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Phytogeography: Definition, types, vegetation types of India; vegetation types of Goa.

Sr no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Name of the students SHETKAR ROHINI ROHIDAS QUADROS SWIZEL MORAIS NEIL DOMINIC ROHAN FERNANDES JOEL IGNATIUS D'COSTA LISHA

Roll no 110706560 110706601 110706708 110708559 110714707

ABSTRACT

The main aim of our assignment is to study about phytogeography, types of vegetation found in India and in Goa. Phytogeography is the study of distribution of plant species on earths surface. It is also concerned with all aspects of plant distribution, from the controls on the distribution of individual species rangesto the factors that govern the composition of entire communities and floras. vegetation in India include the Tropical Rain Forest, the Tropical Deciduous Forests, the Temperate Forests and Grasslands, the Alpine and Tundra Vegetation etc. The vegetation in Goa is tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen trees.The tropical seasonal or semi-evergreen forests due to be found in the areas having classic monsoon climate.

INTRODUCTION

Phytogeography is the branch of biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of plantspecies and their influence on the earth's surface. It is also concerned with all the aspects of the plant distribution. Natural vegetation in India include the Tropical Rain Forest, the Tropical Deciduous Forests, the Temperate Forests and Grasslands, the Alpine and Tundra Vegetation etc. Apart from these, there are also some other varieties of natural vegetation in India like Himalayan Vegetation, Rain Forests of Southern India, the Desert Region, etc. Estuarine vegetation, Strand and creek vegetation, Plateau vegetation and Semievergreen and evergreen vegetation is found in Goa

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In a research article titled Phytogeography of the Andaman--Nicobar Islands : It notes that biological organisms of the islands are continental in origin and have evolved into the present status from a totally balanced continental biosystem through evolution of over million years. It cites that H. fenzlii (Kurz) K. Schum is the honey bee repellent plant species used by the Shompen tribes for honey collection.

CONTENTS

Sr no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Title Title Group members Abstract Introduction Review of literature Phytogeography Vegetation types of India Vegetation types of Goa Conclusion Bibliography

Pg no 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 13 27 28

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY Definition This is defined as the origin, special relationship and distribution of plants both in time and space. This branch is related to geography in one hand and ecology on the other. The distribution of plants in past geographical regions with its evolution and exploitation of its distribution in terms of environment and other ecological aspect from this wide branch of science. Types of phytogeography: phytogeography can be studied in two headings: a) Descriptive phytogeography: It is related to the distribution of plant communities in the different parts of the world. This is also termed as static phytogeography. b) Interpretive phytogeography: It is related to explain the causes of plant distribution. This is also termed as dynamic phytogeography. Descriptive phytogeography. This branch of phytogeography deals with the distribution of different vegetational zones of the world. The vegetational floras are described in systematic way and various floristic zones are formed by their descriptions. a) Types of distribution. The geological factors are responsible for the distribution of plants. The factors are divided into two broad categories; inherent and geographic. The former are concerned mainly with the evolution of an individual as well as the question of its relative immobility. On the other hand, the latter are again subdivided into two main groups, the climatic factors and the barrier factors. The barriers are characteristic areas, which according to Prof.Good cannot be crossed by spreading

species in the ordinary processes of its dispersal . These factors areof greater significance to the distribution of plants over the world than the climatic factors. Further the various biotic factors may also influence such distributions. These are the aspects that the plant geographers were to bear in mind while considering the question of plants in different regions of the world. In nature, plants are distributed in three ways, continuous, discontinuous and edemic. Continuos distribution: This type of distribution is observed when plants are distributed throughout in one climate without any temperature without any interruption. Poa, Phragmites, Chenopodium are the examples of continuos distribution. Disontinuos distribution: this type of distribution is observed when plants are distributed in more than one area separated by wide gaps and the plants have no capacity to disperse from one place to another. The process of discontinuos distribution is sustantiated by theories of land bridge and theories of continental drift. In the first theory it is believed that in Malaya and Australia as there are common plant species in Paleozoic era, there are land bridges which got submerged into sea water. In this way, the common plants are distributed in two places with large gap in between. In the second case, there are uniformity of plant distribution in a single super continent in the Paleozoic era. This super continent (Pangaea) broke into northern Laurasia and southern Gondwanaland. The two continents give rise to Eurasia. Greenland and North America and the Gondwanaland formed India. South America Australia, Antartica etc. The land masses are separated and their plants show uniformity of structures. These are plants like Nothofagus, Adansonia etc. Which occur in South America and South Africa. These are the examples of discontinuos distribution.

