1

2
Design of Feedback Controllers
We notice that different controllers have different effects on the
response of the controlled process. Thus the first design question
arises:
Question 1: What type of feedback controller should be used to
control a given process?
Question 2: How do we select the best values for the adjustable
parameters of a feedback controller?
Question 3: What performance criterion should we use for the
selection and the tuning of the controller?
3
There are a variety of performance criteria we could use, such
as:
- Keep the maximum deviation (error) as small as possible.
- Achieve short settling times.
- Minimize the integral of the errors until the process has
settled to its desired set point, and so on.
Simple Performance Criteria
Consider two different feedback control systems producing
the two closed-loop responses shown in Figure 16.2
Figure 16.2 Alternative closed-
loop responses.
4
If our criterion for the design of the controller had been
Return to the desired level of operation as soon as possible
Then, clearly, we would select the controller which gives the
closed-loop response of type A. But if our criterion had been
Keep the maximum deviation as small as possible
or
Return to the desired level of operation and stay close to it in the
shortest time
we would have selected the other controller, yielding the closed-
loop response of type B.
5
The simple performance criteria are based on some
characteristic features of the closed-loop response of a system.
The most often quoted are:
- Overshoot
- Rise time(i,e., time needed for the response to reach the
desired value for the first time)
- Settling time(i.e., time needed for the response to settle
within 5% of the desired value)
- Decay ratio
- Frequency of oscillation of the transient
6
From all the performance criteria above, the decay ratio
has been the most popular by the practicing engineers.
Specifically, experience has shown that a decay ratio
1
4
C
A
=
is a reasonable trade-off between a fast rise time and a
reasonable settling time. This criterion is usually known as
the one-quarter decay ratio criterion.
7
Example 16.1 : Controller Tuning with the One-Quarter Decay
Ratio Criterion
Consider the servo control problem of a first-order process with PI
controller. It can be easily shown that the close-loop respnse is given by
the following equation, when G
m
= G
f
= 1:
2 2
1
( ) ( )
2 1
I
sp
s
y s y s
s s
t
t ,t
+
=
+ +
where
I p
p c
K K
t t
t =
and
1
(1 )
2
I
p c
p p c
K K
K K
t
,
t
= +
We notice that the closed-loop response is second-order.
8
2
2
exp( )
1
decayratio
t,
,

Therefore, for our problem we have

2
1
2 (1 )
2
1
exp
4
1
1 (1 )
4
I
p c
p p c
I
p c
p p c
K K
K K
K K
K K
t
t
t
t
t
(
+
(
(
=
(
(
+
(

