What does development mean? Critically discuss different concepts of development on the basis of the literature provided.

The global economy was devastated by both World Wars which led to demand for foreign aid to stimulate economic development in the affected countries. These initiatives were founded upon the belief that the market would rescue European economies from economic depression; hence it would be a central mechanism (Heywood, 2011 p.356) in the development of the countries economies. Within this orthodox model of development, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the indicator used to measure economic growth, however GDP has been described to present a grossly distorted picture (Goldsmith, 2009 p.24). Now that these European economies are developed, the focus of development has shifted towards south economies such as Sub-Saharan Africa. However, the transferability of the orthodox model of development to south economies has been highly contested, increasing demand for alternative models which address this issue. In the 21st century, development schemes have focused on reproducing cultural and social structures that exist within the Western world, extending hegemony by intimidation, propaganda and political force (Sachs, 1992 p.220) to replicate the economic success of Western countries in developing countries (DCs). However, the impact of this ethnocentrism whereby traditional cultures are subverted and replaced by a Western culture has resulted in monocultures, large-scale slums [and] devastation of nature (Sachs, 1992 p.283). Post-development theorists therefore argue that development projects should work at the grassroots of communities, providing members of society with the skills to create a sustainable economy whilst ensuring that traditional cultures are preserved. By shifting from a macro to micro focus, citizens in DCs are able to take responsibility for their own development,

rather than allowing this responsibility to be in the hands of Western experts who have had little to no experience of the culture or society. The importance of defining development is to ensure that the correct aid is provided to develop a country. Research has found, however, that intervention from Western countries has actually resulted in poor countries becoming poorer. As Black (2002 p.13) notes, five decades of development has produced a socioeconomic global apartheid. It is evident that the orthodox model of development has failed, but is the post-development model the key to ensure development can work? Within the orthodox model of development, GDP is expressed as a monetary value which measures economic transactions. However, this measure fails to take into account the cost of what people destroy to create growth. Therefore, by destroying a rainforest and creating paper from it, GDP measures this as growth even though you are destroying the resources that will be needed in the future for economic growth, hence impeding the chance for sustainability. As US Senator Robert Kennedy was quoted saying, (GDP) measures everything except that which makes life worthwhile (Goldsmith, 2009 p.25). Post-colonialists, such as Kingsbury et al. (2004), argue that the orthodox model of development has failed as it involves the imposition of Western institutions and values which bare little relevance to non-Western societies. Therefore, development would be successful if it were focused at the grassroots, allowing a society to embrace its own economic and social progress based upon its own cultural and religious heritage. These notions form the basis of the model of post-development. Theorists from the post-development stance go further to argue that alternative models to the Western model of development are considered abnormal or even

irrational by Westerners. For example, Said (1978) notes that Western commentators tend to regard the Islamic model of development as a product of irrational extremism. Similarly, Islamic societies such as Iran reject Western secular values as they are seen as decadent and dangerous to the Muslim religion and culture; thus the Western model of development has hindered socioeconomic progression in these countries by securing tense relationships between Islamic and Western worlds. Marxists would agree with the post-development stance by arguing that the failure of development to date is due to the insisted application of Western values; however they would argue that the post-development model is too broad. More specifically, capitalism is the most detrimental trait that the Western world harbours and can impose on other countries. Therefore, the failure of development is due to the very existence of the capitalist system. The world-systems theory influenced by neo-Marxist thinking outlines a global economic system which comprises three interlocking parts; core, peripheral and semi-peripheral areas. The core areas which are economically advanced and politically stable, such as the UK and US, dominate and exploit peripheral areas which are areas characterised by low wages and rudimentary technology, such as Pakistan. Frank (1969) conceptualised this world-systems theory as the development of underdevelopment, arguing that underdevelopment is not an original state, but a condition created by the exploitation of poorer countries by richer ones, which is encouraged within a capitalist system. Therefore, peripheral areas must withdraw from the global economic system in order to develop.

