Abstract : Male albino rats were studied from birth (day zero) to end of 17 weeks (day 119) postnatal.

119) postnatal. During the period of

study groups of rats were sacrificed by deep anaesthesia at weekly intervlas. Each group had six, n=6 control and n=6
experimental (stressed) rats. Three kinds of stresses were inflicted, (i) maternal deprivation stress (Mds), (ii) restraint stress
(Rs) and (iii) electrical foot shock (Efs) stress. Parameters studied were, body weight, head length, head rump length and tail
length. Results of the study revealed that stress affected body weight significantly and longitudinal growth of head, body and
tail lengths of male albino rats. As a result of periodic change of mode of stress, signs of acclimatization were not evident in
each type of stress period.
Key words: Anatomy, Rat, Head, Body, Tail, Measurements, Stress
LongitudinaI Study Of The Effect Of Chronic Stresses On PostnataI
Growth Of The Body And Its Constituent Parts in MaIe AIbino Rat
ShaIigram DhungeI, Mukerjee B
Jawaharlal nstitute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry
J. Anat. Soc. India 56 (2)18-24 (2007)

Introduction :
Observations at birth and thereafter, day by
day progress in growth of the body, head and tail in the
postnatal (pn) life of man and animals are amazing
experience. Enormous studies on birth and growth
phenomenon in the postnatal life of animals have
been compiled over the years (Hain, 1934; Armario et
al, 1984; Armario et al, 1985a; Armario et al, 1985b;
Alario et al, 1987; Avishai-Ephner et al, 1995; Bruno et
al, 1990). However, most of the investigators followed
the traditional cross-sectional method of study in
which groups of animals generally mice or rats were
sacrificed periodically (Tanner, 1951; Tanner, 1962).
Different strains of laboratory rats have been used for
various types of investigations (Moment, 1933; Asling
and Frank, 1963; Harel, 1995).
Over the decades, many longitudinal studies
were reported, e.g. Outhouse and Mandel (1933),
Moment (1933), Saxton and Silberg (1947), Macintyre
Oldham (1959), Dickerson and Widdowson (1960),
Widdowson and McCance (1963), Hughes and
Tanner (1970) and Williams et al (1974). Many such
studies were related to development and growth
(Morgan and Naismith, 1982; Maes et al, 1983; Maitar
et al, 1988). Specifically related with postnatal
development and growth, some researchers have
shown proclivity to study certain skeletal elements
(Groot, 1963; Harkness and Trotter, 1980). Growth
and development manifest by increment in the size of
the body. n longitudinal study increase in the size of
the intact rat does not adequately reveal the size of the
different parts of the body like head length, body
length and tail length (Hughes, 1970). n the present
study two parameters were considered for
investigation, (i) skeletal growth of normal male rats,
and (ii) skeletal growth of male rats reared under
stress. As for the stress; three types of stresses were
inflicted such as (a) maternal separation, (b) physical
restraint and (c) electrical foot-shock.
Since the parameters are precise but
extensive, literature analysed were substantial (Kuhn
and Butlar, 1978; Armario et al, 1982; Armario et al
1985a and b; Alario et al, 1987; Hennesy et al, 1989;
Rossenfeld 1991; Rossenfeld, 1992; Avishai-Ephner
et al, 1995). Thus, the present work comprises of
study of the different parts of the axial skeleton of male
albino rats observed from birth to 17 weeks postnatal
age. The study was conducted in normal health of the
growing male albino rats and in stresses like maternal
deprivation (Md), restraint stress (Rs) and electrical
foot shock (Efs). To the best of our knowledge and
endevaour we could not come across any single study
which describes effect of chronic multiple stresses on
male albino rats.
MateriaIs and Methods :
AnimaIs:
The albino rats used in this study were
obtained from the vivarium of JPMER, Pondicherry.
By selective fostering, only the male pup colonies
were made. Two colonies comprising of one mother
rat and six male pups were made. One colony served
as control group and other one (stressed group) was
exposed to stress as per protocol given below. Each
colony was housed in PVC rat cages (Size 40 x 25 x
