C S 1021 S O FTW A R E P R O JE C T M A N A G E M E N T U N IT - 1

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1 . T h e b e s t t h in g a b o u t s o f t w a r e is it s f le x ib ilit y : - I t c a n b e p r o g r a m m e d t o d o a lm o s t a n y t h in g . 2 . T h e w o r s t t h in g a b o u t s o f t w a r e is it s f le x ib ilit y :
- T h e a lm o s t a n y th in g c h a r a c te r is tic h a s m a d e it d iffic u lt to p la n , m o n ito r , a n d c o n tr o l s o ftw a r e

d e v e lo p m e n t . 3 . I n t h e m id - 1 9 9 0 s , t h r e e im p o r t a n t a n a ly s e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d o n t h e s o f t w a r e e n g in e e r in g in d u s t r y .

A ll th re e a n a ly s e s g iv e n th e s a m e g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n : -

T h e s u c c e s s r a t e f o r s o f t w a r e p r o je c t s is v e r y lo w . T h e y S u m m a r iz e d a s f o llo w s : 1 . S o ftw a re d e v e lo p m e n t is s t ill h ig h ly u n p r e d ic t a b le . O n ly 10% of s o ftw a re p r o je c t s a re d e liv e r e d

s u c c e s s f u lly w it h in in it ia l b u d g e t a n d s c h e d u le d t im e . 2 . M a n a g e m e n t d is c ip lin e is m o r e d if f e r e n t ia t o r in s u c c e s s o r f a ilu r e t h a n a r e t e c h n o lo g y a d v a n c e s . 3 . T h e le v e l o f s o f t w a r e s c r a p a n d r e w o r k is in d ic a t iv e o f a n im m a t u r e p r o c e s s . S o ftw a re m a n a g e m e n t p ro c e s s fra m e w o rk :

W A TE R FA LL

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1. 2.

I t is t h e b a s e lin e p r o c e s s f o r m o s t c o n v e n t io n a l s o f t w a r e p r o je c t s h a v e u s e d . W e c a n e x a m in e t h is m o d e l in t w o w a y s : i. I N T H E O R Y ii. I N P R A C T I C E

IN T H E O R Y :-

In

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S c a le S o f t w a r e S y s t e m s a t I E E E W E S C O N . W h e r e h e m a d e t h r e e p r im a r y p o in t s : 1 . T h e r e a r e t w o e s s e n t ia l s t e p s c o m m o n t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s : - a n a ly s is - c o d in g

2 . In o r d e r to m a n g e a n d c o n tr o l a ll o f th e in te lle c tu a l fr e e d o m a sso c ia te d w ith so ftw a r e d e v e lo p m e n t o n e sh o u ld fo llo w th e fo llo w in g ste p s:

- S y s te m

re q u ire m e n ts d e fin itio n

- S o ftw a re re q u ire m e n ts d e fin itio n - P ro g ram d e s ig n a n d te s tin g

T h e s e s te p s a d d itio n to th e a n a ly s is a n d c o d in g s te p s

3 . S in c e t h e t e s t in g p h a s e is a t t h e e n d o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t c y c le in t h e w a t e r f a ll m o d e l, it m a y b e r is k y a n d in v it e s f a ilu r e . S o w e n e e d t o d o e it h e r t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s m u s t b e m o d if ie d o r a s u b s t a n t ia l d e s ig n c h a n g e s is w a r r a n t e d b y b r e a k in g t h e s o f t w a r e in t o d if f e r e n t p ie c e s . -T h e re a re fiv e im p ro v e m e n ts to th e b a s ic w a te rfa ll m o d e l th a t w o u ld e lim in a te m o s t o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t ris k s a re a s fo llo w s : a ) C o m p le te p ro g ra m d e s ig n b e fo re a n a ly s is a n d c o d in g b e g in (p ro g ra m d e s ig n c o m e s firs t ):-

- B y t h is t e c h n iq u e , t h e p r o g r a m t im in g , a n d d a t a f lu c t u a t io n s .

d e s ig n e r g iv e s u r e t y t h a t t h e s o f t w a r e w ill n o t f a il b e c a u s e o f s t o r a g e ,

- B e g in t h e d e s ig n p r o c e s s w it h p r o g r a m - W r it e a n o v e r v ie w

d e s ig n e r , n o t t h e a n a ly s t o r p r o g r a m m e r s .

d o c u m e n t t h a t is u n d e r s t a n d a b le , in f o r m a t iv e , a n d c u r r e n t s o t h a t e v e r y w o r k e r o n

t h e p r o je c t c a n g a in a n e le m e n t a l u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e s y s t e m .

b ) M a in ta in c u rre n t a n d c o m p le te d o c u m e n ta tio n (D o c u m e n t th e d e s ig n ): - I t is n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v id e a lo t o f d o c u m e n t a t io n o n m o s t s o f t w a r e p r o g r a m s .

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m a in t e n a n c e t e a m , a n d o p e r a t io n s p e r s o n n e l w h o a r e n o t s o f t w a r e lit e r a t e . c ) D o th e jo b tw ic e , if p o s s ib le (D o it tw ic e ): - If a c o m p u te r p ro g ra m d e liv e r e d to th e is d e v e lo p e d f o r t h e f ir s t t im e , a r r a n g e m a t t e r s s o t h a t t h e v e r s io n f in a lly second v e r s io n in s o f a r a s c r it ic a l

c u s t o m e r f o r o p e r a t io n a l d e p lo y m e n t is a c t u a lly t h e

d e s ig n / o p e r a t io n s a r e c o n c e r n e d . - D o it N t im e s a p p r o a c h is t h e p r in c ip le o f m o d e r n - d a y it e r a t iv e d e v e lo p m e n t . d ) P la n , c o n tro l, a n d m o n ito r te s tin g : - The b ig g e s t u s e r o f p r o je c t r e s o u r c e s is t h e t e s t p h a s e . T h is is t h e p h a s e o f g r e a t e s t r is k in t e r m s o f

c o s t a n d s c h e d u le . - I n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t p r o p e r t e s t in g t h e f o llo w in g t h in g s t o b e d o n e : i) E m p lo y a t e a m
ii)

o f t e s t s p e c ia lis t s w h o w e r e n o t r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e o r ig in a l d e s ig n .

E m p lo y v is u a l in s p e c tio n s to s p o t th e o b v io u s e r r o r s lik e d r o p p e d m in u s s ig n s , m is s in g fa c to r s o f

t w o , ju m p s t o w r o n g a d d r e s s e s . iii) T e s t e v e r y lo g ic p h a s e .

iv ) E m p lo y t h e f in a l c h e c k o u t o n t h e t a r g e t c o m p u t e r . e ) In v o lv e th e c u s to m e r:- I t is im p o r t a n t t o in v o lv e t h e c u s t o m e r in a f o r m a l w a y s o t h a t h e h a s c o m m it t e d h im s e lf a t e a r lie r p o in t s b e f o r e f in a l d e liv e r y b y c o n d u c t in g s o m e r e v ie w s s u c h a s , i) P r e lim in a r y s o f t w a r e r e v ie w d u r in g p r e lim in a r y p r o g r a m d e s ig n s t e p . d e s ig n .

ii) C r it ic a l s o f t w a r e r e v ie w d u r in g p r o g r a m iii)

F in a l s o f t w a r e a c c e p t a n c e r e v ie w f o llo w in g t e s t in g .

