Joanna Pantelides Lori Bedell CAS 137H

The Shift on the Social Roles of American Women Tremendous changes have occurred in the social roles of American women from the mid 1900s to the 2000s. Because of these changes, the lives our grandmothers led and the opportunities they had differ from the lives and opportunities our mothers had, which in turn, differ from those we have today. Tracing back to the mid 20th century, a traditional period, American women had vastly different involvements in education, the work force, and the family structure than the ones American women have today, a modern period. The shift in the social roles of American women was sparked by the American Civil War and World War II, but most prominently influenced and led by the Feminist (Womens Rights) Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. The American Civil War (1861-1865) was the beginning of a shift in the social roles of American women. For the first time in history, it became socially acceptable and encouraged for women to hold vocational positions that were previously held by men, forcing them into the public life. This was also the first time that women played a significant role in a war effort (as cited in Partners in Winning the War: American Women in World War II). As men from the North and South of the United States marched off to war, women marched out of their homes and into positions such as nurses, spies, soldiers or the everyday jobs of the men (as cited in The Roles of Women in the Civil War). Before the American Civil War, most of the nurses in the United States were men (as cited in Women Nurses in the Civil War). It was only until the beginning of the war that the Union army leadership recognized that a larger number of medical staff was needed, so it began to accept women in order to fill in the gaps (as cited in Women Nurses in the Civil War). During the American Civil War, neither the Union nor the Confederacy had a formal military intelligence network and so each side obtained essential information from spying operations controlled by women (as cited in Spying in the Civil War). Aside from simply keeping their ears open in social circles, women also took on the role of soldiers during this time. Though both the Union and Confederate armies forbade women from enlisting in the war, women assumed false masculine names and disguises and helped fight regardless (as cited in The Role of Women in the Civil War). Just like men, they too bore

arms, marched into combat, lived in camps, suffered in prisons, and died. Since the primary financial providers were absent from each household, the social roles of women at the home front also shifted a bit. Women not only had to maintain their domestic jobs and care for their children but they had to make an income to support their families as well. They generally took on their husbands jobs in the factories (as cited in Rosie the Riveter: Women Working During World War II). The efforts of women during the American Civil War truly exemplify the start to the shift of their social roles; by stepping out of their traditional roles which limited them to domestic duties, women assumed social roles that had mostly been held by men before this time. Once the war was over, though, they went back to their homes and took on the jobs they had before. The concept that the social roles of women could be adjusted and expanded was unmasked and brought to light but quickly covered again. Similar to the American Civil War, World War II (1940-1945) continued to initiate a shift in the social roles of American women. During this time, women became exposed to jobs at the home front as well as in the war effort. It was these brave individuals that made it possible for the United States government and industry to grow in order to meet wartime needs and demands (as cited in Social Changes During the War). Women were needed to fill the vocational positions left absent by men at war, engaging in activities across the work force spectrum of the time such as factory workers (as cited in Rose the Riveter: Working Women During World War II). Women also raised money for war bonds, collected blood, and hosted troops in the community (as cited in Partners in Winning the War: American Women in World War II). The shift in the social roles of American women is also exemplified in the enormous amount of propaganda used by the United States government and journalists (as cited in Rosie the Riveter). With the goal of displaying messages in order to gain what they needed from the American women, a highly influential icon emerged: Rosie the Riveter. Idolized by most women at the time, this icon depicted the idea that women can be beautiful yet strong and that working in the industry was something positive. The Rosie the Riveter propaganda was a major adjustment to the ideal traditional woman who wasnt known for physical strength and didnt hold an industrial job. This propaganda campaign was successful, attracting more and more women to jobs outside their homes (as cited in Rosie the Riveter). World War II was the first time that women served in the United States military in an official capacity (as cited in Women in the Military WWII). The presence and assistance of women in order to win the war quickly became noteworthy. It became more apparent that the social roles of American women were adjusting and that a shift was developing. The government though, insisted that they were simply a substitute until the war was over and