16 cm). The cages were maintained at temperature
o o
controlled between 21 and 23 C. The relative
humidity ranged between 58% and 73%. The light :
dark cycle was regulated 12:12 hr. The food supplied
to the mother and later to the young weaning rats was
as per recommendations of NN (National nstitute of
Nutrition, Jamia, Osmania, Hyderabad-7, ndia). The
constituents of the diet was: Wheat flour : 22.5%,
Roasted Bengal gram flour : 60.0%, Skim milk powder
: 5.0%, Casein : 4%, Refined oil : 4%, Salt mixture with
J. Anat. Soc. India 56 (2)18-24 (2007)
period was withdrawal of food and water, 20 minutes
before. After the restraint period, the rats were
returned to their home cages, but the food and water
supply was restored after delay of 20 minutes.
Second remission of stress period was
between day 71 to 77 postnatal.
EIectricaI foot shock stress (day 78 to day 119):
During this period, the male albino rats were
subjected to electrical foot shock in an avoidance box
(Takaki & Company, Japan). The avoidance box had
plexiglas door and floor made up of steel bars spaced 1
cm apart. The avoidance box was attached to an
automatic shock generator which presented 1 mA
shock at every one minute intervals for 30 minutes in
each session. The quantumof foot shock was inflicted
at every 8 hour interval. After the shock treatment, the
rats were returned to their home cages. Food and
drinkingwater wasrestoredafter delayof 20minutes.
Measurements:
Linear measurements of head, body and tail
was recorded by dissection of rats, anaesthetised by
cholorase in doses, 100 mg/kg body weight.
Body weight:
This was recorded by a single pan electronic
balance (Dhona) having 1 mg accuracy. All weight
recordings were noted between 8.00 and 9.00 hrs on
day 0, 5, 7 and every successive week till day 119. Skin
and the soft tissue over dorsal aspect of the head and
bodywereremovedtomeasuretheboneyelements.
Head length:
To measure the head length, the skin over the
dorsal aspect of cranium was removed to view the
external occipital crest and nasal bone (Fig.1).
Straight lines were drawn between the rostral edge of
nasal bone and the center of the external occipital
crest. A vernier caliper was used to measure the
accurate head length.
Fig. 1 : Head length of Rat (dorsal aspect)
starch : 4%, Vitamin and choline mixture with starch :
0.5%. Food and clean drinking water (2 ml HCl in 3
litres of tap water, pH 2.0 to 2.5) was supplied ad
libitum (Lane Petter, 1976). The experiments were
performed to record the body weight and to measure
various longitudinal increments in the head, body and
tail length of the rats in control and stressed group at
birth and then at weekly interval for 17 weeks.
Stress regimen:
From early postnatal period, i.e. from day 5 till
day 119, rats (excluding the mother rats) were inflicted
with three kinds of stresses,
(a) ntermittent maternal deprivation (Md): Pups
were separated intermittently from the mother from
day 5 to day 21 and day 22 to day 27 was period of first
remission.
(b) Restraint stress (Rs): Rats were exposed to
Rs from day 28 to day 70 and day 71 to day 77 was
period of second remission.
(c) Electrical foot shock stress (Efs): Efs was
inflicted to the rats from day 78 to day 119.
Methods employed in stress presentations in
(a), (b) and (c) are detailed in the following.
MaternaI deprivation:
From day 5 postnatal, maternal deprivation
stress was induced as per following daily schedule.
During the maternal deprivation period, the
pups were transferred to another cage of similar type
where they remained without food and maternal
touch.
Weaning commenced on day 22. On the
same day the rats were segregated from mother.
Separate colonies were formed and were put in cages
containing 3 male rats in each cage. After the
maternal deprivation, first period of remission from
stress was between day 22 to day 27 during which rats
in each colony rested in normal living condition.
Restraint stress (day 28 to day 70):
During this period of 42 days, the young male
rats were subjected to restraint stress in a plexi-glass
rat restrainer (NCO, Ambala, ndia).
The restraint period was for 30 minutes at
every eight hour interval. Alarm for restraint stress