Endemic distribution: This type of distribution shows the presence of a type of a plant in a small region only. Examples are Gingko biloba, Metasequoia, Sequoia etc. Interpretive Phytogeography The branch deals with causes of the distribution pattern in plant vegetation. There are some principles of interpretive phytogeography. According to Law (1951) there are 13 principles which are grouped into (a) environment (b) plant responses (c) migration and (d) perpetuation.

Principles of phytogeography a) Principles concerning the environment, according to which the climate has primary control, and the edaphic control is secondary, and the biotic factor are also important. It is also assumed that the climate, as well as the relations of land and sea, has changed in the past. b) Principles concerning plant responses, according to which ranges of plant are limited by tolerances of different plant functions towards climatic, edaphic and biotic factors, and that different ontogenic phases, have different tolerances. c) Principles concerning the migration of floras and climaxes, which state that great migrations have taken place in the past and are still taking place, and that migrations result from transport and establishment of migrules. d) Principles concerning the perpetuation and evolution of floras and climaxes , according to which perpetuation depends upon migration and liability to transmit favourable variation to the offspring , and evolution and natural selection ,

NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA Natural vegetation in India is influenced by a few factors like topography, soil, amount of rainfall and temperature. Natural vegetation in India can be classified in different ways, according to their position, atmosphere, weather condition etc.

Types of Natural Vegetation in India Some of the common characteristics of various types of natural vegetation in India include the Tropical Rain Forest, the Tropical Deciduous Forests, the Temperate Forests and Grasslands, the Alpine and Tundra Vegetation etc. Apart from these, there are also some other varieties of natural vegetation in India like Himalayan Vegetation, Rain Forests of Southern India, the Desert Region, etc.

Tropical Rain Forests The tropical rain forests play an important role in natural vegetation in India. These types of forests include the tropical evergreen forests and tropical semi-evergreen forests and they are mostly found in places where there is plenty of rainfall and sunshine throughout the year. Growth of the trees is usually at its best where rainfall is in surplus of 200 cm, with a short dry season. Therefore, these forests are called as Archetypal Rain-Forests. Such regions are limited within rainy slopes of the Western Ghats, plains of West Bengal and Orissa and North-eastern India. Trees grow very briskly in these forests and attain sublime heights of

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about 60 m and above. The number of species in these forests, like ebony, mahogany and is rosewood,vast and assorted to utilise them commercially.

Tropical Deciduous Forests Another variety of natural vegetation in India can be found in the tropical deciduous forests. They are called as deciduous as they cast leaves for about 6 to 8 weeks in summer. They are also called the monsoon forests with all their grandeur and beauty. This is so because they form a natural cover approximately all over India, especially within regions having 200 and 75 cm of annual rainfall.

Most of the tropical deciduous forests are found in the state of Kerala in India. Apart from Kerala, these forests can be found in the eastern slopes of Western Ghats and also in the north-eastern parts of the peninsular plateau and in the valleys of the Himalaya mountains.

The tropical deciduous forests are pretty substantial, cost-effective and they demand a lot of maintenance, as they are less resistant to fire. These forests can be divided into moist and dry deciduous forests.

Moist Deciduous Forests The moist deciduous forests are most commonly found on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. They are also found in the north-eastern part of the peninsula that is in the region of Chota Nagpur plateau, covering east Madhya Pradesh, south Bihar and west Orissa. They are also widespread along the Shiwaliks in the northern India. Some of the important trees found in these forests include Indian teak tree, Sal, and sandalwood.
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Thorn Forests and Shrubs The Thorn Forests and Shrubs offer another kind of natural vegetation in India. These forests are mainly found in dry places where the annual rainfall is less than 70 cm. They are stretched over the north-western part of India, from Saurashtra in the south to Punjab plains in the north.

In the east, the thorn forests and shrubs extend towards northern Madhya Pradesh (primarily Malwa Plateau) and south-west Uttar Pradesh, covering Bundelkhand plateau. Dispersed trees with long roots, broadened in a radial pattern are the most familiar features of the trees in these forests. These forests slowly die away into scrubs and thorny bushes comprising the classic desert vegetation. Some of the most valuable plant species found in these forests include Babul, Kikar and coarse Grasses.

