electron of rest mass
0
m and charge e which is accelerated by a
potential V volt from rest to velocity v, then

2
1
2
mv eV = or
0
2eV
v
m
=
If the relativistic variation of mass with velocity of the electron is ignored, then

0
m m and
0
h
m v
=
So,
0
0 0
2 2
h m
h
m eV eVm
= =
2
Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 3

Or,

34
10 31
6.625 10
2 1.632 10 9.1 10 V

=

0
12.26
A
V
=

If V=100 volt, then
0
1.226A =
Therefore, the wavelength associated with an electron accelerated to 100 volt is 1.226 .

Properties of Matter Waves
Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
Smaller is the velocity of particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
When 0 v = then = , i. e., wave becomes indeterminate and if v = then 0 = . This shows that
matter waves are generated by the motion of the particles. These waves are produced whether
the particle are charged or uncharged. This implies that these waves are not electromagnetic but
they are a new kind of waves.
The velocity of matter waves depends upon the velocity of matter particle.
The velocity of matter waves is greater than the velocity of light..
The energy of a wave of frequency is given by E h =
The energy of a particle of mass m is given by
2
E mc =
2
h mc = or
2
mc
h
=
The wave velocity is =
So,
h
mv

= , where v is the velocity of particle.

So,
2
c
v
=

As particle velocity v cannot exceed c, is greater than velocity of light. Therefore, the velocity
of matter waves always greater than c. This shows that matter waves are not physical waves.

Wave Velocity & Group Velocity
Whenever we talk about a particle, we think of a point object which occupies a definite position in space
and which has definite momentum but in quantum mechanics particle can be described by a wave
packet.
A wave packet comprises a group of waves slightly differing in velocity and wavelength, with phases and
amplitude such that they interfere constructively over a small region of space where the particle can be located and
outside this space they interfere destructively so that the amplitude reduces to zero.

The velocity of component waves of a wave packet is called as phase velocity of those waves.
The velocity, with which the wave packet travels, is called group velocity.

Expression for group velocity
Consider two wave trains having same amplitude a but slightly different angular frequencies ( and
' ) and phase velocities ( u and ' u ). The waves can be represented as
1
2
sin( )..........................(1)
sin( ' ' )......................(2)
y a t kx
y a t k x

=
=

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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 4

Where k and k are propagation constants defined as (2/). The resultant wave is
1 2
sin( ) sin( ' ' ) y y y a t kx a t k x = + = +
=
' ' ' '
2 cos sin
2 2 2 2
k k k k
a t x t x
( + + ( | | | | | | | |

| | | | ( (
\ \ \ \

2 cos sin( )
2 2
d dk
a t x t kx

( | | | |

| | (
\ \
..... sin sin 2sin cos
2 2
A B A B
A B
| + | | | | |
+ =
| | |
\ \ \
(3)
Where
'
2

+
= and
'
( .)
2
k k
k approx
+
=
Eq. (3) represents a wave of angular frequency and propagation constant k. The phase velocity
p
v of
the resultant wave is given by
p
v
k

= .
The amplitude of the resultant wave is modified.
2 cos
2 2
d dk
a t x
( | | | |

| | (
\ \
or 2 cos 2 cos
2 2
g
d dk d x
a t x a t
d v

(
(
=
(
(

(


Where
g
v is called group velocity.
'
'
g
d
v
dk k k

= =

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity in dispersive medium
p
v k = or
p p
d dv k v dk = +
p
p
dv
d
v k
dk dk

= + or
p
g p
dv
v v k
dk
= +
Since, 2 / k = hence,
2 1
2 1
p p
g p p
dv dv
v v v
d d

= + = +
| | | |
| |
\ \


2
1 1
d d

| |
=
|
\


p
g p
dv
v v
d

=
In a dispersive medium wave velocity or phase velocity is frequency dependent.
In Non-dispersive medium or free space, 0
p
dv
d
=
Therefore,
g p
v v =

Group Velocity & Particle Velocity
p
g p
dv
v v
d

=
It can be written as
2
2
1
p p
g
v dv
v
d

(
=
(


2 2 p
v
d d
d d

| |
= =
|
\

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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 5

Or
2
1 1 1
g
d d
v d d

| |
= =
|
\

If E and V represent the total and potential energy of the particle respectively, then kinetic energy of
particle is given by