Longitudinal Study Of........... Shaligram Dhungel, Mukerjee B

Days Time period TotaI stress
Day 5 to 8 1 hr twice a day 2 hrs
Day 9 to 12 2 hrs twice a day 4 hrs
Day 13 to 16 3 hrs twice a day 6 hrs
Day 17 to 21 4 hrs twice a day 8 hrs
Head-rump length:
Under deep anaesthesia by cholorase (100
mg/kg body weight) the dorsal surface of the body of
rats were measured by vernier caliper. The distance
noted was between external occipital crest (Fig.1) and
the centre of the anal opening of the rat.
Tail length:
This was measured from the centre of the
anal opening to tip of the tail of the rat.
Data presentation:
The body weight in gram, head length, head-
rump length and tail length in centimeter has been
tabulated as mean and standard deviation. Unpaired
't' test was used for comparison of data between two
groups and a 'p' value less than 0.05 was considered
as significant.
ResuIt :
Body weight:
This study showed that in normal rats
between day 0 and day 7, the body weight (BW) of rat
pups become more than double of its birth weight. By
day 21 (weaning day), it increased 4.97 times of the
birth weight. Rats grown under maternal deprivation
stress from day 5 till day 21 gained only 4.13 times of
the birth weight. n normal rats, on day 70 BW was
38.68 and on day 119 it was 63.46 times of the birth
weight. Rats grown under restraint stress could gain
25.16 times of birthweight and the rats grown with foot
shock stress gained only 49.96 times of birthweight till
day 119. Thus, retardation of body weight noted on
weekly intervals (Table 1) was significant effect of
three different types of stresses.
TABLE 1
Body weight (Mean SD, n=6 rats/group) of maIe
aIbino rats in normaI heaIthy state and under stress.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001 in comparison to control by
unpaired 't' test.
Head Iength:
The cranium of the rat at birth was soft
cartilaginous, the skin over the scalp was thin,
translucent; it covered the parietal bones of scalp. By
weaning day (D21), the scalp was fully hairy but the
skeleton of head was generally cartilaginous, the
parietal bones were membranous (Figure 1).
The head length at birth measured 1.76 0.11
cm, at the age of D7 it was 2.50 0.7 cm, on D21 it was
2.80 0.33, on D70 it increased to 2.99 0.26 and
finally on D119 the head length of normal male rats
measured 3.45 0.22 cm. Head length of the rats in
experimentally stressed group, on D0 was 1.68
0.12, on D7 : 2.50 0.10, on D21 it was 2.52 0.12, on
D70 the head length of stressed rats increased to 2.83
0.86 and on D119 the head length of rats grown
under stress measured 3.24 0.45 cm. t is clear that
the head size increased rapidly from day 42 but its
size stabilized after day 105 postnatal (Table 2).
TABLE 2
Head Iength (Mean SD, n=6 rats/group) in controIs
and stressed of aIbino rats
Head-rump Iength:
The region from external occipital crest to
anal opening in rat has 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and
further caudal vertebrae. There are no defined
Longitudinal Study Of........... Shaligram Dhungel, Mukerjee B
Body weight (gm)
Control Stressed
0 5.21 0.33 5.10 0.21
7 11.18 1.73 9.51 3.63*
14 20.66 2.39 10.63 2.48***
21 25.89 4.31 21.11 3.64**
28 35.88 5.24 27.24 4.91*
35 52.93 5.68 37.72 12.25***
42 80.52 4.43 46.90 9.19***
49 105.66 11.41 72.94 4.17***
56 140.62 9.16 97.46 5.56***
63 180.44 13.43 114.78 12.22***
70 201.14 4.40 128.34 11.12***
77 220.66 13.80 135.73 10.80***
84 250.45 7.90 149.40 13.78***
91 265.57 3.80 185.44 12.64***
98 280.60 13.80 201.42 18.15***
105 305.44 14.52 222.55 12.54***
112 325.26 7.28 232.60 5.59***
119 330.64 3.80 254.80 8.70***
Age (days)
J. Anat. Soc. India 56 (2)18-24 (2007)

