INTRODUCTION: It is the branch of engineering which deals with the measurement, monitoring, display etc.

of the several of energy exchanges which take place during process operations. "In short Instrumentation is the study of Instrument." INSTRUMENT: Instrument is a device which is used to measure, monitor, display etc. of a process variable. 1. What are the process Variables? The process Variables are: low. !ressure. Temperature. "evel. #uality i.e. $ %&, '%&, p( etc. 2. De i!e all the process Variable a!" state their #!it o $eas#re$e!t. ? %lo&: )ny fluids or li*uids flowing from one place to another place is called flow and it is defined as volume per unit of time at specified temperature and pressure 'onditions, is generally measured by positive+displacement or rate meters. U!its: kg , hr, litter , min, gallon , min, m- , hr, .m- , hr. /0ases1 'ress#re: It is defined as orce per unit )rea. ! 2 ,) U!its : bar, !ascal, kg , cm&, lb , in&. (e)el: The height of the water column, li*uid and powder etc., at the desired measurement of height between minimum level points to maximum level point is called level. The measurement principle is, head pressure method. U!its: 3eters, mm, cm, percentage. Te$perat#re: It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature. U!its : 4egree 'entigrade, 4egree ahrenheit, 4egree 5elvin, 4egree 6ankin. *#alit+: It deals with analysis./ p(, $ '%&, $ 7&, 'onductivity, Viscosity 1 ,. What are the pri$ar+ ele$e!ts #se" or lo& $eas#re$e!t? The primary elements used for flow measurement are: %rifice !late. Venturi tube.

!itot tube. )nnubars. low .o99le. :eir ; lumes.

-. What are the "i ere!t t+pes o ori ice plates a!" state their #ses? The different types of orifice plates are: 'oncentric. <egmental. =ccentric. #uadrant =dge. Co!ce!tric: The concentric orifice plate is used for ideal li*uid as well as gases and steam service. This orifice plate beta ratio fall between of 7.>? to 7.@? for li*uids and 7.&7 to 7.@7 for gases, and steam. Aest results occur between value of 7.B and 7.C. Aeta ratio means ratio of the orifice bore to the internal pipe diameters. 8 /B?8 beveled edges are often used to minimi9e riction resistance to flowing fluid1

8
d

low

8 / ig >1 Ecce!tric : The eccentric orifice plate has a hole eccentric. Dse full for measuring containing solids, oil containing water and wet steam. =ccentric plates can be used either flange or vena contracta taps, but the tap must be at >E78 or F78 to the eccentric opening. 8 / ig & 1 =ccentric orifices have the bore offset from center to 3inimi9e problems in services of solids+containing materials. Se.$e!tal : The segmental orifice place has the hole in the form segment of a circle. This is used for colloidal and slurry flow measurement. or best accuracy, the tap location should be >E78 from the center of tangency.

8 <egmental orifices provide another version of plates useful for solids containing materials.

/ ig - 1 *#a"ra!t E".e : It common use in =urope and are particularly useful for pipe si9es less than & inchs. 8 #uadrant edge orifices produce a relatively constant coefficient of discharge for services with low 6eynolds numbers in the range from >77,777 down to ?,777. / ig B 1 /. 0o& "o +o# i"e!ti + a! ori ice i! the pipe li!e? )n orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate which extends outer of the line giving an indication of the orifice plate. 1. Wh+ is the ori ice tab pro)i"e"? The orifice tab is provided due to the following reasons. Indication of an orifice plate in a line. The orifice diameter is marked on it. The material of the orifice plate. The tag no. of the orifice plate. The mark the inlet of an orifice. 2")a!ta.es a!" Disa")a!ta.es o Ori ice 'lates )dvantages of orifice plates include: (igh differential pressure generated =xhaustive data available "ow purchase price and installation cost =asy replacement 3.What is 4er!o#lli5s theore$ a!" &here it is applicable? AernoulliGs theorem states the "total energy of a li*uid flowing from one point to another remains constant." It is applicable for non compressible li*uids. 6. 0o& "o +o# i"e!ti + the 0. '. si"e or i!let o a! ori ice plate i! li!e?

