COMPLEX FUNCTIONS AND TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Revision E

By Tom Irvine
Email: tomirvine@aol.com

September 14, 2006

Trigonometric Functions of Angle α

r
y

sin (α ) = cos(α ) =
y x
r r

tan (α ) = cot (α ) =
y x
x y

sec(α ) = csc(α ) =
r r
x y

(1)
Trigonometric Expansion

x3 x5
sin x = x − + −L (2)
3! 5!

x2 x4
cos x = 1 − + −L (3)
2! 4!

1
 x3 x5
sinh x = x + + +L (4)
3! 5!

x2 x4
cosh x = 1 + + +L (5)
2! 4!

Exponential Expansion

x 2 x3
exp(x ) = 1 + x + + +L (6)
2! 3!

Trigonometric Identities

cos 2 (α ) = + cos(2α )
1 1
(7)
2 2

sin 2 (α ) = − cos(2α )
1 1
(8)
2 2

cos(α )cos(β ) = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)

1 1
(9)
2 2

sin (α )sin (β) = − cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)

1 1
(10)
2 2

cos(α )sin (β) = sin (α + β ) − sin (α − β )

1 1
(11)
2 2

sin (α )cos(β) = sin (α + β ) + sin (α − β)

1 1
(12)
2 2

sin 2 (α ) + cos 2 (α ) = 1 (13)

sec2 (α ) − tan 2 (α ) = 1 (14)

csc2 (α ) − cot 2 (α ) = 1 (15)

sin (2α ) = 2 sin (α )cos(α ) (16)

2
 cos(2α ) = cos 2 (α ) − sin 2 (α ) (17)

sin (α ± β) = sin (α )cos(β) ± cos(α )sin (β) (18)

cos(α ± β ) = cos(α )cos(β) m sin (α )sin (β ) (19)

tan (α ) ± tan (β)

tan (α ± β ) = (20)
1 m tan (α ) tan (β )

A sin (αt ) + B cos(αt ) = A 2 + B2 [ sin (αt + θ) ]

⎛ B⎞
where θ = arctan⎜ ⎟
⎝A⎠
(21)

Euler's Equation

exp(± jα ) = cos(α ) ± j sin (α ) (22)

exp( jα ) − exp(− jα )
sin (α ) = (23)
2j

exp( jα ) + exp(− jα )
cos(α ) = (24)
2

Hyperbolic Functions

exp(α ) − exp(− α )
sinh (α ) = (25a)
2

exp(α ) + exp(− α )
cosh (α ) = (25b)
2

3
 cosh 2 (α ) − sinh 2 (α ) = 1 (26)

Derivatives

d
(sin u ) = cos u du (27)
dx dx

d
(cos u ) = − sin u du (28)
dx dx

d
(tan u ) = sec2 u du (29)
dx dx

d
(cot u ) = − csc u du (30)
dx dx

d
(sec u ) = tan u sec u du (31)
dx dx

d
(csc u ) = − csc u cot u du (32)
dx dx

d
(sinh u ) = cosh u du (33)
dx dx

d
(cosh u ) = sinh u du (34)
dx dx

d
(tanh u ) = 1 2 du (35)
dx cosh u dx

Natural Logarithm of a Complex Number

⎡ ⎤ ⎛b⎞
ln (a + j b ) = ln ⎢ a 2 + b 2 exp( jθ)⎥ , θ = arctan⎜ ⎟ (36)
⎣ ⎦ ⎝a⎠

4
 ⎡ ⎤
ln (a + j b ) = ln ⎢ a 2 + b 2 ⎥ + ln[ exp( jθ)] (37)
⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤
ln(a + j b ) = ln ⎢ a 2 + b 2 ⎥ + jθ (38)
⎣ ⎦

⎡ ⎤ ⎛b⎞
ln(a + j b ) = ln ⎢ a 2 + b 2 ⎥ + j arctan⎜ ⎟ (39)
⎣ ⎦ ⎝a⎠

APPENDIX A

The Square Root of a Complex Number.