so women quickly returned to washing dishes and caring for their families just as before the war (as cited in Social Changes During the War). Through the Womens Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the shift in the social roles of American women became more permanent, beginning with education. The quality and quantity of education women received in traditional times was very minimal, if any at all. Most women living during this time completed high school; its after that that their enrollment in higher education decreased greatly. In 1970, 3.8% of women completed 4 years of college or more, earning only 6% of the 37, 946 professional degrees awarded that year (Galinsky, Aumann, Bond, 2011). This statistic exemplifies a great amount of withdrawal from college; women instead were dropping out to become housewives. As recognized by Betty Friedan, author of The Feminine Mystique (1963), higher educational institutions were actively influencing women and pushing them towards the role of the housewife rather than encouraging them to pursue creative intelligence in different academic fields. Friedan mentions "the one lesson a girl could hardly avoid learning, was to not get interested, seriously interested, in anything besides getting married and having children." Instead of providing challenging, compelling courses that would spark the interest of young women, many educational institutions created classes that focused only on family household skills. This discouraged women from going after actual academic fields and careers in not only college, but high school as well (Friedan, 1963). In comparison to traditional women, modern women seem to take much more advantage of their education and truly use it to get them far in life. Title IX, a part of the Education Amendments passed in 1972, states that no person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program (as cited in Title IX, Education Amendments of 1972). In 2004, women received 58% of all bachelor's degrees in the United States, compared to only 35% in 1960 (Buchmann, 2006). Modern day women are surpassing the standards of traditional women, having received 58% of bachelors degrees and 60% of masters degrees in the 2005-2006 academic year (Buchmann, 2006). Modern women have not only graduated high school, received their bachelors and masters degrees, but they have also gone on to complete doctoral degrees, earning the majority of PhDs in 2011 (Buchmann, 2006). The growing hunger to learn more and receive higher degrees than ever before rightly depicts a change in the social roles of American women with an educational influence.

Through the Womens Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the shift in the social roles of American women became more permanent, continuing with the workforce. Prior to the 1960s, the 38% of American women that held any vocational positions outside of the home, mostly worked as nurses, teachers or secretaries; jobs that still involved domestic skills such as cleaning, organizing or taking care of others (1960-1961.) Though women worked outside of the home, it was very rare. The American Civil War and World War II helped change the role of women, bringing them into the workforce as well as the military, both of which were dramatic changes to the stereotypical role. It was during these historic events where there was an initial and everlasting appearance of enormous groups of women dressed in uniform (as cited in Social Changes During the War). While the men went off to fight, the women stepped in and substituted, taking over positions mostly in factories (as cited in Rosie the Riveter: Women Working During World War II). The idea of women working vocational positions that men used to hold was not something at sat well with some people of the time. In fact, social workers blamed working mothers for the rise in juvenile delinquency during the war (as cited in Social Changes During the War). It was also during World War II that the cultural icon of Rosie the Riveter emerged. Rosie the Riveter represented all the American women who abandoned their feminine occupations and worked on the home front during the war. She challenged the traditional image of female behavior, symbolizing feminism and female power (as cited in Rosie the Riveter). It was especially during the 1960s that cultural changes adjusted the traditional role and molded the modern role of the American woman. One of the most noteworthy changes happened in the bedroom. By the late 1960s, more than 80% of women married and of childbearing age began using contraception after the Food and Drug Administration approved birth control pills in 1960 (as cited in How the Sexual Revolution Changed America Forever). This made woman reliable and in control themselves, freeing them from unwanted pregnancies. The increased use of contraception also gave women more choices and freedom to decided the paths of their own lives. Along with this, the Feminist Movement really helped push women into the workforce by creating leagues and organizations that fought for womens rights (as cited in Women's Rights Movement in the U.S.). In 1968, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, making it illegal for employers to pay a woman less than what a man would receive for the same job. This act also established that jobs held by men and women need to be substantially equal, but not identical. In the Equal Rights Amendment passed in 1968, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ruled that sexsegregated help wanted ads were illegal, opening the way for women to apply for higher -paying jobs,