2
1
2
mv E V = where v is the particle velocity
Or
1/ 2
2( ) E V
v
m
(
=
(


According to de-Broglie formula / h mv =

1/ 2
1 2( ) mv m E V
h h m
(
= =
(


1/ 2
1 2( )
g
d m E V
v d h m
| |
(
=
|
(
|

\


1/ 2
2( ) d m h V
d h m

| |
(
=
|
(
|

\
.( E h = )
( )
1/ 2 1
2 ( )
d
m h V
h d

(
=


( )
1/ 2 1 1
2 ( ) .2
2
m h V mh
h
=

( )
1/ 2
1/ 2
1
2 ( )
2 ( )
p
m m
m E V v
m h V
(
= = =
(

Therefore, Group velocity
g
v particle = velocity
p
v
Hence, we can say that a material particle is in motion is equivalent to group of waves or a wave packet.

Phase velocity of de-Broglie waves
According to de-Broglie, a particle of mass m moving with velocity v is associated with a wave whose
wavelength is given by
h
mv
=
The propagation constant k of the wave is given by
2 2 ( ) mv
k
h

= =
Let E be the energy of the particle, E h =
E
h
=
Therefore, angular frequency 2 2 / E h = =

2
2 mc
h

= ..(
2
E mc = )
De-Broglie phase or wave velocity
p
v is given by

2 2
2
2 ( )
p
mc h c
v
k h mv v

| |
= = =
|
\

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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 6

As v is less than c, de-Broglie wave velocity must be greater than c. so, the de-Broglie wave train
associated with the particle would travel much faster than the particle itself and would leave the particle
far behind. This statement is nothing but collapse of the wave description of the particle.

Group velocity of de-Broglie waves
The angular frequency and propagation constant of de-Broglie wave associated with a particle of rest
mass mo can be calculated as..
According to theory of relativity,
0
2
2
1
m
m
v
c
=

We know that
2
2 mc
h

= and
2 2 ( ) mv
k
h

= =
So, on substituting the value of m
2
0
2
2
2
1
m c
v
h
c

and
0
2
2
2
1
m v
k
v
h
c

Differentiating these eqns. We have
0
3/ 2
2
2
2
1
m v d
dv
v
h
c

=
| |

|
\
and
0
3/ 2
2
2
2
1
m dk
dv
v
h
c

=
| |

|
\

The group velocity
g
v of de-Broglie waves associated with the particle is given by
/
/
g
d d dv
v
dk dk dv

= =
Substituting the values of ( / d dv ) and ( / dk dv ), we get
g
v v =
Thus, de-Broglie wave group associated with moving particle travels with same velocity as the
particle.
Since,
2
p
c
v
v
=
Therefore, wave velocity and group velocity of de-Broglie wave is related as
2
.
p
v v c =
Or
2
.
p g
v v c =

Davisson & Germers electron diffraction experiment
De-Broglie said that material particles have wave like character, & they are expected to show the
phenomenon like interference and diffraction. In 1927, Davisson and Germer prove the existence of de-
Broglie waves. In his experiment electrons are produced by thermionic emission from a tungsten
filament mounted in an electron gun. The ejected electrons are accelerated towards anode in an electric
field of known potential difference and collimated into a narrow beam. The narrow beam of electrons is
allowed to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. Nickel is used as target because its atoms are arranged
in regular manner so the surface of crystal acts as a diffraction grating. The electrons scattered from the
6
Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 7

target are collected by a Faraday cylinder called electron detector which is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer and can be moved along a circular scale.

For different values of potential the electrons were collected at different positions. The current which is
the measure of the intensity of the diffracted beam, is plotted against the diffraction angle for each
accelerating potential.

It is observed that at the voltage of 40 volts, a smooth curve is obtained and a bump begins to appear in
the curve for 44 volts electrons. As the potential difference is further increased the bump start shifting
upward and becomes most prominent for 54 volts electrons at = 50
0
. Beyond 54 volts the bump
gradually diminishes and become insignificant at 68 volts electrons. The peak at 54 volts and 50
0

provided the evidence that electron were diffracted and verifies the existence of electron wave.
According to de-Broglie, the wavelength associated with electron accelerated through a potential V is
given by
0 0 0
12.26 12.26
1.67
54
A A A
V
= =
From X-ray analysis, it is known that nickel crystal acts as plane diffraction grating with grating space d
= 0.91 . According to experiment we have diffracted electron beam at = 50
0
. The corresponding angle
of incidence relative to the family of Bragg plane

0
180 50
65
2

= =
Using Braggs equation (taking n = 1). We get
0
0
2 sin 2(0.91) sin65 1.65 d A = = = .
This is in good agreement with the wavelength
computed from de-Broglie hypothesis. Hence,
confirms the de-Broglie concept of matter
waves.