Consider

x2 = a + jb (A-1)

Thus

x = ± a + jb (A-2)

where a and b are real coefficients.

Solve for x.

Let
x1 = (c + j d ) (A-3a)

x 2 = −(c + j d ) (A-3b)

where c and d are real coefficients.

Substitute equation (A-3a) into (A-1).

(c + j d )2 = (a + j b ) (A-4)

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 (c + j d )(c + j d ) = (a + j b ) (A-5)

c 2 − d 2 + j (2cd ) = a + j b (A-6)

Equation (A-6) implies two equations. The first is

c2 − d 2 = a (A-7)

The second implied equation is

2cd = b (A-8)

Solve for d using equation (A-8).

b
d= (A-9)
2c

Substitute equation (A-9) into (A-8).

2
2 ⎛ b⎞
c −⎜ ⎟ = a (A-10)
⎝ 2c ⎠

2
2 ⎛ b⎞
c −a −⎜ ⎟ = 0 (A-11)
⎝ 2c ⎠

Multiply through by 4c 2 .

4c 4 − 4ac2 − b 2 = 0 (A-12)

Apply the quadratic formula.

4a ± 16a 2 + 16b 2
c2 = (A-13)
8

4a ± 4 a 2 + b 2
c2 = (A-14)
8

6
 a ± a 2 + b2
c2 = (A-15)
2

a ± a 2 + b2
c= (A-16)
2

Require c to be real.

a + a 2 + b2
c= (A-17)
2

Substitute equation (A-17) into (A-9).

⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ b ⎪
d=⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎡ a + a 2 + b2 ⎤⎪
⎪2 ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎭
(A-18)

⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ b ⎪
d=⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞⎪
4⎜ a + a + b ⎟
⎪ ⎝ ⎠⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ 2 ⎭
(A-19)

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 ⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪ b ⎪
d=⎨ ⎬
⎪ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞⎪
2⎜ a + a + b ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
(A-20)

Substitute equations (A-20) and (A-17) into (A-3a).

⎧ ⎫
⎧ 2 2 ⎫ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ a+ a +b ⎪ ⎪ b ⎪
x1 = ⎨ ⎬+ j⎨ ⎬ (A-21a)
⎪ 2 ⎪ ⎪ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞⎪
⎩ ⎭ 2⎜ a + a + b ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭

Substitute equations (A-20) and (A-17) into (A-3b).

⎧ ⎫
⎧ 2 2 ⎫ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ a+ a +b ⎪ ⎪ b ⎪
x 2 = −⎨ ⎬ − j⎨ ⎬ (A-21b)
⎪ 2 ⎪ ⎪ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎪ 2⎜ a + a + b ⎟
⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭

Note that equations (A-21a) and (A-21b) cannot be used for the special case:

a < 0 and b = 0.

For this special case, the roots are

x =±j a (A-21c)

Example

x2 = 2 + j 7 (A-22)

x = ± 2+ j7 (A-23)

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Solve for x. Use equation (A-21a).

a=2 (A-24)

b=7 (A-25)

x 1 = 2.154 + j 1.625 (A-26)

x 2 = −2.154 − j 1.625 (A-27)

APPENDIX B

Arbitrary Root of a Complex Number

Let

x n = [a + j b] (B-1a)

x = [a + j b]1 / n (B-1b)

The coefficients a and b are real numbers. The denominator of the exponent n is also
real.

Take the natural logarithm.