IN P R A C T IC E :-

- W h a te v e r th e

a d v ic e s t h a t a r e

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b y th e

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th e

t h e o r y b e h in d

t h e w a t e r f a ll

m o d e l, s o m e s o f t w a r e p r o je c t s s t ill p r a c t ic e t h e c o n v e n t io n a l s o f t w a r e m a n a g e m e n t a p p r o a c h . P r o je c t s in t e n d e d f o r t r o u b le f r e q u e n t ly e x h ib it t h e f o llo w in g s y m p t o m s : i) P r o t r a c t e d ( d e la y e d ) in t e g r a t io n - I n t h e c o n v e n t io n a l m o d e l, t h e e n t ir e s y s t e m w a s d e s ig n e d o n p a p e r , t h e n im p le m e n t e d s y s te m t e s t in g t o

a ll a t o n c e , t h e n in t e g r a t e d . O n ly a t t h e e n d o f t h is p r o c e s s w a s it p o s s ib le t o p e r f o r m v e r if y t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a r c h it e c t u r e w a s s o u n d . - H e r e t h e t e s t in g a c t iv it ie s c o n s u m e 4 0 % A C T IV IT Y C O S T M anagem ent R e q u ir e m e n t s D e s ig n C o d e a n d u n it t e s t in g I n t e g r a t io n a n d t e s t D e p lo y m e n t E n v ir o n m e n t 5% 5% 10% 30% 40% 5% 5% o r m o r e lif e - c y c le r e s o u r c e s .

ii) L a te R is k R e s o lu tio n - A s e rio u s is s u e s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e w a te rfa ll life c y c le w as th e la c k of e a rly ris k

re s o lu tio n . T h e ris k p ro file o f a w a te rfa ll m o d e l is ,

- It in c lu d e s fo u r d is tin c t p e rio d s o f ris k e x p o s u re , w h e re ris k is d e fin e d a s th e p ro b a b ility o f m is s in g a c o s t, s c h e d u le , fe a tu re , o r q u a lity g o a l .

iii) R e q u ire m e n ts -D riv e n F u n c tio n a l D e c o m p o s itio n - T r a d it io n a lly , t h e s o f t w a r e d e v e lo p m e n t p r o c e s s h a s b e e n r e q u ir e m e n t - d r iv e n : A n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o p r o v id e a p r e c is e r e q u ir e m e n t s d e f in it io n a n d t h e n t o im p le m e n t e x a c t ly t h o s e r e q u ir e m e n t s . - T h is a p p r o a c h d e p e n d s o n s p e c if y in g r e q u ir e m e n t s c o m p le t e ly a n d c le a r ly b e f o r e o t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t a c t iv it ie s b e g in . - I t f r a n k ly t r e a t s a ll r e q u ir e m e n t s a s e q u a lly im p o r t a n t . - S p e c if ic a t io n o f r e q u ir e m e n t s is a d if f ic u lt a n d im p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e s o f t w a r e d e v e lo p m e n t p ro c e s s . iv ) A d v e rs a ria l S ta k e h o ld e r R e la tio n s h ip s T h e f o llo w in g s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s w a s t y p ic a l f o r m o s t c o n t r a c t u a l s o f t w a r e e f f o r t s : - The c o n tra c to r p re p a re d a d r a f t c o n t a c t - d e liv e r a b le d o c u m e n t th a t c a p tu re d an in t e r m e d ia t e a r t if a c t

a n d d e liv e r e d it t o t h e c u s t o m e r f o r a p p r o v a l. - T h e c u s t o m e r w a s e x p e c t e d t o p r o v id e c o m m e n t s ( w it h in 1 5 t o 3 0 d a y s ) - T h e c o n t r a c to r in t e g r a t e d t h e s e c o m m e n ts a n d s u b m it te d a f in a l v e r s io n f o r a p p r o v a l ( w it h i n 1 5 t o 3 0 d a y s )

P r o je c t S t a k e h o ld e r s :

S ta k e h o ld e r s a r e th e p e o p le in v o lv e d in o r a ffe c te d b y p r o je c t a c tiv itie s S ta k e h o ld e r s in c lu d e th e p r o je c t s p o n s o r a n d p r o je c t te a m s u p p o r t s ta ff c u s to m e r s u s e rs s u p p lie r s o p p o n e n ts to th e p r o je c t

v ) F o c u s o n D o c u m e n ts a n d R e v ie w

M e e tin g s

- T h e c o n v e n t io n a l p r o c e s s f o c u s e d o n v a r io u s d o c u m e n ts t h a t a t te m p te d t o d e s c r ib e t h e s o f t w a r e p r o d u c t . - C o n t r a c to r s p r o d u c e lit e r a lly t o n s o f p a p e r t o m e e t m ile s to n e s a n d d e m o n s t r a t e p r o g r e s s t o s t a k e h o ld e r s , r a t h e r t h a n s p e n d t h e ir e n e r g y o n t a s k s t h a t w o u ld r e d u c e r is k a n d p r o d u c e q u a lit y s o f t w a r e . M o s t d e s ig n r e v ie w s r e s u lt e d in lo w e n g in e e r in g and h ig h c o s t in te rm s o f th e e ffo rt a n d s c h e d u le

in v o lv e d in t h e ir p r e p a r a t io n a n d c o n d u c t .

C O N V E N T IO N A L S O F T W A R E M A N A G E M E N T P E R F O R M A N C E

B a r r y B o e h m s T o p 1 0 I n d u s t r ia l S o f t w a r e M e t r ic s :

1)

F in d in g a n d f ix in g a s o f t w a r e p r o b le m f ix in g t h e p r o b le m

a f t e r d e liv e r y c o s t s 1 0 0 t im e s m o r e t h a n f in d in g a n d

in e a r ly d e s i g n p h a s e s . o f n o m in a l ( s m a ll) , b u t n o m o r e .

2)

Y o u c a n c o m p r e s s s o f t w a r e d e v e lo p m e n t s c h e d u le s 2 5 %

3)

F o r e v e r y $ 1 y o u s p e n d o n d e v e lo p m e n t , y o u w ill s p e n d $ 2 o n m a in t e n a n c e .

4)

S o ftw a re

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p r im a r ily

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s o u r c e lin e s o f c o d e . 5) V a r ia t io n s a m o n g p e o p le a c c o u n t f o r t h e b ig g e s t d if f e r e n c e in s o f t w a r e p r o d u c t iv it y .

6)

T h e o v e r a ll r a t io o f s o f t w a r e t o h a r d w a r e c o s ts is s t ill g r o w in g . I n 1 9 5 5 it

w a s 1 5 : 8 5 ; in 1 9 8 5 , 8 5 : 1 5 .

7 ) O n ly a b o u t 1 5 %

o f s o f t w a r e d e v e lo p m e n t e f f o r t is d e v o t e d t o p r o g r a m m in g .

8)

S o f t w a r e s y s t e m s a n d p r o d u c t s t y p ic a lly c o s t 3 t im e s a s m u c h p e r S L O C a s in d iv id u a l s o f t w a r e p ro g ra m s . S o ftw a re -s y s te m p r o d u c t s c o s t 9 t im e s a s m u c h .

9)

W a lk t h r o u g h s c a t c h 6 0 %

o f th e e rro rs .

10) 80%

o f t h e c o n t r ib u t io n c o m e s f r o m

20%

o f t h e c o n t r ib u t o r s .

- 80%

o f t h e e n g in e e r in g is c o n s u m e d b y 2 0 %

o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s .

- 80%

o f t h e s o f t w a r e c o s t is c o n s u m e d b y 2 0 %

o f th e c o m p o n e n ts .

- 80%

o f th e e rro rs a re c a u s e d b y 2 0 %

o f th e c o m p o n e n ts .

- 80%

o f t h e s o f t w a r e s c r a p a n d r e w o r k is c a u s e d b y 2 0 %

o f th e e rro rs .

- 80%

o f th e re s o u rc e s a re c o n s u m e d b y 2 0 %

o f th e c o m p o n e n ts .

- 80%

o f t h e e n g in e e r in g is a c c o m p lis h e d b y 2 0 %

o f t h e t o o ls .

- 80%

o f t h e p r o g r e s s is m a d e b y 2 0 %

o f t h e p e o p le .

