Yield Strength

KNS 1461 Civil Engineering Laboratory 2 Faculty of Engineering Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
_____________________________________________________________________ DEFINITION OF TRAVERSE SURVEYING A traverse survey is one in which the framework consists of a series of connected lines, the lengths and direction of which are measured with the help of tape or chain and an angle measuring instrument.
In other words, traverse survey consists of an interconnected series of lines, running between a series of points on the ground called traverse stations. A traverse survey is performed to measure both the distances between the stations and the angle between the lines. Traverses have been used for local horizontal control over relatively small area or for precise control over relatively large area.
When the lines from a circuit which ends at the starting point, the survey is termed a closed traverse, if the circuit does not close, the traverse os known as open one.The closed traverse is suitable for wide areas and for locating the boundaries of the lakes,wood etc. ,where an open traverse is carried out in the of long strips of country as in the case of canal, road , railway etc. There are many different types of traverse: Link traverse Polygonal/Loop traverse Open/Free traverse Close traverse
Close travese is useful in marking the boundaries of wood or lakes . Open survey is utilised in plotting a strip of land which can then be used to plan a route in road construction. Traverse networks have many advantages of other systems, including: Less reconnaissance and organization needed While in other systems, which may require the survey to be performed along a rigid polygon shape, the traverse can change to any shape and thus can accommodate a great deal of different terrains Only a few observations need to be taken at each station, whereas in other survey networks a great deal of angular and linear observations need to be made and considered
_____________________________________________________________________ Traverse networks are free of the strength of figure considerations that happen in triangular systems Scale error does not add up as the traverse as performed. Azimuth swing errors can also be reduced by increasing the distance between stations.
In total station traversing, total station is used for measurement of angles or tape or chain, preferable, steel tape is used for linear measurement .This method is applied for accurate and precise survey but for this fieldwork, we have to estimate our own distance by using pegs. Total station combines an EDM instrument, an electronic digital theodolite and a computer in one unit. These devices automatically measure horizontal and vertical angels, as well as distances and transmit the results in real time to a built-in computer. The data can all be stored within the instrument or in an automatic data collector, thereby eliminating manual recording. If the instrument is oriented in direction and the coordinates of the occupied station are input to the system, the coordinates of any point sighted can be immediately obtained. Total station instruments can accomplish all surveying tasks including topographic, hydrographic, construction surveys and cadastral mush more efficiently than transits and theodolites. In addition the can also measure distances accurately and quickly. These devices can automatically measure horizontal and vertical angles, as well as slope distance from a single setup. From the data they can instantaneously compute horizontal and vertical distance compoenents, elevations and coordinates of points sighted and display the results on a liquid crystal display (LCD). All total stations have the same common feature, which are as follows: Horizontal tangent screw o The clamp ensures that when engaged the horizontal circle is fixed. Horizontal motion clamp o The slow motion screw allow for the movement of the instrument around the horizontal axis.
_____________________________________________________________________ Optical plummet telescope o The optical plummet allows the instrument to be precisely centered over the station. The line of sight through the optical plummet is exactly the same as the vertical axis of the total station
DEFINITION OF LEVELING Leveling is the operation required in the determination or more strictly, the comparison, of heights of points on the surface of the earth. The qualification is necessary because the height of one point can be given only relative to another point or place. Leveling is also the name given to the process of measuring the difference in elevation between two or more points. It deals with measurements on a vertical plane. The elevation of a particular point is the vertical distance aboce or below a reference level surface (normally sea level) to the point in question. In surveying, the reference datum that is any arbitrary surface to which the observed height of points are
referred. The Mean Sea Level (MSL) affords a convenient datum the world over and elevations are commonly given as so much above or below sea level. There are two main instruments used in levelling. There are: LEVEL o Level consists of four parts which are the telescope, level tube, levelling head and the tripod. Each of the parts of level has its own purpose. Telescope is used to provide the line of sight while level tube is used to make the line sight horizontal. On the other hand, the levelling head which is also known as tribach and trivel stage provides the case to bring bubble in its sentre of run. Meanwhile, tripod is used to suppport the instrument (telescope, level tube, levelling head). o There are few types on level used in fieldwork. For instance dumpy level, wye level, tilting level and automatic level. In this laboratory, we have identified that the type of level we were using was automatic level.