{
ln x = ln [a + j b]1 / n } (B-2)

ln [a + j b]
1
ln x = (B-3)
n

1 ⎡ 2 ⎛ b ⎞⎤
ln x = ln ⎢ a + b 2 exp⎜ j arctan ⎟⎥ (B-4)
n ⎣ ⎝ a ⎠⎦

1 ⎡ 2 ⎤ 1 ⎡ ⎛ b ⎞⎤
ln x = ln ⎢ a + b 2 ⎥ + ln ⎢exp⎜ j arctan ⎟⎥ (B-5)
n ⎣ ⎦ n ⎣ ⎝ a ⎠⎦

9
 ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢
⎢
( 2 2
⎥
)
1
ln x = ln a + b n ⎥ + j arctan
2
n
b
a
(B-6)
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

⎧ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎢ 2
⎢
2( ⎥
1
n
)
exp{ln x} = exp⎨ln a + b 2n ⎥ + j arctan ⎬
b
a⎪
⎪
(B-7)
⎪ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
⎩ ⎭

⎧ ⎡ 1 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ 2
( ⎪
)⎧ 1 b⎫
x = exp⎨ln a + b 2n ⎥ ⎬ exp⎨ j arctan ⎬
2 (B-8)
⎪ ⎢⎣⎢ ⎥⎪
⎦⎥ ⎭
⎩ n a⎭
⎩

( )
1
2 2 ⎧ 1 b⎫
x = a + b 2n exp⎨ j arctan ⎬ (B-9)
⎩ n a⎭

( )
1
2 2 ⎧ ⎛1 b⎞ ⎛1 b ⎞⎫
x = a + b 2n ⎨cos⎜ arctan ⎟ + j sin ⎜ arctan ⎟⎬ (B-10)
⎩ ⎝n a⎠ ⎝n a ⎠⎭

Note that equation (B-10) could be used for the special case of a square root.

APPENDIX C

Cube Root of a Complex Number

Consider
x3 = a + j b (C-1)

x = [a + j b]1 / 3 (C-2)

Equation (C-1) has three roots. The method in Appendix B yields the following formula
for one of the cube roots.

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 1
( )
⎧ ⎛1 b⎞ ⎛1 b ⎞⎫
x 1= a 2 + b 2 6 ⎨cos⎜ arctan ⎟ + j sin ⎜ arctan ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝3 a⎠ ⎝3 a ⎠⎭
(C-3)

Rearrange equation (C-1).

x3 − a − j b = 0 (C-4)

Devise an equation for finding the other two roots.

x 3 − a − j b = (x − x1 )(x − x 2 )(x − x 3 ) (C-5)

Expand the right-hand-side.

[ ]
x 3 − a − j b = x 2 − (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 (x − x 3 ) (C-6)

[ ] [ ]
x 3 − a − j b = x 2 − (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 (x ) + x 2 − (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 (− x 3 ) (C-7)

x 3 − a − j b = [x 3 − (x1 + x 2 )x 2 + x1x 2 x ]− [x 3x 2 − x 3 (x1 + x 2 )x + x1x 2 x 3 ] (C-8)

x 3 − a − j b = [x 3 − (x1 + x 2 )x 2 + x1x 2 x ]+ [− x 3x 2 + x 3 (x1 + x 2 )x − x1x 2 x 3 ] (C-9)

x 3 − a − j b = [x 3 − (x1 + x 2 + x 3 )x 2 + (x1x 2 + x1x 3 + x 2 x 3 )x − x1x 2 x 3 ] (C-10)

Equation (C-10) implies three separate equations.

(x1 + x 2 + x3 ) = 0 (C-11)

(x1x 2 + x1x3 + x 2x3 ) = 0 (C-12)

− x1x 2 x 3 = −a − j b (C-13)

Continue with equation (C-11).

x 2 = − x1 − x 3 (C-14)

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Substitute equation (C-14) into (C-12).

(x1(− x1 − x 3 ) + x1x3 + (− x1 − x3 )x3 ) = 0 (C-15)

− x12 − x1x 3 + x1x 3 − x1x 3 − x 32 = 0 (C-16)

− x12 − x1x 3 − x 32 = 0 (C-17)

x 32 + x1x 3 + x12 = 0 (C-18)

Use the quadratic formula.