E v o lu tio n o f S o ftw a re E c o n o m ic s

E c o n o m ic s m e a n s S y s t e m o f in t e r r e la t io n s h ip o f m o n e y , in d u s t r y a n d e m p lo y m e n t .

S O FTW A R

E C O N O M IC S :-

T h e c o s t o f th e s o ftw a r e c a n b e e s tim a te d b y c o n s id e r in g th e fo llo w in g th in g s a s p a r a m e te r s to a

f u n c t io n .

1 ) S iz e : W h ic h is m e a s u r e d in t e r m s o f t h e n u m b e r o f S o u r c e L in e s O f C o d e o r t h e n u m b e r o f f u n c t io n p o in t s r e q u ir e d t o d e v e lo p t h e r e q u ir e d f u n c t io n a lit y . 2 ) P r o c e s s : U s e d t o p r o d u c e t h e e n d p r o d u c t , in p a r t ic u la r t h e a b ilit y o f t h e p r o c e s s is t o a v o id n o n - v a lu e - a d d in g a c t iv it ie s ( r e w o r k , b u r e a u c r a t ic d e la y s , c o m m u n ic a t io n s o v e r h e a d ) . 3 ) P e r s o n n e l: T h e c a p a b ilit ie s o f s o f t w a r e e n g in e e r in g p e r s o n n e l, a n d p a r t ic u la r ly t h e ir e x p e r ie n c e w it h t h e c o m p u t e r s c ie n c e is s u e s a n d t h e a p p lic a t io n d o m a in is s u e s o f t h e p r o je c t . 4 ) E n v ir o n m e n t : W h ic h is m a d e u p o f t h e t o o ls a n d t e c h n iq u e s a v a ila b le e f f ic ie n t s o f t w a r e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d t o a u t o m a t e t h e p r o c e s s . 5 ) Q u a lit y : I t in c lu d e s it s f e a t u r e s , p e r f o r m a n c e , r e lia b ilit y , a n d f le x ib ilit y . to s u p p o rt

T h e r e la t io n s h ip a m o n g t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a n d e s t im a t e d c o s t c a n b e c a lc u la t e d b y u s in g ,
P ro c e s s

E f f o r t = ( P e r s o n n e l) ( E n v ir o n m e n t ) ( Q u a lit y ) ( S iz e

- O n e im p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f s o f tw a r e e c o n o m ic s is t h a t t h e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n e f f o r t a n d s iz e e x h ib it s a d is e c o n o m y o f s c a le a n d is t h e r e s u lt o f t h e p r o c e s s e x p o n e n t b e in g g r e a te r t h a n 1 . 0 .
- C o n v e r s e to m o s t m a n u fa c tu r in g p r o c e s s e s , th e m o r e s o ftw a r e y o u b u ild , th e m o r e e x p e n s iv e it is

p e r u n it it e m .

- T h e r e a r e th r e e g e n e r a tio n s o f b a s ic te c h n o lo g y a d v a n c e m e n t in to o ls , c o m p o n e n ts , a n d p r o c e s s e s

a r e a v a ila b le .

1 ) C o n v e n t i o n a l : 1 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 7 0 , C r a f t s m a n s h ip . O r g a n iz a t io n s u s e d c u s t o m t o o ls , c u s t o m p r o c e s s e s , a n d v ir t u a lly a ll c u s t o m c o m p o n e n t s b u ilt in p r im it iv e la n g u a g e s . P r o je c t p e r f o r m a n c e w a s h ig h ly p r e d ic t a b le .

2 ) T r a n s i t i o n : 1 9 8 0 a n d 1 9 9 0 , s o f tw a r e e n g in e e r in g . O r g a n iz a t io n s u s e d m o r e - r e p e a ta b le p r o c e s s e s a n d o f f - th e - s h e lf t o o ls , a n d m o s tly ( > 7 0 % ) c u s to m c o m p o n e n ts b u ilt in h ig h e r le v e l la n g u a g e s .

- S o m e o f th e c o m p o n e n ts ( < 3 0 % ) w e r e a v a ila b le a s c o m m e r c ia l p r o d u c ts lik e , O S , D B M S ,

N e t w o r k in g a n d G U I .

3 ) M o d e r n p r a c t i c e s : 2 0 0 0 a n d la t e r , s o f t w a r e p r o d u c t io n .

- 70%

c o m p o n e n t-b a s e d ,

- 30%

c u s to m

C o n v e n tio n a l

T ra n s itio n

Modern Practices

- 1960s 1970s

- 1980s 1990s

- 2000 and on

- W a t e r f a ll m o d e l

- P r o c e s s im p r o v e m e n t

- I t e r a t iv e d e v e lo p m e n t

- F u n c t io n a l d e s ig n

- E n c a p s u la t io n - b a s e d

- C o m p o n e n t-b a s e d

- Diseconomy of scale- Diseconomy of scale- ROI

E n v i r o n m

e n t s / t o o l s :

C u s to m

Off-the-shelf, separate Off-the-shelf, Integrated

S i z e :

100%

c u s to m

30% component-based

70% component-based

70%

c u s to m

30%

c u s to m

P r o c e s s :

A d hoc

R e p e a t a b le

M a n a g e d /m e a s u re d

T y p i c a l

p r o j e c t

P e r f o r m

a n c e :

A lw a y s :

I n f r e q u e n t ly :

U s u a lly :

O ver budget

O n budget

O n budget

Over schedule

On schedule

O n s c h e d u le

W h a t D o e s R e tu rn O n In v e s tm e n t - R O I M e a n ?

A performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of an investment or efficiency of a number of different investments. To calculate divided by the cost of the

to compare the

ROI, the benefit (return) of an investment is

investment; the result is expressed as a percentage or a ratio.

T h e r e t u r n o n in v e s t m e n t f o r m u la :

Return on investment is a very popular metric because of its versatility and is, if an investment does not have a positive ROI, or if there t h e in v e s t m e n t s h o u ld b e n o t b e u n d e r t a k e n P ro je c t S iz e s :

s im p lic it y . T h a t

are other opportunities with a higher ROI, then

S iz e a s t e a m

s t r e n g t h c o u ld b e :

T r iv ia l ( M in o r ) S iz e : 1 p e r s o n S m a ll S iz e : 5 p e o p le M o d e r a t e S iz e : 2 5 p e o p le L a r g e S iz e : 1 2 5 p e o p le H u g e S iz e : 6 2 5 p e o p le m o re th e s iz e , th e g re a te r a re th e c o s ts of m anagem ent o v e rh e a d , c o m m u n ic a t io n ,

The

s y n c h r o n iz a t io n s a m o n g v a r io u s p r o je c t s o r m o d u le s , e t c . R e d u c e S o ftw a re S iz e :

T h e le s s s o f t w a r e w e w r it e , t h e b e t te r it is f o r p r o je c t m a n a g e m e n t a n d f o r p r o d u c t q u a lit y - T h e c o s t o f s o f t w a r e is n o t ju s t in t h e c o s t o f c o d in g a lo n e ; it is a ls o in A n a ly s is o f r e q u ir e m e n t s D e s ig n R e v ie w o f r e q u ir e m e n t s , d e s ig n a n d c o d e T e s t P la n n in g a n d p r e p a r a t io n T e s t in g B u g f ix R e g r e s s io n t e s t in g C o d in g t a k e s a r o u n d 1 5 % o f d e v e lo p m e n t c o s t

C le a r ly , if w e r e d u c e 1 5 h r s o f c o d in g , w e c a n d ir e c t ly r e d u c e 1 0 0 h r s o f d e v e lo p m e n t e f f o r t , a n d a ls o r e d u c e t h e p r o je c t t e a m s iz e a p p r o p r ia t e ly !