_____________________________________________________________________ o The automatic level employs a gravity-refereced prism or mirror compensator to orient the line of sight (line of collimation) automatically. The instrument is quickly leveled when a circular spirit level is used. When the bubble has been centered (or nearly so), the compensator takes over and maintains a horizontal line of sight, even if the telescope is slightly tilted. Automatic levels are easy to set up and use, and can be obtained for use at almost any required precision. Levelling Staff o Levelling staff are manufactured from wood, metal or fiberglass and are graduated in feet or meters. The foot root canbe read directly to 0.01 ft, whereas the metric cod can usually be read directly only to 0.01m, with millimeters being estimated. Metric rod readings are normally booked to the closest 1/3 cm, or cm (0.000, 0.003, 0.005, 0.007, and 0.010); more precise values can be obtained by using optical micrometer. One-piece rods are used to more precise work. The most precise work requires the face of the rod to be invar strip held in a place under temperature-compensating spring tension (invar is a metal that has a very low rate to thermal expansion). o Most levelling surveys utilize two- or three-peive rods graduated in either feet or meters, the sole of the rod is a metal plate that can withstand the constant wear and tear of levelling. The zero mark is at the bottom of the metal plate. The rods are graduated in a wide variety of patterns, all of which readily respond to logical analysis. o There are two types of levelling staff, which are self-reading and target staff. Self-reading staff can be divided into 3 categories, which are solid staff, folding staff and telescopic staff. In this laboratory, we were using the telescopic staff (sop with pattern). When fully extended, it is usually 14 ft (5 m) in length. The usit used is centimeters (cm).
_____________________________________________________________________ METHODOLOGY OF TRAVERSING PROCEDURE 1. Surrounding of proposed site was chosen as a scope of study or proposed site. 2. A number of control points (CP) were established at the proposed site. (peg 1, peg 2, peg 3, etc). 3. The total station was plumbed over peg 2 and accurately leveled. Prisms were plumbed over peg 1 and 3. 4. Peg 1 were sighted on face left with theodolite set to the required horizontal angle. The reading was entered in the field book. 5. Peg 3 were sighted and the horizontal angle was taken. 6. The instrument was set to face right (by transiting the telescope) and peg 1 was sighted again. 7. Peg 3 was sighted and the reading was taken.
8. Distance was measured by collimating the center of prism at peg 1. The reading was taken and entered in the field book. Distance between peg 2 and 3 also done with the same technique. 9. The total station was moved to peg 3. Prisms were plumbed over peg 2 and 4. Peg 2 was sighted on face left with theodolite set to the reading taken from step 7 above. 10. Peg 2 was sighted and the horizontal angle was taken. The instrument was set to face right and peg 4 was sighted again. Then peg 2 was sighted and the reading was taken. 11. Distance was measured the same way for both peg by repeating step 8. 12. Step 9-11 was repeated on peg 3 until the total station back to peg 1. All readings were observed and recorded.
_____________________________________________________________________ The method of measuring the angle and bearing of a traverse may be divided into classes: a) Those in which the angle at different stations are measured directly and the bearing subsequently calculated from the measured angles and the given bearing of an initial line b) By direct observation of bearing of different survey lines by a total station.
A) Total Station Traversing by Direct Observation of Angle:- In this method, horizontal angles measured at different stations may be either, i. Included Angle, or ii. Defection Angle 1) Traversing by the method of included angles:In a closed traverse included angles can be measured by running a traverse in clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The common practice is to run a closed traverse in counterclockwise direction, but it is well to adhere to a regular of routine of measuring angles. Generally interior angles are obtained it the traverse is run anticlockwise and exterior ones when it is run clockwise as shown in the figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 The angle may be measured by the repetition method and the observation should be taken with both the faces and also by reading both the verniers. Then averaging the
_____________________________________________________________________ value of each angle should be calculated. It will ensure desired degree of accuracy and removal of most of the instrumental errors. 2) Traversing by the method of deflection angle:This method of traversing is more suitable in surveys for railway, roads, pipeline etc. in which a series of traverse lines may make small deflection angles with each other. In measuring deflection angles having observed the bearing at the starting station L Set the theodolite at each of station such as M,N,O,Q. Bisect the back stations using lower clamp and its tangent screw. The vernier may be set to zero or the initial reading may be taken. The theodolite is transited and the forward station is bisected with upper clamp screw and the tangent screw. The verniers are again read, the difference between the first set of reading and the second gives the angle of defection. The measurement is either right or left handed and this direction must be most carefully noted in the field book. Chaining is done in the usual manner.