V
H.T.
Nickel
Target
Electron
detector
G
Scale
Electron
Gun
T
65
0

50
0

54 V
d = 0.91
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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 8


Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
In 1927, Heisenberg proposed a very interesting principle, which is a direct consequence of the dual
nature of matter, known as uncertainty principle or to determine the exact position and momentum
simultaneously Heisenberg proposed the principle of uncertainty.
It is impossible to measure precisely and simultaneously both the members of pairs of certain canonically
conjugate variables that describe the behaviour of an atomic system.
Canonically conjugate pairs of physical quantities are those in which measurement of one quantity
affects the capacity to measure the other.
The product of uncertainties in determining the position and momentum of a particle at the same instant is of the
order of .
Uncertainty in momentum
x
p , and in position x
.
2
x
h
p x

Uncertainty in angular momentum and angular position
.
2
h
J

Uncertainty in kinetic energy and time
.
2
h
T t

The exact principle is stated as The product of uncertainties in determining the position and momentum of the
particle can never be smaller than the number of the order
2

.

Physical Significance of Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
This principle explains why it is possible for radiation and matter to have dual nature.
It helps in understanding many phenomenon like absence of electrons within nucleus, existence
of protons & neutrons in nucleus, binding energy of an electron in atom etc.
It also states that we can only predict the probable behaviour of quantum mechanical systems &
not the exact behaviour.

Applications of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Non-Existence of electrons in the nucleus
Radius of Bohrs First orbit
Binding energy of an electron in an atom
Zero point energy of harmonic oscillator
(You have to do these applications yourself.)

Wave Function
According to uncertainty principle, the position and momentum of a particle cannot be measured
accurately at the same time; the measurement of one quantity introduces an uncertainty into the other.
In case of electromagnetic waves, the electric and magnetic fields varies periodically. In water waves,
height of the water surface varies periodically. Similarly in sound waves, pressure varies periodically.
So, what varies in matter waves? Answer is ..Wave function ().
Schrodinger describes the amplitude of matter waves by a complex quantity (x, y, z, t) known as wave
function.

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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 9

Physical significance of wave function
The value of wave function associated with a moving particle at a particular point (x, y, z) in
space at the time t is related to the possibility of finding the particle there at that time.
The physical significance of wave function is that the square of its absolute value
2
at a point is
proportional to the probability of finding the particle described by the wave function in a small
element of volume d ( dxdydz ) at that point.

2
gives the probability of finding the particle at that point at any given moment.
2
is called
probability density and is called probability amplitude. Particle is necessarily somewhere in
space, therefore
2
1 d

A wave function satisfying this relation called normalized wave function.

Nature of wave function
It must be finite everywhere.
It must be single valued.
It must be continuous.

Schrodinger time independent wave equation (Method 1)
According to de-Broglie theory, a particle of mass m always associated with a wave whose wavelength
is / h mv = . If particle is a wave it is expected that there should be some sort of wave equation which
describes the behaviour of the particle. Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle.
Let x, y, z be the co-ordinates of particle and is the wave displacement at any time t. is finite, single
valued and periodic function. The classical differential equation of wave motion is expressed as

2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
.......................................(1) v
dt dx dy dz
| |
= + +
|
\

2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
................ v
dt dx dy dz

( | |
= = + +
( |
\
.(
2
laplacian = operator )
Solution of eqn (1) is given by
0 0
sin sin 2 t t = = (2)
0
(2 ) cos 2
d
t t
dt

= (3)
2 2 2
2 2 2
0 2 2
4
(2 ) sin 2 4
d v
t t
dt

= = = ..(4)
Putting value of
2
2
d
dt

in equation (1)
2 2
2 2
2
4 v
v

=
2
2
2
4
0

+ =
( )
2
2 2 2
2
4
0.......... / m v h mv
h

+ = =
If E and V be the total and potential energies of particle, then its kinetic energy
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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 10