− x1 ± x12 − 4x12
x3 = (C-19)
2

− x1 ± − 3x12
x3 = (C-20)
2

− x1 ± x1 − 3
x3 = (C-21)
2

⎡−1± j 3 ⎤
x 3 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-22)
⎣ 2 ⎦

Choose
⎡−1− j 3 ⎤
x 3 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-23)
⎣ 2 ⎦

Recall equation (C-14).

x 2 = − x1 − x 3 (C-24)

⎡−1− j 3 ⎤
x 2 = − x1 − x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-25)
⎣ 2 ⎦

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 ⎧⎪ ⎡ − 1 − j 3 ⎤ ⎫⎪
x 2 = x1⎨−1 − ⎢ ⎥⎬ (C-26)
⎪⎩ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎪⎭

⎧⎪ ⎡1 + j 3 ⎤ ⎫⎪
x 2 = x1⎨−1 + ⎢ ⎥⎬ (C-27)
⎪⎩ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎪⎭

⎧ 2 1+ j 3 ⎫
x 2 = x1 ⎨− + ⎬ (C-28)
⎩ 2 2 ⎭

⎡−1+ j 3 ⎤
x 2 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-29)
⎣ 2 ⎦

The roots x2 and x3 thus form a complex conjugate pair.

Summarize the roots.

1
2 ( 2 )
⎧ ⎛1 b⎞ ⎛1 b ⎞⎫
x 1= a + b 6 ⎨cos⎜ arctan ⎟ + j sin ⎜ arctan ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝3 a⎠ ⎝3 a ⎠⎭
(C-30)

⎡−1+ j 3 ⎤
x 2 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-31)
⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡−1− j 3 ⎤
x 3 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-32)
⎣ 2 ⎦

Example

Solve for x.

x3 = 2 + j 7 (C-33)

x = [2 + j 7]1 / 3 (C-34)

a=2 (C-35)

13
 b=7 (C-36)

n=3 (C-37)

There are three roots. The first root is

1
( 2 2 )
⎧ ⎛1 b⎞ ⎛1 b ⎞⎫
x 1= a + b 6 ⎨cos⎜ arctan ⎟ + j sin ⎜ arctan ⎟⎬
⎩ ⎝3 a⎠ ⎝3 a ⎠⎭
(C-38)

x1 = 1.938 [ 0.909 + j 418] (C-39)

x1 = 1.761 + j 0.809 (C-40)

The second root is a coordinate transformation of the first root.

⎡−1+ j 3 ⎤
x 2 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-41)
⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡−1+ j 3 ⎤
x 2 = [1.762 + j 0.809] ⎢ ⎥ (C-42)
⎣ 2 ⎦

x 2 = − 1.581 + j1.120 (C-43)

⎡−1− j 3 ⎤
x 3 = x1 ⎢ ⎥ (C-44)
⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡−1− j 3 ⎤
x 3 = [1.761 + j 0.809]⎢ ⎥ (C-45)
⎣ 2 ⎦

x 3 = −0.180 − j1.930 (C-46)

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In summary, the cube roots of (2 + j 7) are

x1 = 1.761 + j 0.809 (C-47)

x 2 = − 1.581 + j1.120 (C-48)

x 3 = −0.180 − j1.930 (C-49)

APPENDIX D

Derivation of the Quadratic Formula

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (D-1)

x 2 + (b / a )x + (c / a ) = 0 (D-2)

⎛ b ⎞2 b2 c
⎜ x + ⎟ − + =0 (D-3)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2 a

⎛ b ⎞2 b2 c
⎜ x + ⎟ = − (D-4)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2 a

⎛ b ⎞ 2 b 2 − 4ac
⎜x + ⎟ = (D-5)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2

⎛ b ⎞ b 2 − 4ac
⎜x + ⎟ = ± (D-6)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2

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⎛ b ⎞ ± b 2 − 4ac
⎜x + ⎟ = (D-7)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 2a

b b 2 − 4ac
x= − ± (D-8)
2a 2a

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x= (D-9)
2a

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