S iz e r e d u c t io n is d e f in e d in t e r m s o f h u m a n - g e n e r a t e d s o u r c e c o d e . M o s t o f t e n , t h is m ig h t s t ill m e a n t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d e x e c u t a b le c o d e is a t le a s t t h e s a m e o r e v e n m o r e

- S o f t w a r e S iz e c o u ld b e r e d u c e d b y S o ftw a re R e -u s e U s e o f C O T S ( C o m m e r c ia l O f f - T h e S h e lf S o f t w a r e )

P r o g r a m m in g L a n g u a g e s

P R A G M A T IC

S O F T W A R E E S T IM A T IO N :

- If th e re

is n o

p r o p e r w e ll - d o c u m e n t e d c a s e s t u d ie s t h e n it is d if f ic u lt t o e s t im a t e t h e in s o f t w a r e c o s t e s t im a t io n .

c o s t o f t h e s o f t w a r e . I t is o n e o f t h e c r it ic a l p r o b le m - B u t t h e c o s t m o d e l v e n d o r s c la im it e r a t iv e d e v e lo p m e n t p r o je c t s .

t h a t t h e ir t o o ls a r e w e ll s u it a b le f o r e s t im a t in g

- I n o r d e r t o e s t im a t e t h e c o s t o f a p r o je c t t h e f o llo w in g t h r e e t o p ic s s h o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d ,

1 ) W h ic h c o s t e s t im a t io n m o d e l t o u s e .

2 ) W h e t h e r t o m e a s u r e s o f t w a r e s iz e in S L O C o r f u n c t io n p o in t .

3 ) W h a t c o n s t it u t e s a g o o d e s t im a t e .

- T h e r e a r e a lo t o f s o f t w a r e c o s t e s t im a t io n m o d e ls a r e a v a ila b le s u c h a s ,

C O C O M O , C H E C K P O I N T , E S T I M A C S , K n o w le d g e P la n , P r ic e - S , P ro Q M S , S E E R , S L IM , S O F T C O S T , a n d S P Q R /2 0 .

- O f w h ic h C O C O M O is o n e o f t h e m o s t o p e n a n d w e ll - d o c u m e n t e d c o s t e s t im a t io n m o d e ls

- T h e s o f t w a r e s iz e c a n b e m e a s u r e d b y u s in g

1) S LO C

2 ) F u n c tio n p o in ts

- M o s t s o f t w a r e e x p e r t s a r g u e d t h a t t h e S L O C is a p o o r m e a s u r e o f s iz e . B u t it h a s s o m e v a lu e in th e s o ftw a re In d u s try . - S LO C w o rk e d w e ll in a p p lic a t io n s th a t w e re c u s to m b u ilt w hy because of easy to

a u t o m a t e a n d in s t r u m e n t . - N o w a d a y s t h e r e a r e s o m a n y a u t o m a t ic s o u r c e c o d e g e n e r a t o r s a r e a v a ila b le a n d t h e r e a r e s o m a n y a d v a n c e d h ig h e r - le v e l la n g u a g e s a r e a v a ila b le . S o S L O C is a u n c e r t a in m e a s u r e . - T h e m a in a d v a n t a g e o f f u n c tio n p o in t s is t h a t t h is m e t h o d is in d e p e n d e n t o f t h e t e c h n o lo g y a n d is t h e r e f o r e a m u c h b e t t e r p r im it iv e u n it f o r c o m p a r is o n s a m o n g p r o je c t s a n d o r g a n iz a t io n s . T h e m a in d is a d v a n t a g e o f f u n c t io n p o in t s is t h a t t h e p r im it iv e d e f in it io n s a r e a b s t r a c t a n d t h e e v o lv in g a r t if a c t s .

m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e n o t e a s ily d e r iv e d d ir e c t ly f r o m

- F u n c tio n p o in ts is m o r e a c c u r a te e s tim a to r in th e e a r ly p h a s e s o f a p r o je c t life c y c le . In la te r phases, S LO C b e c o m e s a m o r e u s e fu l a n d p r e c is e m e a s u r e m e n t b a s is o f v a r io u s m e tr ic s p e r s p e c tiv e s .

- T h e m o s t r e a l- w o r ld u s e o f c o s t m o d e ls is b o t t o m - u p r a t h e r t h a n t o p - d o w n .

- The

s o ftw a re

p r o je c t m a n a g e r d e f in e s

th e

ta rg e t c o s t o f th e

s o ftw a re , th e n

m a n ip u la t e s

th e

p a r a m e t e r s a n d s iz in g u n t il t h e t a r g e t c o s t c a n b e ju s t if ie d .

I m p r o v in g S o f t w a r e E c o n o m ic s
3. It is n o t th a t m u c h easy to im p r o v e th e s o ftw a r e e c o n o m ic s b u t a ls o d iffic u lt to

m e a s u r e a n d v a lid a te . 4. T h e re a re m any a s p e c ts a re th e r e in o r d e r to im p r o v e th e s o ftw a r e e c o n o m ic s

th e y a r e , S iz e , P r o c e s s , P e r s o n n e l, E n v ir o n m e n t a n d q u a lity . 5. These p a r a m e te r s e n a b le to ( a s p e c ts ) s iz e a re not and in d e p e n d e n t p ro c e s s th e y a re d e p e n d e n t. For

e x a m p le ,

to o ls

r e d u c tio n

im p r o v e m e n ts ,

s iz e - r e d u c tio n d r iv e to o l

a p p ro a c h e s r e q u ir e m e n ts .
6.

le a d

p ro c e s s

changes,

and

p ro c e s s

im p r o v e m e n ts

G U I te c h n o lo g y is a g o o d e x a m p le o f to o ls e n a b lin g a n e w

a n d d iffe re n t p ro c e s s . G U I

b u i l d e r t o o l s p e r m i t t e d e n g i n e e r in g t e a m s t o c o n s t r u c t a n e x e c u t a b le u s e r i n t e r f a c e f a s t e r a n d l e s s c o s t.

7.

T w o d e c a d e s a g o , te a m s d e v e lo p in g a u s e r in te r fa c e w o u ld s p e n d e x te n s iv e tim e fa c to r s , s c r e e n la y o u t, a n d s c re e n d y n a m ic s . A ll th is w o u ld done on p a p e r.

a n a ly z in g

W h e r e a s b y u s in g G U I, th e p a p e r d e s c r ip tio n s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r y .
8. A lo n g w ith th e s e fiv e b a s ic p a ra m e te rs a c ro s s th e a n o th e r b o a rd im p o rta n t is th e fa c to r th a t h a s in flu e n c e d in

s o ftw a re

te c h n o lo g y

im p ro v e m e n ts

e v e r -in c re a s in g

advances

h a rd w a re

p e r fo r m a n c e .

R E D U C IN G S O F T W A R E P R O D U C T S IZ E : - B y c h o o s in g th e ty p e o f th e la n g u a g e

- B y u s in g O b je c t- O r ie n te d m e th o d s a n d v is u a l m o d e lin g - B y r e u s in g th e e x is tin g c o m p o n e n ts a n d b u ild in g r e u s a b le c o m p o n e n ts &

- B y u s in g c o m m e rc ia l c o m p o n e n ts ,w e c a n re d u c e th e p ro d u c t s iz e o f a s o ftw a re .

H e r e U P F s ( U n iv e r s a l F u n c tio n P o in ts ) a r e u s e fu l e s tim a to r s fo r la n g u a g e in d e p e n d e n t in th e e a r ly life c y c le p h a s e s . T h e b a s ic u n its o f fu n c t io n p o in ts a r e : - E x te r n a l u s e r in p u ts

- E x te r n a l o u tp u ts - In te r n a l lo g ic a l d a ta g r o u p s

- E x te r n a l d a ta In te r fa c e s
- E x te r n a l in q u ir ie s

O B J E C T O R IE N T E D M E T H O D S A N D V IS U A L M O D E L IN G : - T h e r e h a s b e e n a w id e s p r e a d m o v e m e n ts in th e 1 9 9 0 s to w a r d O b je c tO r ie n te d te c h n o lo g y .