The marking is always done (. !. side of the orifice tab which gives an indication of the (. !. side. 7. 0o& "o +o# calibrate a D. '. tra!s$itter? The following steps are to be taken which calibrating: >. )dHust 9ero of the TxIr. &. <tatic pressure test : 0ive e*ual pressure on both sides of the transmitter. Jero should not shift. If it is shifting carry out static alignment. -. Vacuum test : )pply e*ual vacuum to both the sides. The 9ero should not shift. B. 'alibration !rocedure: 0ive &7 psi air or &BVdc supply to the transmitter. Vent the ".!. side to atmosphere. 'onnect output of the Instrument to a standard test gauge or 3ultimeter and adHust 9ero. ?. )pply re*uired pressure to high pressure side of the transmitter and adHust the span. C. )dHust 9ero again if necessary. 18. What is the seal li9#i" #se" or illi!. i$p#lse li!es o! cr#"e a!" )isco#s li9#i" ? 0lycol. 11. 0o& "o +o# carr+ o#t pipi!. or a Di ere!t press#re lo& tra!s$itter o! li9#i"s: ;as a!" stea$ ser)ices Wh+ ? (i9#i" li!es : %n li*uid lines the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate because li*uids have a property of self draining. Ori ice plate %lo& "irectio!

'ri$ar+ isolatio! )al)e < (I*UID SERVICE = , &a+ $a!i ol" )al)e

%lo& tra!s$itter

;as Ser)ice :%n gas service the transmitter is mounted above the orifice plate because 0ases have a property of self venting and secondly condensate formation.

%lo& tra!s$itter

, &a+ $a!i ol" )al)e < ;2S SERVICES =

'ri$ar+ isolatio! )al)e

%lo& "irectio! Ori ice plate Stea$ Ser)ice :%n steam service the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate with condensate pots. The pots should be at the same level. Ori ice plate %lo& "irectio! 'ri$ar+ isolatio! )al)e

Co!"e!sate pot

, &a+ $a!i ol" )al)e > ? %lo& tra!s$itter

12. Dra& a!" e@plai! a!+ lo& co!trol loop ? CA) 'ositio!er
Ori ice plate

'ri$ar+ isolatio! )al)e 2IR SU''(B , &a+ $a!i ol" )al)e %lo& tra!s$itter 2IR SU''(B %RC

1,. 2! operator tells +o# that lo& i!"icatio! is $ore: 0o& &o#l" +o# start checCi!.? irst flushing the transmitter. lush both the impulse lines. )dHust the 9ero by e*uali9ing if necessary. If still the indication is more then. 'heck ".!. side for choke. If that is clean then. 'heck the leaks on ".!. side. If not. 'alibrate the transmitter. 1-. 0o& "o +o# "o a Dero checC o! a D.'. tra!s$itter ? 'lose one of the valve either (.!. or ".!. open the e*uali9ing valve. The %,! should read 9ero.

1/. 0o& &o#l" +o# "o ;l+col illi!. or ill seal li9#i"s i! seal pots 3 Dra& a!" e@plai!. The procedure for glycol filling is : 'lose the primary isolation valves. %pen the vent on the seal pots. 4rain the used glycol if present. 'onnect a hand pump on ".!. side while filling the (.!. side with glycol. 5eep the e*uali9er valve open. 5eep the ".!. side valve closed. <tart pumping and fill glycol. <ame repeat for ".!. side by connecting pump to (.!. side, keeping e*uali9er open and (.!. side isolation valve closed. 'lose the seal pot vent valves. 'lose e*uali9er valve. %pen both the primary isolation valves. 11. 0o& "o +o# calc#late !e& actor ro$ !e& ra!.e #si!. ol" actor a!" ol" ra!.e? #> E #& L M!& L M!> #> 2 %ld flow #& 2 .ew flow L M!> 2 %ld 4! L M!& E Ne& 4! #> N L M!& #> F M!& #& E L M!> %ld flow N new 4! .ew flow 2 L %ld 4! %,! $ 2 % E L M! x >7 /or1 %,! $ 2 L I,!$ O >7 low, I,! $ 2 M!

#& N M!> 2

13. 0o& &ill +o# )e!t air i! the D.'. cell? What i seal pots are #se"? )ir is vented by opening the vent plugs on a li*uid service transmitter. %n services where seal pots are used isolate the primary isolation valves and open the vent valves. ill the line from the transmitter drain plug with a pump. 16. Wh+ lo& is $eas#re" i! s9#are root?

low varies directly as the s*uare root of different pressure 2 5 s*uare root of 4,!. <ince this flow varies as the s*uare root of differential pressure the pen does not directly indicate flow. The flow can be determined by taking the s*uare root of the pen. <ay the pen reads ?7$ of chart. 17. What is absol#te press#re? )bsolute pressure is the total pressure present in the system )bs. pressure 2 0auge pressure K )tm. pressure. 28. What is absol#te Dero press#re? )bsolute 9ero 2 @C7 mm (g Vacuum. 21. What is the $a@i$#$ Vac##$? The maximum Vacuum 2 @C7 mm (g. 22. What is Vac##$? )ny pressure below atmospheric pressure is vacuum. 2t$ E 318 $$ Gero Vac##$ Gero ;a#.es

Gero absol#te

Ma@.)acc#$ E 318$$0.