previously open only to men. In 1978, Congress passed the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, banning employment discrimination against pregnant women. Under the act, a woman cannot be fired or denied a job or a promotion because she is or may become pregnant, nor can she be forced to take a pregnancy leave if she is willing and able to work (as cited in Women's Rights Movement in the U.S.). The Feminist Movement allowed women to explore and reach for vocational positions that have never be occupied by women before, protecting them every step of the way. A shift in the social roles of American women in relation to family structure also emerged through the Womens Movement. The traditional women in homes of the 1960s and 1970s were vastly different from those of today. Their lives during this time were built around the so-called Cult of True Womanhood, a value system that emphasized new ideas of femininity and the womans function in the home (as cited in Cult of True Womanhood). Through this concept, the ideal and typical roles of American women emerged. Women of the 1960s and 1970s were married at an average of 20 years old and were having children shortly after (Arnett, 2000.) Once married all of the womans property, earnings, and money were given over to her spouse, entitling him and naming him manager of all of it (as cited in Women and Divorce in the Victorian Era). Once married, it was extremely frowned upon and thus made difficult for women to divorce their husbands; a woman had to prove her husband guilty of adultery (combined with cruelty, incest, bigamy, etc.) while a man could simply divorce a woman on the grounds of adultery (as cited in Women and Divorce in the Victorian Era). Historians of the time believed that a womans proper place was in the home, constantly engaging in domestic activities such as cooking, cleaning, doing laundry, sewing, nursing sick family members, and caring for her husband and children (Holt). Society supported and conformed to the ideal woman by creating tons and tons of advertisements. Courtney and Lockeretz, authors of A Womans Place: An Analysis of Roles Portrayed by Women in Print Advertising, researched and found that the advertisements emphasized the idea that motherhood and the care of the home and husband are the ultimate goals of a womans life and her greatest creative opportunity. Courtney and Lockeretz mentioned that this was reflected in the consumerism of products such as cooking and cleaning aids. It was not uncommon for such advertisements to insinuate, a good wife and mother would buy this, or a good wife would want to protect her family. The advertisements also projected wome n as dependent on and in need of a mans protection and acceptance. This was continually perpetuated in magazine advertisements through allusions to a woman needing to please her husband by doing tasks such as cooking a correct meal or washing his clothing with the correct laundry detergent (Holt). According to Betty

Freidman, the feminine mystique held that women could find fulfillment only in sexual passivity, male domination and nurturing maternal love (Holt). This concept opposed and denied women a career or any sort of activity outside of the home, narrowing down their world to their domestic duties (Holt). Though the concept and stereotypes of the ideal woman have not been entirely broken, there are many more aspects added to her world and shifting her social role. The women of today marry at an average of 26 years old and hold off having children until about 5 years later (Arnett, 2000). In fact, the National Center for Health Statistics states that in the 24 years between 1980 and 2004, the number of women giving birth at age 30 has doubled, at age 35, tripled and after age 40 has almost quadrupled. The Cult of True Womanhood was broken when women married later, had children later, did not stay at home and financially supported themselves (as cited in Cult of True Womanhood). While in traditional times men brought home the bacon while women were domestic caregivers, the gender roles in the structure of the modern home have almost entirely flipped. This new concept of a husband that cares for the home and children while a wife becomes the breadwinner has only started to appear in the 20th century. According to a new report from Pew Research Center, there are now 550,000 stay-at-home fathers across the country. Although still a relatively new idea, the number of men becoming a Mr. Mom is growing greatly. The concept of the ideal woman has now adjusted to become the concept of the super wom an, who is expected to complete all the tasks of a traditional woman of the 1960s and 1970s while maintaining the career goals of the modern woman (Holt). The social roles of modern American women are vastly different from those of traditional American women. With the influence of historical events such as the American Civil War, World War II and the Womens Rights Movement, the definition of the ideal woman has completely changed. It was during the American Civil War that women first began to step into jobs formerly held by men, while men went off to war. It was during World War II that women once again stepped in and filled the roles of men, this time showing society that they are needed just as much as men. During both of these battles though, once they were over and the men came home, the women went right back to the domestic duties as wives and mothers. It was only during the Feminist Movement that women gained a better quality and much more education, thus becoming exposed to job opportunities outside their homes, and changing their social roles forever.

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