2
1
2
mv E V =
In this case it should be remembered that potential energy is independent of time.
2 2
2 ( ) m v m E V =
Therefore,
2
2
2
8
( ) 0 m E V
h

+ =

2
2
2
( ) 0
m
E V + =

( ) .......... 2 h =
This is Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
For a free particle, V=0
2
2
2
0
m
E + =

Method 2
The differential equation for a free particle in one dimension is given by
2 2
2 2 2
1
x v t

=

---------------------------------(1)
Standard solution of this equation is
0
0
2
2
0 0 2
( )( )
i t
i t
i t i t
e
d
i e
dt
d
i i e e
dt

=
=
= =

Putting the value of
2
2
d
dt

in eqn (1). We get,

2 2
0 2 2
i t
d
e
dx v

=
2 2 2 2
0 0
0 0 2 2 2 2
i t i t
d d
e e
dx v dx v




= =
2 2 2
0
0 0 2 2 2
(2 ) 4
...........( 2 , / )
d
v
dx v

= = = =
2 2 2 2
0
0 2 2
4
...........( / )
d m v
h mv
dx h

= =
If E and V be the total and potential energies of particle, then its kinetic energy
2
1
2
mv E V =
In this case it should be remembered that potential energy is independent of time.
2 2
2 ( ) m v m E V =
So,
2 2 2
0
0 0 2 2 2
8 2
( ) ( )
d m m
E V E V
dx h

= =

Or
2
0
0 2 2
2
( ) 0
d m
E V
dx

+ =

In 3-D,
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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 11


2
0 0 2
2
( ) 0
m
E V + =

Schrodinger time dependent wave equation
The differential equation for a free particle in one dimension is given by
2 2
2 2 2
1
x v t

=


Standard solution of this equation is
2 ( )
( , )
x
i t
v
r t Ae

=

2 ( )
.......................( , )
E x
i t
h
E
Ae v
h

= = =

2 ( )
.....................( )
E px
i t
h h
h
Ae
p

= =

2
( ) ( )
( , ) ............(1)
i
i Et px Et px
h
r t Ae Ae

= =


This represents a particle moving along the x direction having total energy E and momentum p.
Differentiating (1) wrt t.
2
( )
....................(2)
i Et px
h
i i
EAe E
t
E i
i t t

= =

= =

Differentiating (1) wrt x twice
2
2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
( )
i Et px i Et px
h h
i p p
p Ae Ae
x

| |
= = =
|

\


2
2 2
2
...........................(3) p
x

Let E and U be the total and potential energies of the particle.
So, E = K + U
=
2
2
p
U
m
+
Multiply on both sides
2
2
p
E U
m

= +
Substituing the values of E and
2
p . We get,
2 2
2
2
i U
t m x

= +

This is time dependent Schrodinger equation in one dimension.

In 3D, time dependent Schrodinger equation is


2
2
2
i U
t m

= +

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
........................( )
x y z

= + +




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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 12

Schrodinger time independent equation from time dependent equation
The differential equation for a free particle in one dimension is given by
2 2
2 2 2
1
x v t

=


Standard solution of this equation is
( )
0 0
..................( )
i i ipx i ipx
Et px Et Et
Ae Ae e e Ae

= = = =


Differentiating wrt t.We get,
0
i
Et
d i
E e
dt

Differentiating wrt x twice. We get,
2 2
0
2 2
i
Et
d d
e
dx dx


=


The time dependent Schrodinger eqn is,
2 2
2
2
i U
t m x

= +

Putting the values of ,
d
dt

and
2
2
d
dx

. We get
2
0
0 2 2
2
( ) 0
d m
E U
dx

+ =

The values of energy for which the time independent Schrodinger equation can be solved are called
Eigen values and the corresponding function is called Eigen function.

Particle in one dimension box with infinitely hard walls
Consider a particle of mass m moving along x-axis between the two rigid wall A & B at x=0 & x=L.
Particle is free to move between the walls. The potential energy of the particle between the two walls is
constant because no force is acting on the particle. The constant potential energy is taken to be zero for
simplicity. The particle does not loose energy when it strikes back and forth in the potential well
because the walls are infinitely rigid.