Tidal or Mangrove Forests The tidal forests provide another variety of natural vegetation in India. They can be found along the coasts and rivers and they are enshrouded by mangrove trees that can live in both

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fresh and salt water. Sundari is a renowned mangrove tree, mainly found in the tidal forests and it is after this tree that the name Sundarban has been entitled to the forested parts of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta. Temperate Forests and Grasslands Natural vegetation in India can be found in the temperate forests and grasslands, as well. Various types of plants are found in the Himalayas in relation to the varying altitudes. The broad-leaved evergreen trees usually grow between altitudes of 1 km and 2 km. The trees like oak, chestnut and maple belong to this category.

On the other hand, the coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir and spruce are grown between altitudes 1.5 km and 3 km. They are mainly found in the southern slopes of the Himalayas. The temperate grasslands are also commonly seen at higher altitudes in these regions.

Alpine and Tundra Vegetation Alpine and Tundra Vegetation is another kind of natural vegetation in India. Vegetation growing at altitudes above 3.6 km MSL is usually known as Alpine Vegetation and it can be noticed that with the increment of the altitude, the plants show stunted growth. The trees like Silver Fir, Pine, Juniper and Birch belong to this category. The Alpine Grasslands are mainly found at higher altitudes in this region. The people belonging to the tribal groups like Gujjar and Bakarwal make extensive use of this region. The vegetations like Lichen and Mosses are also found in high altitudinal regions.

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Himalayan Vegetation The Himalayan vegetation is one of the major kinds of natural vegetation in India. The thick tropical forests in the eastern region of India have a sharp distinction with the pine and coniferous woodlands of the western Himalayas. The evergreen forests, with mainly high alpine meadows nearer the snowline, usually have more of temperate forests in the lower elevations. The plant named Chir Pine grows throughout the northwest Himalayas, with the exception of Kashmir. The other plants like Chilgoza, Oak, Maple, Ash etc. also grow abundantly in the Inner Himalayas. The rain-soaked foothills of the Himalayas are covered with deciduous trees, shrubs, fern and grass and the Brahmaputra Valley also have patches of tea plantations and fluorescent-green rice fields.

Rain Forests of Southern India The rain forests of Southern India are contributing hugely to the natural vegetation in India. The most luxuriant rain forests lie on the south-western coast, in the state of Kerala. Here the lagoons are canopied by coconut trees and lead to the longest uninterrupted stretch of rain forests in the country. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the state of Arunachal Pradesh are some of the other regions with well preserved rain forests in India. Apart from that, dense Sandal, Teak and Sisoo forests also flourish on the Karnataka plateau. On the other hand, the dry Telengana plateau in Andhra Pradesh offers only thorny scrub and wild Indian Wild Date Palm

Desert Region Natural vegetation in India can be found in the desert region of India also. The Thar Desert in India presents a wonderful picture of natural vegetation in India. The trees in this desert are short and stout, and stunted by the scorching sun. Some of the most common trees in this

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region include Cacti, Reunjha, Khejra, Kanju, Ak etc.

All these varieties of forests and areas significantly contribute to the natural vegetation in India. But there are several problems like deforestation, over-grazing, Jhum cultivations, which needs to be addressed in order to protect and conserve the natural vegetation in India. The Government of India is taking several steps such as the Van Mahatsov programme, planting new tress every year etc. Moreover, the Government has also taken various steps to spread awareness about the need for conservation and has educated the general civilians about the several measures that need to be adopted in order to protect the natural vegetation in India.

VEGETATION IN GOA

Although Goa is the smallest state in India, it is rich in flora and fauna. Goa flora and fauna are diverse in nature. The smallest state of India is situated on the western shores of the country in the Konkan territory. The Western Ghats have the greatest divert of plant life, including areas of jungle (which can be seen around Dudhsagar Falls and BhagwanMahavir Wildlife Sanctuary), The vegetation here is, for the most part, tropical evergreen, although there evergreen although there are large areas of cane & bamboo and semi-evergreen trees.

On the lower slopes of the Ghats, thinner, dry soil supports lateritic semi-evergreen forests. In many places (for example, Cotigao wildlife Sanctuary) the arid nature of the leads to savanna like vegetation. In the less dry patches of the lower slopes, imbers such as teak are grown.