Figure 3.2 Deflection Angle Method
Traverse Survey At the commencement of contract all the basic traverse points will be checked with engineer and if any are found to be missing or appear to have been disturbed, necessary arrangements will be made to re-establish the points and traverse survey is carried out and if any adjustments would be found which would be done with the Engineer. Subsequently control point coordinates would be submitted to the Engineer for approval.
_____________________________________________________________________ TBM Survey Initially the Engineers/Employers occurrence will be sought to obtain details of permanent bench marks tied with national grid. Temporary bench marks will be established at the rate of four per km and also at or near all structures and TBM list and levels would be submitted to the Engineer for the approval. Checks would be carried out on these bench marks once every month and adjustments, if any should be agreed with the Engineer. An up-to-date record of all bench marks including approved adjustments would be maintained with the Engineer.
Center Line Setting out and Marking Using total stations and approved coordinates of control points, the road center line would be marking at every 10m interval on the road jointly with the Engineer. Chainage would be marked on the road center line in each 20m and 100m interval with meter and kilometer interval respectively. With the aid of rope and road marking paint, the center point marked in every 10m intervals of the road would be extended as a center line and that established centerline would be maintained until the end of the project.
Correction According to the Engineers instructions, corrections if any would be made and which would be followed for the remaining work.
Cross Section Survey The cross section survey would be commenced as soon as center line is marked and approved by the Engineer. Levels of the cross section will be taken at every chainage point marked on the center line. Cross sections at 20m intervals and in special cases such as sharp curves; the cross section intervals reduced to 10 meters will be submitted to the Engineers approval. At the same time, for plotting of longitudinal section (LS) the center value of each cross section would be used.
_____________________________________________________________________ Submission of Drawings Initial cross section drawings plotted on A4 sheet on scale of 1:1000 both verticalhorizontal and longitudinal profiles of the road (both hard & soft copy) would be submitted to the Engineer along with back up data sheets for approval.
Flow Chart
_____________________________________________________________________ Calibration (a) Level Instrument Calibration certificate for brand new level instrument is given by the manufacturer and two peg level tests on the leveling instrument would be carried out once in a month and if we would find any error in instrument during working, immediately we would be attending to the calibration of the instrument.
(b) Total Station Calibration certificate for brand new total station is given by the manufacturer and once in an every six month period, the calibration would be carried out until the project end accordance with relevant standards and if we would find any defect in instrument during working, immediately we would be attending to the calibration of the instrument.
METHOD OF EXECUTING THE FIELDWORK: Temporary adjustment of total station should be made at every instrument setting and preparatory observation with instrument. The temporary adjustments include: i. Setting up of the instrument Assuming that the total station is to be erected over a ground mark which is a peg driven into the ground. A nail driven into the top of the peg defines the exact position for centering, which may referred to as station X. The equipment must be centred all the time over the station mark X by using a plum bob by adjusting legs. It is also important to adjust the small circular bubble so that it is centred by using eye judgement.
ii.
Levelling up After having centred and approximately levelled the instrument, accurate leveling is done by adjusting the foot screws to move the optical plummet
10
_____________________________________________________________________ cross-hair with the reference to the plate level. It is important in order to make the vertical axis exactly vertical.
iii.
Eliminating Parallax Parallax is a condition happen when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the cross-hairs. Parallax should be eliminated in order to have accurate sighting. There are two ways to overcome or eliminate the parallax. There are by accurately focusing the cross-hairs against a light background and focusing the instrument on a distant target or by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross hairs.