2,. What are the pri$ar+ ele$e!ts or $eas#ri!. press#re? The primary elements used for measuring pressure are: Aourdon tube. 4iaphragm. 'apsule. Aellows. !ressure <prings. The above are known as elastic deformation pressure elements. Type of Aourdon tubes. G' G type. <piral. (elix. Diaphra.$: The diaphragm is best suited for low pressure measurement. Caps#les : Two circular diaphragms are welded together to form a pressure capsule. 3aterial Dsed: phosphor bron9e, .i+spanc stainless steel. 4ello&s : Aellows is a one + piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with deep folds ormed from very tin walled tubing. 3aterial used: Arass, phosphor bron9e, stainless steel. Dsed for high

!ressure. 're.spri!.: !ressure springs of helical or spiral shape used for measuring high pressures. 2-. 0o& &ill +o# calibrate a! absol#te press#re tra!s$itter #si!. )ac##$ $a!o$eter. Ra!.e 8?-88$$ abs? The procedure for calibration is as follows: 'onnect air supply to the transmitter. 'onnect a test gauge of 7+>.B 5g,cm& to the output. 'onnect Vacuum pump with tee off to the manometer. )pply @C7 mm Vacuum /or nearest1 and adHust 9ero. )pply -C7 mm Vacuum adHust span. /@C7 + -C7 2 B77 mm abs. 1 2/. Bo# are .i)e! a $erc#r+ $a!o$eter ra!.e 8 ?318 $$ ? 2 )ac##$ .a#.e rea"s 18 $$ )ac##$. The test $a!o$eter rea"s /8 )ac##$ ? Which o the t&o i! correct. The transmitter is correct because @C7 + ?7 2 @>7 mm abs. 21. Wh+ is a! i!cli!e" $a!o$eter #se" ? It is used to extend the scale of the instrument. Aecause the manometer is at an angle to the vertical. 23. What is the pri!ciple o a press#re .a#.e ? !ressure works on (ooks law. !rinciple : "3easuring the stress in an elastic medium" 26. Dra& a!" e@plai! a press#re .a#.e ? What is the #se" o a 0air spri!. ? The parts of a pressure gauge are : >. G'G type Aourdon tube. &. 'onnecting link. -. <ector gear. B. !inion gear. ?. (air <pring. C. !ointer. @. 4ial. Uses o 0air Spri!. : (air spring serves two purposes namely To avoid backlash error /eliminate any play into linkages1. It serves as a controlling tor*ue. (EVE( 27. 4rie l+ e@plai! the "i ere!t $etho"s o le)el $eas#re$e!t? There are two ways of measuring level: >. 4irect &. Indirect. T)!= 3=)<D6= >. Direct le)el $eas#re$e!t:

/a1 Aob and tape: T2NH ) bob weight and measuring Tape provide the most simple )nd direct method of 3easuring li*uid level. (I*UID (ighest point reached by li*uid 4istance to be measured after tape is taken out of Tank. Aob /weight1 /b1 <ight glass: This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the vessel. )s the level of the li*uid in the vessel change, so does the level of the li*uid in the glass tube. I!"irect le)el $eas#re$e!t: /)1 !ressure gauge: This is the simplest method, for pressure gauge is located at the 9ero level of the li*uid in the vessel. )ny rise in level causes an increase of pressure which can be measured by a gauge. /b1 !urge system: In this method a pipe is installed vertically with the open and at 9ero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a regulated air r supply and to a pressure gauge. To make a level measurement the air supply is adHusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the pressure due to height of the li*uid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until bubbles cab be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. 'ress#re .a#.e 2s le)el .a#.e 2ir re.#lator 2ir s#ppl+ N2 p#r.e Rota $eter

The air pressure to the bubbler pipe is minutely in =xcess of the li*uid pressure in the vessel, so that )ir pressure indicated is a measure of the level in The tank.