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The principal foodgrain cultivated in the state is rice. Ragi, pulses, and other food grains are cultivated as well. The major cash crops in Goa are Cashewnuts ,Coconuts ,Sugarcane, Arecanuts ,Fruits such as mangos, pineapples, and bananas .The state of Goa is home to abundant woodlands, encompassing more than 1,424 km2.The major forest products in the state of Goa are Maratha barks ,Bamboo sticks ,Bhirand and Chillar barks . In this state, coconut trees are seen everywhere other than the places with higher altitude. A big variety of broad-leafed plants such as sal, teak, mango trees, and cashew is seen. Popular fruits found in this area are ,Mangos ,Jackfruits ,Black-berry, also known as podkoam in Konkani language and Pineapples The jungles of the state are full of herbs and medicinal trees. The state tree of Goa is the Asan.

Goa's wet evergreen forests generally occupy about 250 sq. km. which are found in different areas in deep ravines and steep hills. These forests are mainly on the eastern border of Goa, close to the steep, rocky slopes of the Western Ghats. With these regions receiving heavy rainfall, the soils are shallow since they tend to be easily eroded. During the pre Liberation period, the Portuguese kept these forests as 'A' class classified ones for purposes of soil conservation and regulation of water flows. Also, these areas being somewhat inaccessible and coupled with high elevation and rocky territory, the wet evergreen forests had low value timber content. Among these Goan wet evergreens, only two really could be termed as 'gregarious species' viz. Syzgiumcumini and Mimusops elegi.

In their virgin state, Goa's moist deciduous forests include leaf-shedding species, teak and bamboos, the latter being an excellent source of long-fibre material for pulp. Essentially, these forests can be classified

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into four categories viz. (1) High value (2) Medium value (3) Average value and (4) Low value timber. During the time of the Portuguese rule, 400 forest out of a total of nearly 800 sq.km. Of moist deciduous forest had been classified as teak-bearing areas and treated as being available for commercial timber sales. However, despite the absence of user-rights, considerable illegal, unsupervised over-cutting took place resulting in considerable damage to these forests, leaving behind stumps and malformed trees. Added to this, were the dumping of mining waste which contributed to the degradation of these forests. The rugged Western Ghats make it an ideal haven for many species of birds and animals and also provide a corridor for migration. The Western Ghats called the Sahyadris in Goa extend for a total of 600 kms in Goa of their total length of 3702 kms. The widest belt of forests along the Western Ghats is in Goa and neighbouring Karnataka state. The coastal areas provide the tropical backdrop. On the lower slopes of the Ghats, thinner, dry soil supports lateritic semi-evergreen forests. In many places (for example, Cotigao wildlife Sanctuary) the arid natures of the leads to savanna like vegetation. In the less dry patches of the lower slopes, timbers such as teak are grown.

In the midland region the lateritic rock is extremely close to the surface and the soil is too thin in many places to support much more grass and scrub. Where possible, cashew trees significant cash crops which withstand the hot dry conditions, have been laid out in large plantations.

Beneath the canopy of the coconut palms and mango trees, the tall, slender areca nut palms (which provide betel nuts for paan a mixture chewed for its mildly intoxicating effect and as a digestive) are grown. These shelter an incredible variety of fruits trees and spice plants,

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ranging from pineapples to bananas, and pepper to cinnamon. Although many of these plants are indigenous to Goa, other was introduced by the Portuguese, including rubber trees, Pineapples and chillies. The coastal region has a similarly wide range of flora. The saline conditions support a substantial area of mangroves (estimated at a total area of 20 sq km). Along the coast, coconut palms, perhaps the most useful of all trees grown in Goa, predominate. Another distinctive feature in the area is the large banyan trees that often provide a shady meeting spot in each village.

Medical Plants: Goa is a region which is rich in medicinal plants. The Gazetteer of India relating to the then Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu (1979 edition) lists no less than 57 different medicinal plants that grow in Goa. The following table gives an illustrative list of the medicinal plants of Goa and the wide variety of diseases for which they are useful when medical treatment is to be given. Goa has other types of plant life which could broadly be categorized thus: Estuarine vegetation of mangrove along swampy river banks, strand and Greek vegetation along the coastal belt, Plateau vegetation along undulating terrain and foothills, open scrub jungle, moist deciduous forests which are found around Tudal, But-pal, Molem, Codal, Valpoi and/Anmodeghat, semi-evergreen and evergreen vegetation along the upper ghats, evergreen forests, hydrophites, the free floating as well as marshy plants, grasslands in the plains of Goa, economic and medicinal plants which include timber and the medicinal plants which were briefly described earlier. The grasslands of Goa harbour have economic fodder grasses while the medicinal plants also include Rauvolfia serpentina, Rubia cordifolia, Gloriosasu-perba and many other such medicinal plants.