11
_____________________________________________________________________ METHODOLOGY OF LEVELING PROCEDURE 1. Proposed site was slected as scope of study. 2. First Staff was sited on the TBM. 3. The level was set up at position I1, having a constant distance from TBM. 4. For the first staff, the reading was recorded as back sight, the foot of the staff being held on the TBM and the staff held vertically. 5. The reading of other staff positioned were noted as intermediate sight until the last point where instruments was then shifted to another point. This point is known as change point. 6. The staff was moved to C (change point) and reading taken and noted as foresight. 7. While the staff remains at C, the instrument was then shifted to next point with intervals of same distance to another position, I2. A reading was taken from the new position to the staff at C and noted as backsight (BS). 8. The staff was moved to D (intermediate sight) and reading taken. 9. The staff was moved to E being another change point and reading taken. 10. The instrument was shifted to I3 and a new reading was taken from the new position to the staff at E. 11. Step 9 and 10 were repeated until the final staff position was back to the first point and create closed transverse.
12
_____________________________________________________________________ There are few methods of executing the fieldwork, which are flying level, longitudinal and cross-section levelling and check levelling. Flying level is a process of ordinary spirit levelling on a route for the purpose of determining differences in elevation, i.e direct differential levelling. It is quick but approximate method of levelling. Long distances are taken as sights. It is also consists only of Back Sight and Fore Sight and it is used for reconnaissance of an area or for approximate checking of levels (to check the accuracy of work). Longitudinal sectioning, which is also known as profile levelling is a process of determining the height of points across a measured distance of intervals along a fixed line. This fixed line may be of straight, a succession of straight line or a series of straight line corrected by curved line. The main purpose of profile levelling is to enable engineers to relate the relationship between ground surface existed in the scope of study and the levels of proposed construction site. Meanwhile, cross sectioning refers to a drawing which is drawn perpendicular to the centreline of the site. This drawing shows the profile view of the ground cross-section drawing is significance in estimating the volume of earthwork needed to construct a roadway, railway, etc. Check levelling is the operation of running levels for the purpose of checking the series of levels, which have been previously fixed. At the end of each days work, a line of level is run, returning to the starting point of that day with a view to check the work done on that day. The are two methods in calculating the reduced level (RL) of point which are set up at a measured interval of fixed line. There are: RISE AND FALL METHOD HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD
13
_____________________________________________________________________ RISE AND FALL METHOD The rise and fall method consists of determining the difference of level between consecutive points by comparing each point after the first with that
immediately preceding it. The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise or fall according as the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that at the preceding point. The Reduce Level (RL) of each point is then found by adding rise or subtracting fall to or from the RL of the preceding point. This method provides a complete check on intermediate RL in addition to BS and FS. This method is used for differential leveling and other precise leveling operation
TP BS FS 1.41
Levelling Staff BS 1.35 FS 3.02
3.22
BMA = 128.25 CONCEPT OF RISE AND FALL METHOD Reduced level at A = BMA + BS Reading on staff FS Reading on staff = 128.25 + 3.22 1.41 = 130.06 m above datum (rising level) Therefore, difference in height A to B (BS FS) = 128.25 130.06 = -1.81m
The levels are known as Reduced Level (RL) as they refer to a datum level and thus giving the reduced level of land at these points.
14
_____________________________________________________________________ HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD (HCL) The collimation method consist of finding the elevation of the plane of collimation for easy set-up of the instrument and then obtaining the Reduce Level of points with reference to the respective plane of collimation. For an arithmetic check, the difference between and sum of the Back Sight (BS) and the sum of the Foresight (FS) should be equal to the difference between the first and last RL. The collimation method is generally used in profile leveling and in settingout levels for constructional work. BS 131.47 FS 1.41 TP Levelling Staff BS 1.35 FS 3.02
3.22
BMA = 128.25 RLC = 128.39
Height of Collimation = BMA + BS Reading on Staff A = 128.25 + 3.22 = 131.47m above datum RLB = Height of Collimation FS reading on staff A = 131.47 1.41 = 130.06m above datum
15
_____________________________________________________________________ COMPARISONS BETWEEN THESE TWO METHODS There are pros and cons between these two methods. HCL method is more rapid and less tedious compared to Rise and fall method. However, mistakes in the level pass of the points are sometimes not taken into account. Rise and fall method is often used where there are a great number of intermediate sights levelling. On the other hand, if a many reading are taken from every instrument position, HCL is a very good method to be used when setting out level.