Marxists also argue that Western commentators consider Communist/Socialist models of development extremist or dangerous; however, the success of Cubas socialist model of development shows that an alternative model of development can be effective. Despite the imposition of trade embargos which have made it difficult for Cuba to export its goods, Cuba has achieved literacy, infant-mortality and lifeexpectancy rates parallel to those experienced in the West (Bureau of InterAmerican Affairs, 2002). Many feminists would argue that the focus of development should not be on what economic system is in place; rather the emphasis should be on ensuring that women have equal contribution to these systems. The modernisation theory within feminism argues that rather than the capitalist system being an obstacle to development, the subordination of females in society means that their potential contribution to society is not realised; this inhibits the functionality of the capitalist system and therefore impedes economic development. Modernisation theorists argue that females are crucial for development and focus on the importance of educating females. For example, The Commission for Africa (2005, p.65) argued that economic productivity is raised by educating girls and, with this, mortality rates improve. The modernisation theory argues that the imposition of Western values would reinforce female liberation and sexual equality, and is consequently criticised for its ethnocentricity. Korten (1995) argued that development schemes are deciphered by Western experts who fail to acknowledge the experience and skills of local people. These schemes should be people-centred, focusing on empowering local people to encourage them to take responsibility for their community.

This notion of people-centred development is heavily discussed in Schumachers book Small is Beautiful. Here, he noted that the really helpful things cannot be done by big organizations; but they can be done by the people themselves (Schumacher 1973, p.183). Sen (1987) adds that development schemes should aim to give people real choices and power over their daily situations. Only then will they be able to take accountability for their own countries development, whilst defending themselves from exploitation and/or dependence upon other, more powerful countries. Constructing this essay and researching issues that surround how development can be defined has highlighted the impact its definition can have on the type of aid that is given to DCs. Further, I have gained an insight into my prospected area of study which has only fuelled my passion to study and learn more about development in the 21st century. It has also allowed me to see that development, up to this point, has been ineffective and has allowed me to question the role I might have to play in the future to secure socioeconomic progression in DCs. 1240 words

Allen, Tim, (2000) Chapter 2. In: T. Allen. Poverty and Development into the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.23-48. Bureau of Inter-American Affairs. (2002) [online] Zenith and Eclipse: A Comparative Look at Socio-Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba. (Original work published 1998) Available at: < http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/cuba/14776.htm> Accessed 14 July 2013. The Commission for Africa. (2005) The Commission for Africa: Our Common Interest. Virginia: Penguin. Ferguson, J. (2008) The Anti-Politics Machine. 'Development' and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. In: S. Chari. The Development Reader. London: Routledge. pp.322-331. Frank, A. G. (1966) The Development of Underdevelopment. Texas: New England Free Press Goldsmith, Z. (2009) The Constant Economy. London: Atlantic Books. Hettne, B. (2009) Thinking About Development. London: Zed Books. Heywood, A. (2011) Global Politics. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Hunt, J, (2008) Chapter 3: Aid and Development. In: Kingsbury, D. International Development: Issues and Challenges. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp.74-103. Kingsbury, D., Remenyi, J., McKay, J. and Hunt, J. (eds) (2004) Key Issues in Development. Basingstoke: Palgrave Korten, D. (1995) When Corporations Rule the World. Virginia: Kumarian Press.

Lancaster, C. (1999) Aid to Africa: So Much to Do So Little Done. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Moore, S., Aiken, D., Chapman, S. (2009) Chapter 2. In: S. Moore, D. Aiken, S. Chapman. Sociology A2 for AQA. London: HarperCollins. Moyo, D. (2010) Dead Aid: Why Aid is Not Working And How There Is Another Way For Africa. London: Penguin Publishers. Ritzer, G. (1995) Expressing America: A Critique of the Global Credit Card Society. California: Sage Publications. Sachs, W. (eds) (1992) The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power. London: Zed Books. Said, E. (1978) Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Schumaker, E. (1973) Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered. London: Blond & Briggs. Sen, A. (1987) On Ethics and Economics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Tulchin, J., Bobea, L., Prieto, M., Hernndez, R. and Bryan, E. (eds) (2005) [pdf] Woodrow Wilson Center Reports on the Americas, 15: Changes In Cuban Society Since The Nineties. Available at: <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Cuba.pdf> [Accessed 12 July 2013] United Nations. (1987) [pdf] Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future Brundtland Report. Available at:

<http://conspect.nl/pdf/Our_Common_Future-Brundtland_Report_1987.pdf> [Accessed 20 June 2013] Willis, K. (2005) Theories and Practices of Development. Abingdon: Routledge.