Head Length (cm)
Control Stressed
0 1.76 0.11 1.68 0.12
7 2.55 0.07 2.48 0.80
14 2.61 0.06 2.50 0.10
21 2.80 0.33 2.52 0.12*
28 2.82 0.12 2.53 0.23*
35 2.85 0.11 2.55 0.64*
42 2.90 0.21 2.56 0.76*
49 2.91 0.16 2.78 0.68
56 2.95 0.14 2.81 0.32
63 2.97 0.23 2.82 0.44
70 2.99 0.26 2.83 0.86
77 3.12 0.16 2.84 1.18*
84 3.18 0.19 2.87 0.28**
91 3.22 0.18 2.91 1.26**
98 3.31 0.22 2.94 1.12**
105 3.42 0.26 2.97 0.23*
112 3.44 0.51 2.99 0.22*
119 3.45 0.22 3.24 0.45
Age (days)
*p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 in comparison to control (unpaired 't' test)
lumbar, sacral or coccygeal regions; however, series
of vertebrae continued till the tail.
Rats born in normal condition, the head-rump
length (body length), at birth measured 2.42 0.13
cm. After a week, on D7, it was 3.40 0.22 cm, on
weaning day D21 it increased to 5.32 1.26 cm, on
D70 it was 12.66 3.22 and on day 119 it increased to
15.93 2.21. Rats in stressed group on day 0, the
head-rump length was found 2.38 0.11, on day 7 it
was 2.83 0.15, on day 21 it measured 4.65 2.11
and on day 70 it was 10.44 1.68, finally on day 119
the head-rump length of stressed group of rats were
14.76 3.25, the differences between the normal and
stressed groups from day 21 onwards were significant
(Table 3).
TABLE 3
Head rump Iength (Mean SD, n=6 rats/group) in
controI and stressed group of maIe aIbino rats
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001 in comparison to control
(unpaired 't' test)
TaiI Iength:
Male rat pups born from normal healthy
mother had prominent but short tail. By dissection, at
birth and at neonatal period the tail was found to
posses fibrous tissue. Vertebrae and inter-vertebral
discs develop gradually in successive order. At birth,
on D0 it was 1.64 0.11 cm, on D7 it was 3.21 0.10
cm, on D21 it increased to 6.55 0.25, on D70 it
increased to 16.30 2.5 cm and on day 119 the normal
rat tail measured 19.45 1.57 cm. The tail length of
the rats in stressed group at birth was 1.61 0.12, on
day 7 it was 2.98 0.23, on D21 (end of Md period) it
was 5.92 0.45, on D70 it increased to 14.86 3.44
and finally on D119 it increased to 17.23 1.25. Tail of
the growing rats in both groups, in the earlier stages of
development did not posses clearly defined
vertebrae; instead it was having fibrous tissue which
with increasing age changed into osteoid tissue
segments. Finally, flat vertebral bodies without
conspicuous bony processes developed. The
intervertebral spaces had soft pulpy structures
without any distinctive features. n a grown up rat, on
day 119, the tail has 28 flat vertebral segment with
intervertebral discs (Table 4).
TABLE 4
TaiI Iength (mean SD, n=6 rats/group) in controI
and stressed maIe aIbino rats
Discussion :
n life of an animal and man development and
growth are almost symphonetic. Studies on rats often
begin from before birth, i.e. prenatal development and
followed to be observed in the postnatal life.
Altogether it makes voluminous literature and at the
same time makes it beyond comprehension of the
researcher. Therefore, this paper was limited to
postnatal period of the rats life from day zero to day
119 (17 weeks). by which period sexual and
reproductive growth, maturity and functional proclivity
is achieved. t was well recognized for many years
that the size of the litter is an important determinant of
overall growth of the rats (Gates, 1925). Hughes and
Tanner (1970) reported that somatic growth of
laboratory rat is sensitive to litter size. t is directly
Longitudinal Study Of........... Shaligram Dhungel, Mukerjee B

J. Anat. Soc. India 56 (2)18-24 (2007)

Age (days)