16
_____________________________________________________________________ WORK PROCESSES FOR TRAVERSE SURVEY AND LEVELING: Work processes of the traverse and leveling has few steps that need to be taken care of. Below is step-by-step pseudo code for work processes for both traverse survey and leveling: 1. To start leveling, we must first determine the temporary bench mark for it. In order to determine the TBM, we are using GPS / GIS to determine the selected TBM. In Siar Beach Resort, we chose a trunk to be our TBM. 2. Then we are ask to find our first point, which is later to be pegged on. This is important as we are using a same point or peg for our traverse survey after we completed our leveling. 3. After that, we set our level, which is an automatic level a temporary adjustment. Temporary adjustment or station adjustments are those which are made at every instrument setting and preparatory to taking observations with the instrument. It consist of the following: a. Setting up the level The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the tripod and leveling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment. The purpose of setting up is to adjust the instrument to a convenient height and with the tribrach approximately horizontal b. Leveling This is done with the help of three-foot screws to center the bubbles, with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. c. Elimination of parallax Parallax is a condition that arises when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the cross-hairs. Parallax can be eliminated with two steps: by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross-hairs.
17
_____________________________________________________________________ 4. Note that the level must be approximately set in the middle of two points. This is to make the smooth the work flow as the distance is approximately constant. 5. Since we are using peg instead of any type of tape measurements, hence we have to use other alternative to find the distance between two points. Thiscan be done by reading the staff reading on the top cross-hair of level and the lower cross-hair of level. By obtaining the difference between this two point, we multiply by 100 to get the approximate distance between level and each of the staff (Back Sight and Fore Sight). 6. By following the procedure written in the methodology, the leveling fieldwork can be done with the accuracy of 3rd class order. 7. After completed with our leveling, we start with our traversing by choosing 10 pegs to complete it. This is because it the the least number that we can do to complete the traverse as most of them are on the critical point. To start the traverse, we are asked to set a temporary adjustment on second peg. Temporary adjustment of total station should be made at every instrument setting and preparatory observation with instrument. The temporary adjustments include: i. Setting up of the instrument Assuming that the total station is to be erected over a ground mark which is a peg driven into the ground. A nail driven into the top of the peg defines the exact position for centering, which may referred to as station X. The equipment must be centred all the time over the station mark X by using a plum bob by adjusting legs. It is also important to adjust the small circular bubble so that it is centred by using eye judgement.
18
_____________________________________________________________________ ii. Levelling up After having centred and approximately levelled the instrument, accurate leveling is done by adjusting the foot screws to move the optical plummet cross-hair with the reference to the plate level. It is important in order to make the vertical axis exactly vertical. iii. Eliminating Parallax Parallax is a condition happen when the image formed by the objective is not in the sighting. There are two ways to overcome or eliminate the parallax. There are by accurately focusing the cross-hairs against a light background and focusing the instrument on a distant target or by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross hairs. 8. The completion of traverse survey is said to be done when the the prism is set on the first point where we set our total station, which is in Siar Beach Resorts case, on second peg. 9. Then, we did a discussion on both fieldwork at night. If the value of
misclosure is more than the limit of the class order that has been set by Sir Ron Aldrino (Traversing) Chan and Sir Larry (Leveling). If the value is more than the class order, hence we need to repeat all the procedure all over again. If it didnt, in our case, then we proceed with sketching and draw the survey plan. 10. The report was sent 2 days after the camping survey.