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Name Alstoniascholaris

Useful for treatment of Ulcers, dyspepsia, skin diseases, liver problems. Paralysis, rheumatism, skin diseases, diabetes, "Black water"

Cassia fistula fever. Ficusreligiasa Magniferaindica scabies, cracked /inflammed soles of feet. Bleeding piles, diptheria, skin disease. Kidney disorders, piles, fistular sores, urinary diseases, Mimosa pudica abscesses. Dyspepsia, vertigo, coma, sore throat parapytic affection, Piper nigrum alopacia and urticaria. Tectonagrandis Dyspepsia, heartburn, headache, diuresis skin itch. Mild laxative, enlarged spleen, urinary disorders, intestinal Terminaliachebula worms. Rheumatism, Tinosporacordifolia fractures. Boils, abscesses, inflammation of gums, mild laxative, Zizyphusjujuba expectorant. Catarrhal Vitexnegundo inflammatory swellings of joints, cholera an haemorrhages. Treatment of gonorrhoea, vaginal diseases, dysentry, bleeding Accaciaarabica from bites of leeches; and also as an expectorant. Strychnosnux vomica Debility, worms, hysteria, mental emotions, insomnia, fever, rheumatism, enlarged spleen, sprains, biliousness, spermatorrhoea, jaundice, bone

spasmodic diseases, sexual impotence and bronchitis.

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Round worms, tape worms, thread worms, toothache, rheumatic Erythrinaindica pains, eye diseases.

Structure of the plant community at pale and sirigao villages: The type of forest in Western Ghats has been categorised broadly as the monsoon forest. The point must be made clear that there are wide variations in monsoon climatic regime and also wide variations in vegetation response, the vegetation ranges from luxuriant forest in wetter areas with short relatively dry season, to open woodland, where the rainy season is short, total annual rainfall is on low side, where the rainfall trends to be variable in both its amount and incidence. The tropical seasonal or semi-evergreen forests due to be found in the areas having classic monsoon climate. It shows potentially evergreen type of physiognomy, with more or less uniform floral composition. The climax vegetation in this region called evergreen biome forest. Evergreen plant species easily noticed are: Alistonia scholaris, Garcinia indica, tamarindus indica, syzgium cumini and mangifera indica as trees. Some of the families of cultivated plant species only found at pale and sirigao 1) Family: Ophioglossaceae Ophioglossumcostatum R. Br. Rao (1986) Fl. G. Dam.Diu, Dadra &Nagarhav. 2:521. Ophioglossumfibrosumschum. Small fern less than 20cm in height, erect found an open loamy gravel soils. Rhizome large, round, tuberous with numerous fibrous roots.Stipe or stalk very short with sterile segment close to base.Fronds thick and fleshy.Venetation indistinct except when dry, reticulate with

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forked vein lets. The midrib is prominent consisting of single main vein or 2-3 strong central veins which run parallel. Location: chowgules mines slopes-pale.

2) Family: Marsileaceae (Marseleaminuta L.) A well differentiated herb like fern, semi aquatic with a slender creeping rhizome. The rhizome (stoloniferous in habit) is indefinite in growth. Fronds are borne at nodes, compound; the lamina is divided into four small usually equal pinne. The fronds are circinate in bud condition often covered with numerous unbranched multicellular hairs, with smooth margin, toothed. Sporocarp have both megasporangia& microsporangia, bean shaped in outlook. Location: Tiska-Pale on small marshy area. Fr: April-may.

Flowering plants: 1. Family: mimosaceae Mimosa pudica L. Gamble (1919) Fl. Madras 1:298 Diffused or decumbent, Prickly herb. Leaves highly sensitive to touch, bipinnate, Leaflets 1214 pairs.Flowers polygamous, calyx minute, corolla pink, four lobed.Stamen 4, pink. Location: Chinchinum, Velge forest edges along the roadside-Pale. Fr: September-January.