V(x) = for x0 and xL
V(x) =0 for 0<x<L
The time independent Schrodinger equation for the particle
2
2 2
2
( ) 0
d m
E V
dx

+ =

2
2 2
2
0...........( 0)
d mE
V
dx

+ = =

2
2 2
2 2
2
0...........( )
d mE
K K
dx

+ = =

It is a form of standard differential equation.
V=
V=0
V=
m
X=0 X=L

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Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 13

Solution of the equation is given by
( ) sin cos x A Kx B Kx = +
Where A and B are the constants. Values of these constants can be obtained by applying boundary
conditions.
0 = , At x=0 (particle cannot penetrate the walls)
0 sin 0 cos 0 cos 0 0 0 A B B B = + = =
Therefore the term B cos Kx can not give the solution.
Now, applying second boundary condition
0 = , At x=L
0 sin A KL =
Either A=0 or sin KL=0
A 0, if A = 0 entire function will be zero as B = 0.
sin 0 KL = or KL n = (n = 1, 2, 3, ..)
n
K
L

=
2 2
2
2
n
K
L

=
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2
2 4 8
n
mE n n h n h
E
L mL mL

= = =


This relation shows that energy is quantized. (
n
E
2
n )

The Eigen function is
( ) sin sin
n
x A Kx A x
L

= =
To find the value of A, we can apply the normalizing condition
2
( ) 1 x dx

Or
2 2
0
sin 1
L
n
A xdx
L

2
0
1 2
1 cos 1
2
L
n
A x dx
L
| |
=
|
\

2
0
2
sin 1
2 2
L
A L n x
x
n L

(
=
(


2
1
2
A L
= or
2
2
A
L
= or
2
A
L
=
2
( ) sin
n
x x
L L

=


n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
E1=h
2
/8mL
2

E2=4h
2
/8mL
2
=4E1
E3=9h
2
/8mL
2
=9E1
E4=16h
2
/8mL
2
=16E1
13
Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 14

X-Rays
In 1895, W. Roentgen while studying the properties of cathode rays discovered X-rays. X-rays are
basically electromagnetic rays of very high penetrating power or low wavelength of 0.1 to 100 .
These are also called bremsstrahlung radiation. It is a inverse photoelectric effect.

Production of X-rays
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons in cathode rays are suddenly stopped by some obstacle
like glass wall of discharge tube or solid metal piece like tungsten or molybdenum.
Soft X-rays X-rays having longer wavelength that 4 smaller frequency and hence smaller energy are
called soft x-rays.
Hard X-rays X-rays having low wavelength of the order 1 , having high frequency and hence high
energy are called hard x-rays
Continuous X-rays Some of the fast moving electrons may go deep into the atoms of the target
material and experience strong force of attraction due to positive nucleus and is suddenly slowed down
suffering a deflection in its path. So, electrons are decelerated and their velocities are reduced.
Accelerated and decelerated charge radiates energy and it comes out in the form of x-rays. These x-rays
are called continuous x-rays.
Characteristic X-rays when the speed of bombarding electrons is extremely high some the electrons
may penetrate deep into the atoms and collide with tightly bound electrons of inner shells. Sometimes
in collision the bombarding electrons transfers all of its energy to bound electrons of inner shells and
same bound electron is ejected from its orbit. The removal of electron from inner shell creates vacancy in
shell. To fill this low energy vacancy, an electron from high energy level jumps in an the excess energy is
radiated in the form of x-rays. These x-rays are called characteristic x-rays.

Compton Effect
When a beam of monochromatic x-rays strikes a target, the X-rays are dispersed in different directions.
The phenomenon is called as scattering. The angle between the directions of incident and scattered rays
is called as scattering angle.
In 1921 Prof. A.H. Compton discovered that when a monochromatic beam of high frequency radiation
(X-rays, Y-rays) is scattered by a substance, the scattered radiation contain two components-one having
a lower frequency or greater wavelength and the other having the same frequency or wavelength. The
radiation of unchanged frequency is the scattered beam is known as unmodified radiation while the
radiation of lower frequency is called modified radiation. This phenomenon is known as Compton
Effect.