19
_____________________________________________________________________ DISCUSSION : TRAVERSE SURVEYING: First, we need to get the last mean and the first datum (which is usually a face left). For example, the last mean obtained is not the same as the bearing of the face left, which are 1242915 and 3043000 respectively. Since the bearing of the face left is normally taken as datum, the bearing of the face right is corrected as 1243000. The misclosure of the traverse can be obtained from the following formula: Misclosure = Last of mean Datum Hence, in this situation, we have calculated and found out that the misclosure for this traverse is 0015. Since the last mean obtained is smaller than the bearing of the datum, the misclosure is now become positive. This shows that the last mean has to be added by certain degree of correction in order to get the same bearing as datum. In order to obtain the correction for each station, it can be obtained by multiplying the setup number with the value of misclosure and divided by the total number of station. This can be proven by following formula :
Errors are said to be unavoidable. Hence, correction is needed to corrected any error that commonly caused by the instruments. Furthermore, the correction has to be done due to misclosure of the traverse. If we refer to the recorded mean and the datum, it does not meet at the same bearing After all the bearings have been corrected, those bearing will be used to draw or sketch the area and diagram of the traverse. From this diagram, the included angles are calculated based on the bearings of the lines of the traverse and also be referring to the drawn diagram. From the diagram have been drawn, the shape of the traverse is triangle. The total included angle of any polygon is calculated based on the formula: Total included angle = (2n 4)90
where n is the number of side, which is refers to number of station for this case
20
_____________________________________________________________________ For the polygon, the total included angle that is obtained from the above formula. By adding all the include angle of our traverse based on the bearings of the lines of traverse and the diagram, both of them must resulting a value , for example 14400000. This shows that our included angle are valid and this prove that our traverse has been corrected correctly. Then, we are executing the linear measurement and partial coordinates. This can be done by summing the positive and negative partial coordinates for both northing and easting (latitude N and departure E). The algebraic sum should be zero in both cases as the traverse finished at the same point at which it started. For this fieldwork, we are using Compass (Bowditchs) Method as it is one of the easiest method in order to determine the partial coordinates. We calculated both latitude and departure based on the following formula:
Where
and
Where
Let say that we obtained 0.111 and 0.037 for our latitude and departure. This misclosure can be obtained by summing up all the positive and negative partial coordinates for both northing and easting (latitude N and departure E).The accuracy of the usual traverse with a 1-minute transit is about 1:30000(at 1st survey order) Therefore this value is still acceptable. The correction was made for both latitude and departure by using a given formula (Compass rule) :
21
_____________________________________________________________________
Where
By using this formula, we are able to adjust the latitudes and departures to ensure that the sums of latitudes and departures equal to zero. Let take for example, during our camping at Siar Beach Resort, our latitude is set at 14454.450 N while our departure is 1095235.868 E. After doing all the calculation, we found out that the latitude and departure back to 14454.450 N and 1095235.868 E respectively. Hence, this shows that our calculation that we made is correct. Error is said as unavoidable while doing total station fieldwork. This error can be calculated as follow: Misclosure = Last of mean Datum Let says that we have the situation where on the first attempt of executing traverse survey, we failed to get the required accuracy. This is because we obtained a misclosure which is more than the limit misclosure of required class order. This may is due to unavoidable circumstance, e.g the total station that we used is broken (theres a problem arise when were trying to calibrate the optical plummet telescope). Hence due to this, we have to re-do this fieldwork all over again. There are several factors contributing to this error that may arise during measuring traverse angle, which are: Inaccurate centering of the total station or signal Non-verticality of the signal Parallax not eliminated or improper focusing of telescope Lateral refraction, wind and atmospheric effects Inaccurate bisection of the signal Total station not level and not in adjustment Incorrect use of the total station
22
_____________________________________________________________________ Mistakes in reading and booking
During executing this fieldwork, we identified that the following factors are mainly contributing to this error, which are: Inaccurate centering of the total station or signal o The centering may not inaccurate, but we did our best to get it as accurate as possible. Total station may not level and not in adjustment o During the experiment, we have to level and centering the total station at the same time. Since the centering may not inaccurate, theres a possibility that total station may not level but as far as our concerned it is leveled and centered. Parallax not eliminated or improper focusing of telescope o There may be parallax error exist while focusing the telescope to the prism. During our experiment was commenced, the weather is rainy. This may affect our result as the soil is damp and the peg may move a little bit to right or left. Some of the pegs are missing as it may get hit by the car and we have to estimate the last point where the pegs are located. Prism may not level and not in adjustment o During the experiment, we have to level and centering the prism at the same time. Since the centering may not accurate, theres a possibility that prism may not level though as far as our concerned it is leveled and centered.