- S o m e s tu d ie s c o n c lu d e d th a t O b je c t - O r ie n te d p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e s a p p e a r to b e n e fit b o th s o ftw a r e p r o d u c tiv ity a n d s o ftw a r e q u a lity . O n e o f s u c h O b je c t - O r ie n te d m e th o d is U M L - U n ifie d M o d e lin g L a n g u a g e .

B o o c h d e s c r ib e d t h e f o llo w in g

t h r e e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e p r o je c t s

t h a t a r e u s in g O b je c t - O r ie n t e d c o n c e p t s : 1 ) A n O O - m o d e l o f th e p r o b le m a n d its s o lu tio n e n c o u r a g e s a c o m m o n a n d its d e v e lo p e r s , th u s c r e a tin g a

v o c a b u la r y b e tw e e n th e e n d u s e r o f a s y s te m s h a r e d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e p r o b le m

b e in g s o lv e d .

2 ) T h e u s e o f c o n t i n u o u s i n t e g r a t i o n c r e a t e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o r e c o g n i z e r i s k e a r ly a n d m a k e in c r e m e n ta l c o r r e c tio n s w ith o u t w e a k e n th e e n tir e d e v e lo p m e n t e ffo r t.

3 ) A n O O - a r c h i t e c tu r e p r o v i d e s a c l e a r s e p a r a t i o n a m o n g d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t s o f a s y s t e m , c ra tin g fire w a lls th a t p re v e n t a c h a n g e in o n e p a rt o f th e s y s te m fro m th e e n tire a rc h ite c tu re .

H e a ls o s u g g e s t e d f iv e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f a s u c c e s s f u l O O - P r o je c t , 1) A c r u e l fo c u s on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s y s te m th a t p r o v id e s a w e ll

u n d e r s to o d c o lle c tio n o f e s s e n tia l m in im a l c h a r a c te r is tic s . 2) The e x is te n c e of a c u ltu r e th a t is c e n te r e d on r e s u lts , e n c o u ra g e s

c o m m u n ic a tio n , a n d y e t is n o t a fr a id to fa il. 3 ) T h e e ffe c tiv e u s e o f O O - m o d e lin g . 4 ) T h e e x is te n c e o f a s tr o n g a r c h ite c tu r a l v is io n .

5 ) T h e a p p lic a tio n o f a w e ll-m a n a g e d ite ra tiv e a n d in c re m e n ta l d e v e lo p m e n t life c y c le .

R E U S E : O r g a n iz a tio n s th a t tr a n s la te s r e u s a b le c o m p o n e n ts in to c o m m e r c ia l p r o d u c ts h a s th e fo llo w in g c h a r a c te r is tic s : - T h e y h a v e a n e c o n o m ic m o tiv a tio n fo r c o n tin u e d s u p p o r t. - They ta k e o w n e r s h ip of im p r o v in g p ro d u c t q u a lity , a d d in g new

fe a tu r e s a n d tr a n s itio n in g to n e w te c h n o lo g ie s .

- T h e y h a v e a s u f f i c i e n tl y b r o a d c u s t o m e r b a s e t o b e p r o f i t a b l e .

C O M M E R C IA L C O M P O N E N T S

IM P R O V IN G

S O FTW A R E P R O C E S S E S :

T h e r e a r e th r e e d is tin c t p r o c e s s p e r s p e c tiv e s : M e ta p ro c e s s : It is a n O r g a n iz a tio n s p o lic ie s , p r o c e d u r e s , a n d p r a c tic e s fo r p u r s u in g a

s o ftw a r e - in te n s iv e lin e o f b u s in e s s . The fo c u s of th is p ro c e s s is of o r g a n iz a tio n a l e c o n o m ic s , lo n g - te r m

s tr a te g ie s , a n d a s o ftw a r e R O I. M a c ro p ro c e s s : A p r o je c ts p o lic ie s , a n d p r a c tic e s fo r p r o d u c in g a c o m p le te s o ftw a r e

p r o d u c t w ith in c e r ta in c o s t, s c h e d u le , a n d q u a lity c o n s tr a in ts . The fo c u s of th e m a c ro p ro c e s s is on c r e a tin g an s u ffic ie n t

in s ta n c e o f th e m e ta p r o c e s s fo r a s p e c ific s e t o f c o n s tr a in ts . M ic r o p r o c e s s : A p r o je c ts te a m s p o lic ie s , p r o c e d u r e s , a n d p r a c tic e s fo r a c h ie v in g an

a r tifa c t o f a s o ftw a r e p r o c e s s . T h e fo c u s o f th e m ic r o p r o c e s s is o n a c h ie v in g a n in te r m e d ia te p r o d u c t b a s e lin e w ith s u ffic ie n t fu n c tio n a lity a s e c o n o m ic a lly a n d r a p id ly a s p r a c tic a l. The o b je c tiv e of p ro c e s s im p r o v e m e n t is to m a x im iz e th e a llo c a tio n of

r e s o u r c e s to p r o d u c tiv e a c tiv itie s a n d m in im iz e th e

im p a c t o f o v e r h e a d a c tiv itie s

o n r e s o u r c e s s u c h a s p e r s o n n e l, c o m p u te r s , a n d s c h e d u le .

IM P R O V IN G

TE A M

E F F E C T IV E N E S S :

- C O C O M O m o d e l s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o m b i n e d e f f e c ts o f p e r s o n n e l s k i l l a n d e x p e r i e n c e c a n h a v e a n im p a c t o n p ro d u c tiv ity a s m u c h a s a fa c to r o f fo u r o v e r th e u n s k ille d p e rs o n n e l.

- B a la n c e

and

c o v e ra g e

a re

tw o

of

th e

m ost

im p o r ta n t

fe a tu r e s

of

e x c e lle n t te a m s . W h e n e v e r a te a m - It is th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f th e

is in o u t o f b a la n c e th e n it is v u ln e r a b le . p r o je c t m a n a g e r to k e e p tr a c k o f h is te a m s . S in c e

te a m w o r k is m u c h m o r e im p o r ta n t th a n th e s u m o f th e in d iv id u a ls . B o e h m s ta ffin g p r in c ip le s : T h e p r in c ip le The p r in c ip le o f t o p t a le n t : U s e b e tte r a n d fe w e r p e o p le . o f jo b m a t c h in g : F it th e ta s k s to th e s k ills and m o tiv a tio n of

th e p e o p le a v a ila b le .

The

p r in c ip le

of

c a re e r

p r o g r e s s io n :

A n

o r g a n iz a tio n

does

b e s t in

th e

lo n g r u n b y h e lp in g its p e o p le to s e lf - a c tu a liz e .

4 ) T h e p r in c ip le

o f te a m

b a la n c e : S e le c t p e o p le w h o w ill c o m p le m e n t a n d

s y n c h r o n iz e w ith o n e a n o th e r .
5 ) T h e p r in c ip le o f p h a s e -o u t: K e e p in g a m is fit o n th e te a m d o e s n t b e n e fit a n y o n e .

In g e n e r a l, s t a f f in g is a c h ie v e d b y t h e s e c o m m o n m e t h o d s :

If p e o p le a r e a lr e a d y a v a ila b le w ith r e q u ir e d s k ill s e t, j u s t ta k e th e m

If p e o p le a re a lre a d y a v a ila b le b u t d o n o t h a v e th e re q u ire d s k ills , re -tra in th e m

If p e o p le a r e n o t a v a ila b le , r e c r u it tr a in e d p e o p le

If y o u a r e n o t a b le to r e c r u it s k ille d p e o p le , r e c r u it a n d tr a in p e o p le S t a f f in g o f k e y p e r s o n n e l is v e r y im p o r t a n t :

- P r o je c t M a n a g e r - S o ftw a r e A r c h ite c t

Im p o r t a n t P r o je c t M a n a g e r S k ills :

H ir in g

s k ills . F e w

d e c is io n s

a re

as

im p o r ta n t a s

h ir in g

d e c is io n s . P la c in g

th e

r ig h t p e r s o n in th e r ig h t jo b s e e m s o b v io u s b u t is s u r p r is in g ly h a r d to a c h ie v e .