2. Family: Apocynaceae Alistonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Cooke (1906) Fl. Bombay 2:194. EchitesScholaris L. Large tree leaves whorled, 4-7 per nodes, oblong-elliptic to oblanceolate, Cymes terminal & lateral, calyx glandular, and stamens inserted near mouth. Ovaries separate, fruit thin.
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Location: on slopes of chowgules mines and at ambegal plains. Sirigao on slopes of chowgules mines. Types of Forests found in Goa:

As per Champion and Seth (1968) Classification of Forest types of India, the forests of Goa fall in the following types:-

(A) Estuarine vegetation consisting of mangrove species along narrow muddy banks of rivers.

(B) Strand vegetation along the coastal belts.

(C) Plateau vegetation confined especially to the low altitude a. Open scrub jungle. b. Moist mixed deciduous forests. c. Secondary moist mixed deciduous forests. d. Sub-tropical Hill forests.

(D) Semi-evergreen and evergreen forest limited to patches along the high altitude a. Semi-evergreen forests. b. Lateritic Semi-evergreen forests. c. Evergreen forests.

(A) Estuarine vegetation of mangroves along swampy river banks: - This type occurs in isolated small patches along the banks of Mandovi and Zuari rivers and other salt water streams. Botanically this zone is characterized by peculiar root formations (stilt roots of Rhizophora, pneumatophores in Avicennia, knee root in Bruguieraetc). The mangroves are

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found in the division mainly at Durbhat, Panaji, Agassaim and Cortalim. The above categories of vegetation occur from sea level to 100m.

(B) Strand and creek vegetation along the coastal belt: - Most of the coastal regions of Goa is rocky with projecting ridges. The strand vegetation is limited to a few patches of narrow strip bordering the Arabian Sea. The vegetation along the south bank of the river Mandovi near Panaji belongs to this category. Tree species mainly found are Pongamiapinnata, and Pandanustectorius. Many herbaceous species such as Neanotisrheedei, lphigeniaindica, Begonia crenata, Mitreolaoldenlandioides, Habenariagrandifloriformis, Tricholepisglaberrima, Trichidesma sp. are found along rocky creeks and projecting ridges facing the coast.

(C) Plateau vegetation along undulating terrain and hills: A major portion of the vegetation in Goa belongs to this category, which is further divided into two types viz. (a) Open Scurb jungle and (b) Moist deciduous forests.

(a) Open scrub jungle: This type of vegetation occurs from Panaji to Cortalim and from Bicholim to Sanquelim. Anacardiumoccidentale is found on an extensive scale. The vegetation is mainly composed of dry deciduous elements such as Carissa congesta, Hollarrhenapubescens, Lantana camara, Calycopteris floribunda, Vitexnegundo and species of Calotropis, Ziziphus, Cassia, Ixora, Acacia, Terminalia and Crotalaria.

(b) Moist mixed deciduous forests: - This is the main forest type, found in Goa, covering more than half of the forest areas. In North Goa Division, this type occurs around Tudal. Butpal, Molem, Codal, AbicheGol near Valpoi, and Anmodeghat. Predominant species are Terminaliacrenulata, T. belerica, T. paniculata, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Adina cordifolia, A.

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procera, Dilleniapentagyna, Semicarpusanacardium, Mallotusphilippensis and Stereospermumcolais.

(c) Secondary moist mixed deciduous forests:-Trees found in this type are knotty and of coppice origin. A few trees of primary origin are found scattered. Such type is found mainly in areas of Cumeri cultivation and in other areas affected by biotic interferences. The main species found are Terminaliacrenulata, T. chebula, Adina cordifolia, Alstoniascholaris, Lanneacoromandelica, Bombaxceiba, Careyaarborea and Dilleniapentagyna.

(d) Sub-tropical Hill forests: - These forests have formed due to Kumeri cultivation in the past. Syzygium cuminii and Cinnamomum verum are of common occurrence. Caryota urens is the most common palm in this type of forest. In the second storey, Carvia callosa (Strobilanthescallosus), are found.

(D) Semi-evergreen and evergreen vegetation along upper ghats:

(a) Semi-evergreen forests: - This type occurs intermingling between tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest mostly above 500 m.s.l. and is found at Molem, Butpal and Nadquem. Species composition is of Artocarpus hirsutus, A. gomezianus, Calophyllum spp., Garcinia indica, and Diospyros Montana and Macranga peltata.