23
_____________________________________________________________________ DISCUSSION: LEVELING Error is said as unavoidable while doing leveling fieldwork. This error can be calculated as follow:
After the value of error is obtained, correction is made. There are several factors contributing to these factors: Common Error o Wrong booking o Wrong staff reading o Wrong cross-hair stadia used to read staff o Spirit level not centered o Omission or wrong entry on booking sheet Constant Error o Non-vertical staff o Collimation error of instrument o Staff graduation errors Random Error /Accidental o Human Error eyesight peculiarities o Weather strong wind o Movement of the turning point or change point
During executing the laboratory, we identified that the following factors are mainly contributing to this error, which are: Non-vertical staff o When the staff is not vertically held, the reading taken will not be accurate. Human Error eyesight peculiarities Measurement of distance is inaccurate
24
_____________________________________________________________________ o We were using line tape to measure distance from one point to another point, which was highly affected by dampness of the soil. This factor influenced our readings more since some of the soil was wet and the tape may shrink making the measurement of distance no longer accurate. Besides that it is really hard to straighten the tape. Hence, this will contribute to inaccuracy of the distance. Spirit Level of vertical staff (error in instrument) o One of the spirit level of vertical staff is unable to be centered. This is because the instrument is broken.
25
_____________________________________________________________________ CONCLUSION: From what I have learn this whole semester, A traverse survey consists of an
interconnected series of lines, running between a series of points on the ground called traverse stations. A traverse survey is performed to measure both the distances between the stations and the angle between the lines. Traverses have been used for local horizontal control over relatively small area or for precise control over relatively large area.
Leveling is the operation required in the determination or more strictly, the comparison, of heights of points on the surface of the earth. The qualification is necessary because the height of one point can be given only relative to another point or place. Leveling is also the name given to the process of measuring the difference in elevation between two or more points. It deals with measurements on a vertical plane. The elevation of a particular point is the vertical distance aboce or below a reference level surface (normally sea level) to the point in question. In surveying, the reference datum that is any arbitrary surface to which the observed height of points are
referred. The Mean Sea Level (MSL) affords a convenient datum the world over and elevations are commonly given as so much above or below sea level. During our camping at Siar Beach Resort, we have come up with the results obtained from the fieldwork executed using the method of traversing for a closed traverse. Although theres misclosure, the correction had been made to this data. It is shown that these values calculated are valid since they converge with the theoretical value given. For example, the total included angle in a polygon and the total included angle of our polygon is must be the same. Hence, this shows that our included angle are valid and this prove that our traverse has been corrected correctly. For our booking on linear measurement and partial coordinates, we obtained a misclosure for both of our latitude and departure. Since the accuracy of the usual traverse with a 1minute transit is about 1:30000(at 1st survey order), therefore this value is still acceptable. Errors are commonly found in traverse survey. By taking several precautions (make sure that total station leveled and adjusted, accurately centering of the total station or signal, no parallax error by using proper focusing of telescope) should be taken in order to reduce the error.
26
_____________________________________________________________________ From backsight and foresight readings, variations of reduce level are obtained. This shows that the level of each point is not as flat ground as seen by naked eyes. Theres misclosure while during the leveling, which can be corrected by using formula given. The accuracy must be not less than 3rd Class Order. The accuracy can be obtained and calculated by using following formula: Where C = correction K = distance in kilometres
Error is commonly found in leveling. Despite of that fact, precautions e.g make sure that the staff is vertically held, make sure a proper adjustment of instrument is made and using metal tape should be taken in order to reduce the error.
REFERENCES Books 2009, Hasbullah M.A., Openg I., Simplified Land Surveying, Arah Publichations 2005, Dr. Punmia B.C., Jain A.K., Jain A.K, Surveying Vol. 1, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd
27

Yield Strength

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yield Strength

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

KNS 1461 Civil Engineering Laboratory 2 Faculty of Engineering Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Figure 3.2 Deflection Angle Method

Levelling Staff BS 1.35 FS 3.02

BMA = 128.25 RLC = 128.39

_____________________________________________________________________ Mistakes in reading and booking

You might also like