C u s t o m e r - in t e r f a c e

s k ill.

A v o id in g

a d v e r s a r ia l

r e la tio n s h ip s

am ong

s ta k e -

h o ld e r s is a p r e r e q u is ite fo r s u c c e s s .

D e c is io n -m a k in g s k ill. T h e jillio n b o o k s w ritte n a b o u t m a n a g e m e n t h a v e fa ile d to p ro v id e a c le a r d e fin itio n o f th is a ttrib u te . W e a ll k n o w a g o o d le a d e r w h e n w e ru n in to o n e , a n d d e c is io n -m a k in g s k ill s e e m s o b v io u s d e s p ite its in ta n g ib le d e fin itio n .

T e a m -b u ild in g

s k ill. T e a m w o rk re q u ire s th a t a m a n a g e r e s ta b lis h tru s t, m o tiv a te

p ro g re s s , e x p lo it e c c e n tric p rim a d o n n a s , tra n s itio n a v e r a g e p e o p le in to to p p e rfo rm e rs , e lim in a te m is fits , a n d c o n s o lid a te d iv e rs e o p in io n s in to a te a m

d ire c tio n .

S e l l i n g s k i l l . S u c c e s s f u l p r o j e c t m a n a g e r s m u s t s e l l a l l s t a k e h o ld e r s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e m s e l v e s ) o n d e c i s i o n s a n d p r i o r i t i e s , s e l l c a n d id a t e s o n j o b p o s i t i o n s , s e l l c h a n g e s t o t h e s t a t u s q u o i n t h e f a c e o f r e s i s t a n c e , a n d s e l l a c h i e v e m e n t s a g a i n s t o b j e c ti v e s . I n p r a c t i c e , s e l l in g r e q u i r e s c o n t in u o u s n e g o t i a t i o n , c o m p r o m i s e , a n d e m p a t h y .

Im p o r t a n t S o f t w a r e A r c h it e c t S k ills : T e c h n ic a l S k ills : th e m o s t im p o r ta n t s k ills fo r a n a r c h ite c t. T h e s e m u s t

in c lu d e s k ills in b o th , th e p r o b le m d o m a in a n d th e s o lu tio n d o m a in

P e o p le M a n a g e m e n t S k ills : m u s t e n s u re th a t a ll p e o p le u n d e rs ta n d a n d im p le m e n t th e a rc h ite c tu re in e x a c tly th e w a y h e h a s c o n c e p tu a liz e d it. T h is c a lls fo r a lo t o f p e o p le m a n a g e m e n t s k ills a n d p a tie n c e .

R o le M o d e l: m u s t b e a ro le m o d e l fo r th e s o ftw a re e n g in e e rs th e y w o u ld e m u la te a ll g o o d (a n d a ls o a ll b a d !) th in g s th a t th e a rc h ite c t d o e s

IM P R O V IN G

A U T O M A T IO N

TH R O U G H S O FTW A R E

E N V IR O N M E N T S

T h e f o llo w in g a r e t h e s o m e o f t h e c o n f ig u r a t io n m a n a g e m e n t e n v ir o n m e n t s w h ic h p r o v id e t h e f o u n d a t io n f o r e x e c u t in g a n d im p le m e n t in g t h e p r o c e s s : P la n n in g to o ls , Q u a lity a s s u ra n c e and a n a ly s is to o ls , T e s t to o ls , a n d

U s e r in te r fa c e s p r o v id e e n g in e e r in g a r tifa c ts . R o u n d - t r ip

c r u c ia l a u to m a tio n s u p p o r t fo r e v o lv in g th e s o ftw a r e

e n g in e e r in g : is a

te r m

used

to

d e s c r ib e

th e k e y c a p a b ility

o f e n v ir o n m e n ts th a t s u p p o r t ite r a tiv e d e v e lo p m e n t. F o rw a rd fr o m e n g in e e r in g : is th e a u to m a tio n of one e n g in e e r in g a r tifa c t

a n o th e r , m o r e a b s tr a c t r e p r e s e n ta tio n . E x : c o m p ile r s a n d lin k e r s e n g in e e r in g : r e p r e s e n ta tio n is fr o m th e an g e n e r a tio n e x is tin g of m o d ific a tio n E x: of m o re v is u a l

R e v e rs e a b s tr a c t

a r tifa c t.

c r e a tin g

d e s ig n m o d e l fr o m A C H IE V IN G

a s o u rc e c o d e .

R E Q U IR E D Q U A L IT Y :

K e y e le m e n ts th a t im p r o v e o v e r a ll s o ftw a r e q u a lity in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g : - F o c u s in g o n p o w e r fu l r e q u ir e m e n ts a n d c r itic a l u s e c a s e e a r ly in th e life c y c le

- F o c u s in g o n r e q u i r e m e n ts c o m p le t e n e s s a n d t r a c e a b i li t y l a t e i n t h e l i f e c y c l e

F o c u s in g

th r o u g h o u t

th e

life

c y c le

on

b a la n c e

b e tw e e n

r e q u ir e m e n ts e v o lu tio n , d e s ig n e v o lu tio n , a n d p la n e v o lu tio n U s in g m e tr ic s a n d as in d ic a to r s to it e v o lv e s m e a s u re th e p ro g re s s a n d p r o to ty p e q u a lity o f a fu lly

an

a r c h ite c tu r e

fr o m

h ig h - le v e l

in to

b id d a b le p r o d u c t P r o v id in g in te g r a te d life - c y c le e n v ir o n m e n ts th a t s u p p o r t e a r ly and

c o n tin u o u s c o n fig u r a tio n c o n tr o l, c h a n g e m a n a g e m e n t, r ig o r o u s d e s ig n m e th o d s , d o c u m e n t a u to m a tio n , a n d r e g r e s s io n te s t a u to m a tio n

- U s i n g v i s u a l m o d e l in g a n d h i g h e r l e v e l l a n g u a g e s t h a t s u p p o r t a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o n tro l, a b s tra c tio n , re lia b le p ro g ra m m in g , re u s e , a n d s e lf -d o c u m e n ta tio n

E a r ly

and

c o n tin u o u s

c lo s e

lo o k

in to

p e r fo r m a n c e

is s u e s

th r o u g h

d e m o n s tr a tio n - b a s e d e v a lu a tio n s
In o rd e r to e v a lu a te th e p e rfo rm a n c e th e fo llo w in g s e q u e n c e o f e v e n ts a re n e c e s s a ry ,

1) P r o j e c t i n c e p t i o n

2 ) Initial design review

2) M i d - l i f e - c y c l e d e s i g n r e v i e w

4 ) Integration and test

P E E R IN S P E C T IO N S : A P R A G M A T IC V IE W :

TH E O LD W A Y A N D TH E N E W - O ver th e p a s t tw o decades s o ftw a r e d e v e lo p m e n t is a r e - e n g in e e r in g

p r o c e s s . N o w i t i s r e p l a c e d b y a d v a n c e d s o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r in g t e c h n o l o g i e s .

- T h is

tr a n s itio n

is

w as

m o tiv a te d

by

th e

u n s a tis fa c to r y

dem and

fo r th e

s o ftw a r e a n d r e d u c e d c o s t.
T H E P R IN C IP L E S O F C O N V E N T IO N A L S O F T W A R E E N G IN E E R IN G

B ased s o ftw a r e

on

m any

y e a rs

of so

s o ftw a r e

d e v e lo p m e n t

e x p e r ie n c e ,

th e

in d u s tr y p r o p o s e d

m a n y p r in c ip le s ( n e a r ly 2 0 1 b y D a v is s ) .