(b) Lateritic Semi-evergreen forests: - This type of Forests is found on shallow dry lateritic soils. Xylia xylocarpa is the prominent tree species with other associates like, Pterocarpus marsupium, Grewia tiliifolia, Terminalia paniculata, Careya arborea.

(c) Evergreen forests: - This type occurs in deep gorges and depressions and also along the nallahs and streams in the Ponda-Amboli-Rambhat belt. The main species are Calophyllum calaba, Garciniagummi-gutta, Diospyrus ebenum, Mangifera indica, Persea Macrantha,

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Mimusops elengi, Syzygium cumini, Litsea coriacea, Ficusspp.etc. Osmunda regilis, the royal fern, which is rare in the peninsular India, is also found in this type of forest.

Some of the well known plantations in Goa are as follows:

Mangal Plantation Cradled in the foothills of the Western Ghats that run through Goa is Mangal Plantation near Quepem, in area rich in archaeological sites, ancient groves and fabulous bio-diversity.

Pascoal Farms Set in the hills of the Mandovi River is the Pascoal Spice Farm at Khandepar, rich in the abundance and diversity of its plants.

Rustic Plantation This is a magnificient countryside sanctuary of nearly 100 acres of rural farmland nestled in the valley beneath the foothills of Western Ghats, situated in the north east part of Goa.

Savoi Plantation Located near the village of SavoiVerem, 10 km north of Ponda, Savoi Plantation is one of the oldest and largest tropical spice plantations in Goa situated right on the banks of the Mandovi River and is a treat to visit.

Abyss Also located near SavoiVerem, Abyss is set amidst sky-kissing mountains with picturesque beautiful surroundings with hundreds of medicinal herbs on the property and is developed on organic farming basis.
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The use of exotic tree species such as Australian acacia in such afforestation programmes is anathema, as they may not serve as good hosts to indigenous Journalinsect species and in turn not meet the requirements of insectivorous and frugivorous birds changing the microclimates of specialized flora and fauna as reported earlier (Watve 2003). Types of Forests found in Goa
The forests of Goa are typical of the Western Ghats (Southern Maharashtra and Karnataka). There is diversity in the forests due to the variation in altitude, aspect, soil characters, slope etc. As per Champion and Seth (1968) Classification of Forest types of India, the forests of Goa fall in the following types:-

(1) Estuarine vegetation consisting of mangrove species along narrow muddy banks of rivers

(2) Strand vegetation along the coastal belts

(3) Plateau vegetation confined especially to the low altitude (4) Semi-evergreen and evergreen forest limited to patches along the high altitude

(1)Estuarine vegetationof mangroves along swampy river banks:

This type occurs in isolated small patches along the banks of Mandovi and Zuari rivers and other salt water streams. Botanically this zone is characterized by peculiar root formations (stilt roots of Rhizophora, pneumatophores in Avicennia, knee root in Bruguieraetc). The mangroves are found in the division mainly at Durbhat, Panaji, Agassaim and Cortalim. The above categories of vegetation occur from sea level to 100m.

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(2)Strand and creek vegetation along the coastal belt:

Most of the coastal regions of Goa is rocky with projecting ridges. The strand vegetation is limited to a few patches of narrow strip bordering the Arabian Sea. The vegetation along the south bank of the river Mandovi near Panaji belongs to this category. Tree species mainly found are Pongamiapinnata, Thespesia pupulnea, Calophyllum inophyllum, Cerberamanghas and Pandanustectorius. Many herbaceous species such as Neanotisrheedei, lphigenia indica, Begoniacrenata,Mitreolaoldenlandioides, Habenariagrandifloriformis, Tricholepisglaberrima, Trichidesma sp. are found along rocky creeks and projecting ridges facing the coast.

(3)Plateau vegetation along undulating terrain and hills:

A major portion of the vegetation in Goa belongs to this category, which is further divided into two types viz. (a) Open Scurb jungle and (b) Moist deciduous forests.

(a) Open scrub jungle :

This type of vegetation occurs from Panaji to Cortalim and from Bicholim to Sanquelim. Anacardiumoccidentale is found on an extensive scale. The vegetation is mainly composed of dry deciduous elements such as Carissa congesta, Hollarrhena pubescens, Lantana camara, Calycopteris floribunda, Woodfordia fruticosa, Grewia abutilifolia, Vitex negundo and species of Calotropis, Ziziphus, Cassia, Ixora, Acacia, Albizia, Terminalia and Crotalaria.