After algebraic simplifications we take
2
1
2 (1 ) ln( ) (16.1)
4 (1 ) 4
I
p c
p p c I p c
K K
K K K K
t
t
t t
+ =
+
9
Equation (16.1) has two unknowns: K
c
and t
I
. Let K
p
=0.1 and t
p
=10.
Then, we find the following solutions:
1 10 30 50 100
0.153 0.464 0.348 0.258 0.153
c c c c c
I I I I I
K K K K K
t t t t t
= = = = =
= = = = =
and so on.
10
is the deviation (error) of the response
from the desired set point.
1. Integral of the square error (ISE), where
2. Integral of the absolute value of the error (IAE), where
3. Integral of the time-weighted absolute error (ITAE), where
Time-Integral Performance Criteria
2
0
( ) I SE t dt
o
c =
}
(16.2a)
0
( ) I AE t dt
o
c =
}
(16.2b)
0
( ) I TAE t t dt
o
c =
}
(16.2c)
Note that ) ( ) ( ) ( t y t y t
SP
= c
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Select the type of the controller and the values of its adjusted
parameters in such a way as to minimize the ISE, IAE, or
ITAE of the systems response. The following are some
general guidelines:
I f we want to strongly suppress errors, I SE is better than I AE
because the errors are squared and thus contribute more to the
value of the integral.
For the suppression of small errors, I AE is better than I SE
because when we square small numbers (smaller than one) they
become even smaller.
To suppress errors that persist for long times, the I TAE
criterion will tune the controllers better because the presence of
large t amplifies the effect of even small errors in the value of
the integral.
12
Select the Type of Feedback Controller
Which one of the three popular feedback controllers should be
used to control a given process?
The question can be answered in a very systematic manner as
follows:
1. Define an appropriate performance criterion (e,g,. ISE, IAE, or
ITAE)
2. Compute the value of the performance criterion using a P, or PI,
or PID controller with the best settings for the adjusted
parameters , , .
c I D
K and t t
3. Select that controller which gives the best value for the
performance criterion.
13
1. I f possible, use simple proportional controller.
Simple proportional controller can be used if (a) we
can achieve acceptable offset with moderate values
of K
c
or (b) the process has an integrating action for
which the P control does not exhibit offset.
2. I f a simple P controller is unacceptable, use a
PI . A PI controller should be used when
proportional control alone cannot provide
sufficiently small steady-state errors (offsets)
3. Use a PI D controller to increase the speed of the
closed-loop response and retain robustness
We can adopt the following rules in selecting the most
appropriate controller.
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Example 16.3 Selecting the Type of Controller for Various Processes
Let us discuss various processes that are to be controlled by
feedback control systems. We will address primarily the question of
selecting the appropriate type of feedback controller.
1. Liquid-level control: proportional control alone is satisfactory.
2. Gas pressure control: Usually, we want to maintain p within a
certain range around a desired value, thus making a
proportional controller satisfactory for out purpose.
3. Vapor pressure control: For such systems with fast response, a
PI controller is satisfactory. For the system that the situation is
different, a PID controller should be selected because it will
provide enough speed and robustness.
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Figure 16.5 Pressure control loops: (a) direct effect, fast
response; (b) indirect effect, slow response.
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4. Flow control: a PI controller is satisfactory because it
eliminates offsets and retains acceptable speed of
response.
5. Temperature control: a PID controller would be the
most appropriate, because it can allow high gains for
faster response without undermining the stability of the
system.
6. Composition control: a PID controller should be the
most appropriate.
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There are two general approaches we can use for tuning a
controller.
1. Use simple criteria such as the one-quarter decay ratio,
minimum settling time, minimum largest error, and so
on.
2. Use time integral performance criteria such as ISE, IAE,
or ITAE
3. Use semiempirical rules
Controller Tuning
18
Process reaction curve method, developed by Cohen and Coon.
Cohen and Coon observed that the response of most processing
units to an input change, had a sigmoidal shape (see Figure 16.7),
which can be adequately approximated by the response of a first-
order system with dead time.
Figure 16.7 Opened control loop.
19
Figure 16.8 (a) Process reaction curve; (b) its approximation with a first-
order plus dead-time system
20
= B/S, where S is the slope of the sigmoidal response at
the point of inflection
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1
d
m
PRC f p m
t s
m
PRC
y s
G s G s G s G s
c s
y s Ke
G s
c s s t

= =
= ~
+
which has three parameters: static gain K, dead time t
d ,
and
time constant
( )
( )
output at steadystate B
K
input at steadystate A
= =
t
d
= time elapsed until the system
responded
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The results of their analysis are summarized below.
1. For proportional controllers, use
1
1
3
d
c
d
t
K
K t
t
t
| |
= +
|
\ .
2. For proportional-integral controllers, use
1
0.9
12
d
c
d
t
K
K t
t
t
| |
= +
|
\ .
30 3 /
9 20 /
d
I d
d
t
t
t
t t
t
+
=
+
22
3. For proportional-integral-derivative controllers, use
1 4
3 4
d
c
d
t
K
K t
t
t
| |
= +
|
\ .
32 6 /
13 8 /
d
I d
d
t
t
t
t
t
t
+
=
+
4
11 2 /
D d
d
t
t t
t
=
+
In such a case the Cohen-Coon settings should be viewed
only as first guesses needing certain on-line correction.
23
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Technique
The Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique is a closed-loop
procedure. It goes through the following steps:
1. Bring the system to the desired operational level
(design condition)
2. Using proportional control only and with the feedback
loop closed, introduce a set point change and vary the
proportional gain until the system oscillates
continuously.
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Figure 14. The Effect of K
c
on close-loop response.
25
Controller
K
c

I
(min)
D
(min)
Proportional (P) K
u
/ 2
- -
Proportional-integral (PI) K
u
/ 2.2 P
u
/ 1.2
-
Proportional-integral-
derivative (PID)
K
u
/ 1.7 P
u
/ 2
P
u
/ 8
3. Using the values of K
u
and P
u
, Ziegler and Nichols
recommended the following settings for feedback controllers:
26
Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
K
C
,

I
t
D
t
- K
C


- Offset

I
t
-
(Noise)

D
t
27
Figure 15. Effect of gain on the closed-loop response of second-
order systems with proportional control.
28
Figure 16. Effect of reset time on the closed-loop response of first-
order systems with integral action only.
29
Figure 17. Effect of gain on the closed-loop response of first-order
systems with PID control.