O f w h ic h D a v is s to p 3 0 p r in c ip le s a r e :

1) M ake

q u a lit y

# 1 : Q u a lity m u s t b e q u a n tifie d a n d m e c h a n is m s p u t in to

p la c e to m o tiv a te its a c h ie v e m e n t. 2 ) H ig h - q u a lit y th e p ro d u c t w e s o ftw a re need to is p o s s ib le : In th e o r d e r to im p r o v e th e q u a lity o f

in v o lv in g

c u s to m e r , s e le c t th e

p r o to ty p in g ,

s im p lify in g d e s ig n , c o n d u c tin g in s p e c tio n s , a n d h ir in g th e b e s t p e o p le .

3 ) G iv e p r o d u c t s t o c u s t o m e r s e a r ly : N o m a tte r h o w h a r d y o u tr y to le a r n u s e r s needs d u r in g th e r e q u ir e m e n ts p h a s e , th e m o s t e ffe c tiv e w ay to

d e te r m in e r e a l n e e d s is to g iv e u s e r s a p r o d u c t a n d le t th e m p la y w ith it. 4) a D e t e r m in e t h e p r o b le m p r o b le m a is r a is e d b e f o r e w r it in g t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s : W h e n e v e r p r o v id e a ll th e a s o lu tio n . B e fo r e a lte r n a tiv e s and w e tr y to be

m o s t e n g in e e r s s u re to

s o lv e

p r o b le m ,

be

e x p lo r e

d o n t

b lin d e d b y th e u n d e r s ta n d a b le s o lu tio n . 5 ) E v a lu a t e d e s ig n a lt e r n a t iv e s : A fte r th e r e q u ir e m e n ts a r e g r e e d u p o n , w e m u s t e x a m in e a v a r ie ty o f a r c h ite c t u r e s and a lg o r ith m s a n d choose

th e o n e w h ic h is n o t u s e d e a r lie r . 6) U se an a p p r o p r ia t e p ro c e s s m o d e l: F o r e v e r y p r o je c t, th e r e a re so

m a n y p r o to ty p e s ( p r o c e s s m o d e ls ) . S o s u ita b le to o u r p r o je c t.

s e le c t th e b e s t o n e th a t is e x a c tly

7 ) U s e d if f e r e n t la n g u a g e s f o r d if f e r e n t p h a s e s : O u r in d u s tr y s m a in a im is to p r o v id e s im p le s o lu tio n s to c o m p le x p r o b le m s . In o r d e r to a c c o m p lis h t h i s g o a l c h o o s e d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s f o r d i f f e r e n t m o d u l e s / p h a s e s i f r e q u ir e d . 8 ) M in im iz e in t e lle c t u a l d is t a n c e : W e have to d e s ig n th e s tr u c tu r e of a

s o ftw a r e is a s c lo s e a s p o s s ib le to th e r e a l - w o r ld s tr u c tu r e . 9 ) P u t t e c h n iq u e s b e f o r e t o o ls : A n u n d is c ip lin e d s o ftw a r e e n g in e e r w ith a to o l b e c o m e s a d a n g e r o u s , u n d is c ip lin e d s o ftw a r e e n g in e e r .

10) G et w o r k in g

it

r ig h t

b e fo re ru n

you

m ake

it

fa s te r: m ake

It is

v e ry

easy

to

m ake

p ro g ra m

fa s te r th a n

it is to

a fa s t p r o g r a m

w o r k . D o n t

w o r r y a b o u t o p tim iz a tio n d u r in g in itia l c o d in g . 1 1 ) In s p e c t t h e c o d e : E x a m in e th e d e ta ile d d e s ig n and code is a m uch

b e tte r w a y to fin d th e e r r o r s th a n te s tin g . 1 2 ) G o o d m a n a g e m e n t is m o r e im p o r ta n t th a n g o o d te c h n o lo g y 1 3 ) P e o p le a re th e key to success: H ig h ly s k ille d p e o p le w ith

a p p r o p r ia te e x p e r ie n c e , ta le n t, a n d tr a in in g a r e k e y . T h e r ig h t p e o p le w ith in s u ffic ie n t to o ls , la n g u a g e s , a n d p r o c e s s w ill s u c c e e d . 1 4 ) F o llo w w it h c a r e : E v e r y b o d y is d o in g s o m e th in g b u t d o e s n o t m a k e it

r ig h t fo r y o u . It m a y b e r ig h t, b u t y o u m u s t c a r e fu lly a s s e s s its a p p lic a b ility to y o u r e n v ir o n m e n t.

1 5 ) T a k e r e s p o n s ib i l it y : W h e n a b r i d g e c o l l a p s e s w e a s k w h a t d i d t h e e n g i n e e r d o w r o n g ? . S i m il a r ly i f t h e s o f t w a r e f a i l s , w e a s k t h e s a m e . S o t h e f a c t i s i n e v e r y e n g i n e e r in g d i s c ip lin e , t h e b e s t m e t h o d s c a n b e u s e d t o p r o d u c e p o o r r e s u l t s a n d th e m o s t o u t o f d a te m e th o d s to p ro d u c e s ty lis h d e s ig n .

1 6 ) U n d e rs ta n d w o u ld 10% to le r a te

th e

c u s t o m e r s

p r io r it ie s . It is

p o s s ib le la te

th e

c u s to m e r have

90%

o f th e

fu n c tio n a lity d e liv e r e d

if th e y c o u ld

o f it o n tim e . m o re th e y s e e , th e you m o re a th e y u s e r, need . The th e m o re m o re fu n c tio n a lity (o r

17) The (o r

p e r fo r m a n c e )

p r o v id e

fu n c tio n a lity

p e r fo r m a n c e ) th e u s e r w a n ts .

1 8 ) P la n fa c to rs

to is

th r o w w h e th e r

one or

aw ay not a

.O n e

o f th e is

m o s t im p o rta n t c ritic a l s u c c e s s e n tire ly new . S uch b ra n d -n e w

p ro d u c t

a p p lic a tio n s , a rc h ite c tu re s , in te rfa c e s , o r a lg o rith m s ra re ly w o rk th e firs t tim e .

1 9 ) D e s ig n f o r c h a n g e . T h e a r c h ite c tu r e s , c o m p o n e n ts , a n d s p e c ific a tio n te c h n iq u e s y o u u s e m u s t a c c o m m o d a te c h a n g e .

2 0 ) D e s ig n w ith o u t d o c u m e n ta tio n is n o t d e s ig n . I h a v e o fte n h e a rd s o ftw a re e n g i n e e r s s a y , I h a v e f i n i s h e d t h e d e s i g n . A l l t h a t i s l e f t i s t h e d o c u m e n ta t io n .
v i)

U s e to o ls , b u t b e r e a lis tic . S o ftw a re to o ls m a k e th e ir u s e rs m o re e ffic ie n t.

v ii)

A v o id

t r ic k s . M a n y p r o g r a m m e r s lo v e th a t p e r fo r m a fu n c tio n

to

c r e a te but

p r o g r a m s w ith in an o b s c u re

tr ic k s w ay.

c o n s tr u c ts

c o r r e c tly ,

S h o w th e w o r ld h o w s m a r t y o u a r e b y a v o id in g tr ic k y c o d e .
v iii)

E n c a p s u la t e .

In fo r m a tio n - h id in g

is

s im p le ,

p ro v e n

concept

th a t

r e s u lts in s o ftw a r e th a t is e a s ie r to te s t a n d m u c h e a s ie r to m a in ta in .
ix )

U se

c o u p lin g

and

c o h e s io n .