(b) Moist mixed deciduous forests :

This is the main forest type, found in Goa, covering more than half of the forest areas. In North Goa Division, this type occurs around Tudal. Ordofind, Butpal, Molem, Codal, AbicheGol near Valpoi, and Anmodeghat. Predominant species are Terminalia crenulata, T. belerica, T. paniculata, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Adina cordifolia, Albizialebbeck, A.
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procera, Mitragyna parvifolia, Holopteliain tegrifolia, Trewianu diflora, Dillenia pentagyna, Semicarpusana cardium, Mallotus philippensis and Stereospermum colais.

(4)Semi-evergreen and evergreen vegetation along upper ghats:

(a) Semi-evergreen forests :- This type occurs intermingling between tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest mostly above 500 m.s.l. and is found at Ambochegol, Molem, Butpal and Nadquem. Species composition is of Artocarpushirsutus, A. gomezianus, Calophyllum spp.,Sterculiaguttata, Kydiacalycina, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Pterospermumdiversifolium, Garciniaindica, Diospyros Montana and Macrangapeltata.

(b) Lateritic Semi-evergreen forests : - This type of Forests is found on shallow dry lateritic soils. Xyliaxylocarpa is the prominent tree species with other associates like, Pterocarpusmarsupium,Grewiatiliifolia,Terminaliapaniculata,Schleicheraoleosa,Careyaarbore a ,Brideliaretusa and Strychnosnux-vomica.

(c) Evergreen forests:- This type occurs in deep gorges and depressions and also along the nallahs and streams in the Ponda-Amboli-Rambhat belt. The main species are Calophyllumcalaba, Garciniagummi-gutta, Canariumstrictum, Lophopetalumwightianum, Myristicaspp.,Knemaattenuata, Artocarpusgomezians, Mimusopselengi, Chroisophyllumacuminata, Mangiferaindica, Hydnocarpuspentendra, Palaquiumellipticum, PerseaMacrantha, Syzygiumcumini,

Diospyrusebenum, Oleadioica,

Hopeaponga,

Holigarnaarnotiana, Litseacoriacea, Carallia, brachiata, Mallotusphilipprnsis, Ficusspp.etc. Osmundaregilis, the royal fern, which is rare in the peninsular India, is also found in this type of forest.

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CONCLUSION The current trend in the region to encroach on plateau after plateau for mega projects doesnt augur well for the conservation of biodiversity. Before it is too late, there is a need for identifying a reasonable number of plateaus in the region as protected sites and systematic studies on their flora and fauna carried out, such that the original lateritic mosaic with grassland patches and indigenous trees are left intact. Open areas with herbaceous vegetation and grasses, many of them being endemic are characteristic features of the lateritic plateaux. These open areas are of utmost importance for the bird population as they provide better visibility for vigilance from their predators and free movement towards food procurement. Therefore, the extensive afforestation programmes in these open grassland areas are to be discouraged as they might do away with native and endemic herbaceous vegetation because of their canopy cover. Even if afforestation with tree species is felt necessary it should be done in isolated patches/islands without interfering with the open areas on a large scale.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Book reference S.G. Torne & H.N. Nyabuto,.Vegetation studies of Goa Printed by GajendrasinghGahlot at shiva offset press, Dehra Dun, India.(2-280) Gurcharan singh plant systematics printed by oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt . Ltd , New Delhi , India (464-465) Net reference Retrieved on 28/11/12 http://www.goaindiatourism.com/goa/flora-in-goa.html Retrieved on 28/11/12 http://www.goa-holidays.info/Goa_Wildlife.htm Retrieved on 1/12/12 http://savegoa.com/you_should_know/forests/types_of_forests_found_in_goa.php Retrieved on 1/12/12 http://www.goa.gov.in/knowgoa/aboutgoa.html Retrieved on 1/12/12 http://www.navhindtimes.in/panorama/wonderful-coastal-cliffs-goa Retrieved on 9/12/12 <http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/goa/information-goa/flora-fauna.html> Retrieved on 9/12/12 <http://savegoa.com/you_should_know/forests/types_of_forests_found_in_goa.php>

Retrieved on 10/12/12

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | March 2012 | 4(3): 24442453

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