According to Compton, the phenomenon of scattering is due to an elastic collision between two particles, the
photon of incident radiation and the electron of scatterer. When the photon of energy h collides with the
electron of the scatterer at rest, it transfers some energy to the electron; the scattered photon will
Source
X-rays
Collimator
Scatterer
Recoil e
-

Modified X-rays
Unmodified X-rays
Detector
14
Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 15

therefore have a smaller energy than that of incident photon. The observed change in frequency or
wavelength of the scattered radiation is known as Compton Effect.


Applying the law of conservation of momentum along and perpendicular to the direction of incident
photon on the system. We have
Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision
'
0 cos cos .........................(1)
'
0 sin sin ..................................(2)
h h
p
c c
h
p
c

+ = +
=

Kinetic energy gained by the electron
( ') K h h =
Multiply these equations by c and rearranging them. We get,
cos ' cos ..........................(3)
sin ' sin ..................................(4)
pc h h
pc h


=
=

Squaring and adding these equations. We get,
2 2 2 2
( ) 2 ' cos ( ') ..........................(5) p c h h h h = +
2 2 2 4
0
2
0
E p c m c
E K m c
= +
= +

2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4
0 0 0
2 2 2 2
0
2
( ') 2 ( ')
p c m c K m c K m c
p c h h m c h h
+ = + +
= +

2 2 2 2 2
0
( ) 2 ' ( ') 2 ( ')........................(6) p c h h h h m c h h = + +
Comparing equation (5) and (6). We get,
2
0
2 ' 2 ( ') 2 ' cos h h m c h h h h + =
Dividing this equation by
2 2
h c
0
' '
(1 cos )
m c
h c c c c

| |
=
|
\

0 0
' (1 cos ) (1 cos )
h h
m c m c
= = (1 cos )
c
=
is called Compton Shift and
c
is called Compton wavelength.
At
0
180 = Compton shift will be maximum and its value is 0.0484 .
So, the change in wavelength due to scattering is called Compton Effect.

Direction of Recoil Electron
On dividing eqn (4) by (3). We get,
' sin ' sin
tan
' cos ' cos
h
h h

= =


Scattering angle


Recoil e
-

Scattered photon
Incident photon
Energy = h
Energy = h
Momentum p = h/c
Momentum p = h/c
Unmodified radiation
15
Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 16

2
0
'
(1 cos )
h
c c m c

=
2
0
1 1
(1 cos )
'
h
m c


=
2
2
0
1 (2sin )
2
1
'
h
m c


| |
+
|
\
=
2
2
0
'
1 (2sin )
2
h
m c

=
| |
+
|
\

2
2
2
sin / 1 .2sin
sin 2
tan
1 2 sin cos
2
cos
1 .2sin
2

| |
+
|
\
= =
| |
+
|

|
| +
\
2
0
.................................
h
m c

| |
=
|
\

( )
2 2 2
2sin cos
sin
2 2
tan
1 cos 2 sin 2sin 2 sin
2 2 2

= =
+ +

cos cot
2 2
tan
(1 )
sin (1 )
2

= =
+
+

2
0
cot
2
tan
(1 )
h
m c

=
+


Kinetic Energy of Recoil Electron
Kinetic energy of the electron is given by
( ') K h h =
2
2
0
'
1 (2sin )
2
h
m c

=
| |
+
|
\

Putting the value of ' . We get,
2
.
1 2 sin
2
K E h h

=
+

2
2
2 sin
2
.
1 2 sin
2
K E h

| |
|
=
|
|
+
\

This shows the K.E of recoiled electron depends upon scattering angle .

16
Lecture Notes on Wave Mechanics & X-Ray Diffraction - By Deepika Gupta, Lecturer-SIET Page 17

Kinetic energy will be maximum, when
sin 1
2

=
2 2

= =
So, the maximum kinetic energy of recoil electron
2
0
2
. ,
1 2
h
K E h
m c

= =
+

2
0
max
2
0
2
.
2
1
h
h
m c
K E
h
m c

| |
|
\
=
+

2 2
max
2
0 2
0
2
.
2
1
h
K E
h
m c
m c

=
| |
+
|
\


Prove angular momentum and angular position uncertainty from momentum and position
uncertainty.

p mv = and v r = p mr =
L mvr =
2
L mr =
So,
L
p
r
= and x r =
L
p
r

= and x r =
From the momentum and position uncertainty we have,
.
2
h
x p

.
2
L h
r
r

So, .
2
h
L

17