C o u p lin g

and

c o h e s io n

a re

th e

best

w a y s to m e a s u r e s o ftw a r e s in h e r e n t m a in ta in a b ility a n d a d a p ta b ility .

x)

U se

th e

M cC abe to

c o m p le x it y r e p o r t th e

m e a s u re .

A lth o u g h

th e r e

a re

m any

m e tr ic s a v a ila b le

in h e r e n t c o m p le x ity o f s o ftw a r e , n o n e is

a s in tu itiv e a n d e a s y to u s e a s T o m M c C a b e s .
x i)

D o n t t e s t y o u r o w n

s o f t w a r e . S o ftw a r e

d e v e lo p e r s s h o u ld

never be

th e p r im a r y te s te r s o f th e ir o w n s o ftw a r e .
x ii)

A n a ly z e

causes

f o r e r r o r s . It is fa r m o r e

c o s t- e ffe c tiv e

to

re d u c e

th e

e ffe c t o f a n e r r o r b y p r e v e n tin g it th a n it is to fin d a n d fix it. O n e w a y to d o th is is to a n a ly z e th e c a u s e s o f e r r o r s a s th e y a r e d e te c te d .

x iii)

R e a liz e

t h a t s o f t w a r e s e n t r o p y in c r e a s e s . A n y s o ftw a r e s y s te m c o n tin u o u s change w ill g ro w in c o m p le x ity and

th a t

u n d e rg o e s

becom e

m o r e a n d m o r e d is o r g a n iz e d .

29.

P e o p le a n d t im e a r e n o t in t e r c h a n g e a b le . M e a s u r in g a p r o je c t s o le ly b y p e r s o n - m o n th s m a k e s little s e n s e .

3 0 ) E x p e r t e x c e lle n c e . Y o u r e m p lo y e e s w ill d o m u c h b e tte r if y o u h a v e h ig h e x p e c ta tio n s fo r th e m .

T H E P R IN C IP L E S O F M O D E R N S O F T W A R E M A N A G E M E N T
1 ) B a s e th e p r o c e s s o n a n a r c h ite c tu r e - fir s t a p p r o a c h : ( C e n tr a l d e s ig n e le m e n t)

- D e s ig n a n d in te g r a tio n fir s t, th e n p r o d u c tio n a n d te s t

2 ) E s ta b lis h a n ite r a tiv e life - c y c le p r o c e s s : ( T h e r is k m a n a g e m e n t e le m e n t) - R is k c o n tr o l th r o u g h e v e r - in c r e a s in g fu n c tio n , p e r fo r m a n c e , q u a lity . W ith e n tir e p r o b le m , in to d a y s th e s o p h is tic a te d e n tir e s y s te m s , b u ild it th e is not p o s s ib le th e n to d e fin e th e th e end

d e s ig n

s o lu tio n ,

s o ftw a r e , th a t p la n

te s t th e

p ro d u c t

sequence. an

In s te a d ,

and

ite r a tiv e an

p ro c e s s e ffe c tiv e

r e fin e s

p r o b le m

u n d e r s ta n d in g ,

e ffe c tiv e

s o lu tio n , a n d

over

s e v e r a l ite r a tio n s

e n c o u r a g e s b a la n c e d tr e a tm e n t o f a ll s ta k e h o ld e r o b je c tiv e s . M a jo r r is k s m ust be a d d re s s e d e a r ly to in c r e a s e p r e d ic ta b ility and a v o id

e x p e n s iv e d o w n s tr e a m s c r a p a n d r e w o r k . 3 ) T r a n s itio n d e s ig n m e th o d s to e m p h a s iz e c o m p o n e n t- b a s e d d e v e lo p m e n t: ( T h e te c h n o lo g y e le m e n t) M o v in g fr o m to re d u c e L O C m e n ta lly to c o m p o n e n t - b a s e d m e n ta lly is n e c e s s a r y d e v e lo p m e n t.A in s o u rc e or

th e a m o u n t o f h u m a n - g e n e r a te d s o u r c e c o d e a n d c u s to m is a c o h e s iv e set of p r e e x is tin g lin e s of co de,

com ponent

e ith e r

e x e c u ta b le fo r m a t, w ith a d e fin e d in te r fa c e a n d b e h a v io r . 4 ) E s ta b lis h a c h a n g e m a n a g e m e n t e n v ir o n m e n t: ( T h e c o n tr o l e le m e n t)

- M e tr ic s , tr e n d s , p r o c e s s in s tr u m e n ta tio n The d y n a m ic s of ite r a tiv e d e v e lo p m e n t, in c lu d e c o n c u rre n t w o r k flo w s by

d iffe r e n t te a m s w o r k in g o n s h a r e d a r tifa c ts , n e c e s s ita te s o b je c tiv e ly c o n tr o lle d b a s e lin e .

5)

E nhance

change

fr e e d o m

th r o u g h

to o ls

th a t s u p p o r t r o u n d - tr ip

e n g in e e r in g :

( T h e a u to m a tio n e le m e n t) - C o m p le m e n ta r y to o ls , in te g r a te d e n v ir o n m e n t

R o u n d - tr ip and s y n c h r o n iz e

e n g in e e r in g

is

th e

e n v ir o n m e n t s u p p o r t n e c e s s a r y to in d iffe r e n t fo r m a ts . C hange

a u to m a te is

e n g in e e r in g

in fo r m a tio n

fr e e d o m

n e c e s s a r y in a n ite r a tiv e p r o c e s s . 6 ) C a p tu r e d e s ig n a r tifa c ts in r ig o r o u s , m o d e l - b a s e d n o ta tio n : - A m o d e l- b a s e d a p p ro a c h s u p p o r ts th e e v o lu tio n o f s e m a n tic a lly r ic h g r a p h ic a l

a n d te x tu a l d e s ig n n o ta tio n s . V is u a l m o d e lin g w ith r ig o r o u s n o ta tio n s and fo r m a l m a c h in e p ro c e s s a b le

la n g u a g e p r o v id e s m o r e o b je c tiv e m e a s u r e s th a n th e tr a d itio n a l a p p r o a c h o f h u m a n r e v ie w a n d in s p e c tio n o f a d h o c d e s ig n r e p r e s e n ta tio n s in p a p e r d o c . 7 ) In s tr u m e n t th e p r o c e s s fo r o b je c tiv e q u a lity c o n tr o l a n d p r o g r e s s a s s e s s m e n t: L ife - c y c le a s s e s s m e n t o f th e p ro g re s s and q u a lity o f a ll in te r m e d ia te p ro d u c t

m u s t b e in te g r a te d in to th e p r o c e s s . - The fr o m b e s t a s s e s s m e n t m e c h a n is m s a re w e ll - d e fin e d m e a s u r e s d e r iv e d d ir e c tly

th e e v o lv in g e n g in e e r in g a r tifa c ts a n d in te g r a te d in to a ll a c tiv itie s a n d te a m s .

8 ) U s e a d e m o n s tr a tio n - b a s e d a p p r o a c h to a s s e s s in te r m e d ia te a r tifa c ts :

T r a n s itio n in g a r c h ite c tu r e , p r o v id e s or a

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e a r lie r e lim in a tio n o f a r c h ite c tu r a l d e fe c ts . 9 ) P la n in te r m e d ia te r e le a s e s in g r o u p s o f u s a g e s c e n a r io s w ith

e v o lv in g le v e ls o f d e ta il:

1 0 ) E s ta b lis h a c o n fig u r a b le p r o c e s s th a t e c o n o m ic a lly s c a la b le : N o s in g le p r o c e s s is s u ita b le fo r a ll s o ftw a r e d e v e lo p m e n ts . T h e p r o c e s s m u s t e n s u r e th a t th e r e is e c o n o m y o f s c a le a n d R O I.