Control Stressed
0 2.42 0.13 2.38 0.11
7 3.40 0.22 2.83 0.15
14 4.98 0.19 3.63 1.36*
21 5.32 1.26 4.65 2.11
28 6.84 0.35 5.72 1.29*
35 7.83 2.40 6.76 2.19
42 8.86 1.21 7.50 2.28*
49 9.76 2.58 8.28 2.37*
56 10.50 4.14 9.16 1.48*
63 11.21 2.30 9.66 3.24**
70 12.66 3.22 10.44 1.68***
77 13.28 1.60 11.72 3.52**
84 14.18 2.21 12.55 3.24**
91 14.26 1.15 12.78 2.11**
98 14.76 2.22 12.84 4.10***
105 15.22 3.23 13.77 3.70***
112 15.74 4.12 14.14 5.18**
119 15.93 2.21 14.76 3.25*
Head rump Iength (cm)
Tail Length (cm)
Control Stressed
0 1.64 0.11 1.61 0.12
7 3.21 0.10 2.98 0.23
14 5.42 0.16 5.35 0.36
21 6.55 0.25 5.92 0.45
28 8.56 0.23 6.43 1.20*
35 9.33 0.21 8.50 0.22
42 12.42 0.35 9.82 1.25*
49 13.22 1.21 11.32 1.46*
56 14.70 2.26 13.10 1.15*
63 15.48 2.46 13.72 0.27**
70 16.30 2.50 14.86 3.44**
77 17.46 1.38 15.40 2.23 **
84 18.13 1.25 15.78 1.19***
91 18.32 2.15 16.14 0.41**
98 18.94 1.22 16.66 1.37***
105 19.30 2.25 17.11 1.29**
112 19.41 1.38 17.21 1.14***
119 19.45 1.57 17.23 1.25**
Age (days)
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001 in comparison to control
(unpaired 't' test)
linked to demand and supply of milk. The more pups
in the litter, the lesser milk available for the individual
pups, resulting in slower growth rate. n the following
year, Park and Nowsielski (1971) emphasized the
importance of genetic pattern and maternal
environmental factors. Quality and quantity of food
provided to the laboratory animal at any stage has
important significance for growth of the animal
(Moment, 1933; Moss, 1954; Morgan, 1982; Lews,
1989). n our earlier studies, Mukerjee (1987) and
Shaligram (1998), we maintained only five pups kept
with a healthy dame. t was common to observe that
late in third week postnatal the young rat pups started
to nibble the solid food provided to the dame; this can
be taken as additional nutrient supplement for the
young rat pups. Generally, rats are omnivorous, they
prefer fresh food. They instinctively store excess food
by covering them under the paddy husk provided on
the floor of the cage. However, unless starvation is
threatened, rats avoid stale food and water (Lane-
Petter, 1976). Chronic exposure to stressors of
certain severity cause anorexia and reduce body
weight (Marti et al, 1994). n this study it has been
observed that chronic stresses like maternal
deprivation, restraint stress and electrical foot-shock
reduce food intake, increase water consumption and
cause reduced physical activity by causing longer
period of sleep. Rats in the stress group develop fear
which is noticed by mere handling before stress
presentation. Handling cause more urination and
excrement.
Studies on rat skull has been reported long
ago (Hatai, 1907). Later reporters (Spence, 1940;
Hughes and Tanner, 1970) considered the head
length as part of nose rump length. Acheson et al
(1959) described adult rat skeleton by radiographic
means. Such studies could not be undertaken
because our study period commenced from early
postnatal period when the skeleton of rat was
cartilaginous and unossified, and will not cast X-ray
shadow, that is why we resorted to dissection and
direct measurement by vernier calipers by which
method we could present the true head length of the
rat. Our observation reconfirmed that at birth and soon
after, skull was cartilaginous chondrocranium formed
of growth cartilages 'synchondrosis'. t is similar to
human developing skull where small areas of
unossified cartilages remain till adult age (Patricia
Collins, 2006).
We do not substantiate the belief that body
length is same as nose rump length, instead we
describe it as (i) head length precise head size only,
(ii) head-rump length exclusive body length only and
(iii) tail length total of the caudal vertebrae. Some of
the points i, ii and iii is the total linear size of the rat..
This depicts the true size of the body. n fact, it is not
comparable to crown-rump length (CRL) in human
(Sadler, 2006). Tail length of the rat which at birth is
shorter than the head length, increase rapidly due to
addition of the newer vertebrae and the intervertebral
discs by formation of sclerotomic and notochordal
elements. n absence of substantial literature on the
development of the vertebrae of albino rat knowledge
of development of vertebrae and the intervertebral
disc in humans (Bagnall et al, 1977; Muller and
O'Rahilly, 1986; O'Rahilly et al, 1990) would explain
the sequence of growth in the linear increment of the
body size of Wistar rats.
We were restricted to investigate further
because we designed an experimental model of
postnatal development of rat from birth to adulthood.
t was observed that maternal separation is notable
within first week postnatal life and causes retardation
of growth but it does not produce severe long-lasting
changes that substantiate earlier report (Hennessy et
al, 1989). Chronic restraint stress for a period of 42
days produce severe retardation in head-rump length
and significant changes in the body size of the rats.
Stresses of three types, particularly the restraint and
foot-shock produce significant setback in the
development of the vertebrae of the head-rump and tail
regions. This study helped in correlating with the
previous reports over the long period, we have added a
new point of view over the conventional method of
descriptionof thesizeof thebodyandtail of albinorats.
Axial skeleton consisted of seven cervical,
twelve thoracic and series of other vertebrae. There
were no separable divisions into lumbar, sacral and
coccygeal vertebrae. Before individual vertebrae and
the intervertebral disc develop, there were
considerable length of fibrous tissue; that in course of
time developed series of vertebrae intervened by
fibrous intervertebral disc.
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