The method above is suitable for open tank applications. :hen a li*uid is in a pressure vessel, the li*uid column pressure canGt be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced out. This is done through the use of different pressure meters. /c1 4ifferential pressure meter: 'onnections are made at the vessel top and bottom, and to the two columns of the 4.!. meter. The top connection is made to the ".!. column of the transmitter and the bottom to (.!. column of the transmitter. The difference in pressure in the vessel is balanced out, since it is fed to both the column of the meter. The difference in pressure deducted by the meter will be due only to the changing, level of the li*uid. /d1 4isplacer type level measurement: The leveltrol is one of the most common instruments used measuring level in closed tanks. This instrument works of )rchimedes principle. The displacer in immersed in the li*uid due to which there is loss of weight depending on the specified gravity of the li*uid. This displacer hangs freely on a knife transmitted to the pneumatic or electronic counterpart at the other end. ,8. E@plai! ho& +o# &ill $eas#re le)el &ith a "i ere!t press#re tra!s$itter. The bottom connection of the vessel is connected to high pressure side of the transmitter. 4ifferent !ressure 2 ( O 4

0 D 0' (' K +
D A ' TR2NSMITTER

This difference pressure is applied to (.!. side of the transmitted and calibrated. ,1. 0o& is D.'. tra!s$itter applie" to a close ta!C?

In close tank the bottom of the tank is connected to the high pressure side of the transmitter and top of the tank in connected to ".!. side of the transmitter. In this way the vessel pressure is balanced. ,2. 0o& is D.'. tra!s$itter applie" to a! ope! ta!C? %n an open tank level measurement the ".!. side is vented to atmosphere. :hatever pressure acts is on the (.!. side which is a measure of level. <!). 2 /O1 /<p. 0raf1 J=6% <D!!6=<<I%. 2 /P1 /<p.0rav1

I B 0' (' > ?

,,. 0o& is D.' tra!s$itter applie" to a close ta!C J ope! ta!C &ith Dr+ le.? <pan 2 /O1 /0"1 (: at minimum level 2 / J 1 / 0< 1 K / P 1 / 0" 1 (: at maximum level 2 / J 1 / 0< 1 K / O K P 1 / 0" 1 :here: 0" 2 <pecific gravity of tank li*uid. 0< 2 <pecific gravity of seal li*uid. (: 2 =*uivalent head of water. O, P ; J are shown in fig />.>1

Ope! ta!C 3)O."=V="

Close ta!C &ith "r+ le. 3)O "=V=" I I

3I.."=V=" B 3I. "=V=" B

=xample: %pen tank with O 2 -77 inches P 2 ?7 inches J 2 >7 inches 0" 2 7.E 0< 2 7.F <pan 2 /-771 /7.E1 2 &B7 inches (: at minimum level 2 / >7 1 / 7.F 1 K / ?7 1 / 7.E 1 2 BF inches (: at maximum level 2 />7 1 / 7.F 1 K / ?7 K -77 1 / 7.E 1 2 &EF inches 'alibrated range 2 BF to &EF inches head of water
2., DE%INITION O% INSTRUMENT R2N;E 2ND S'2N

"egend: 6ange 4efined in I=' C7F7& as follows: The region of values between the lower and upper limits of the *uantity under consideration. It is expressed by stating the lower and upper limits /e.g. minus > to >7 bars /ga11. 4efined in I=' C7F7& as follows: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower limit values of a given range. It is expressed as a figure and unit of measurement /e.g. E bars1. "ower 6ange "imitQ the lowest *uantity that a device is designed to measure. Dpper 6ange "imitQ the highest *uantity that a device is designed to measure. the region in which the instrument is designed to operate. It is a physical capability of the device. The region limits are expressed by stating the "6" and D6". the minimum distance between the D6V and "6V for which the instrument is designed. It is a physical limitation of the device. The maximum distance between the D6V and "6V for which the instrument is designed. It is a physical limitation of the device. "ower 6ange ValueQ the lowest *uantity that a device is adHusted to measure. Dpper 6ange ValueQ the highest *uantity that a device is adHusted to measure.

<pan

"6" D6" Instrument range

Instrument minimum span Instrument maximum span "6V D6V

)dHusted range )dHusted span

The measurement region. It is expressed by stating the "6V and D6V. The distance between the D6V and "6V.

Example:

A differential pressure transmitter is used to measure the level in a vessel, using a wet reference leg. 0% level corresponds with a differential pressure of - 00 m!ar and "00% level with - "00 m!ar. #he catalogue of the selected transmitter lists -" 00$%" 00 m!ar for &'&$('& respectivel) and span limits of *00 to " 00 m!ar, so:

+nstrument range +nstrument minimum$maximum span &'. $ ('. Ad/usted range Ad/usted span 12#E:

, , , , ,

-" 00 to %" 00 m!ar *00 $ " 00 m!ar respectivel)- 00 $ -"00 m!ar respectivel)- 00 to -"00 m!ar. 000 m!ar.

3Ad/usted4 range and 3ad/usted4 span are fre5uentl) referred to as 3cali!rated4 range and 3cali!rated4 span. #his term is however onl) correct, if a cali!ration facilit) is used to set the &'. and ('.. 6or 3intelligent4 measuring devices, the supplier is usuall) cali!rating the device at the &'&$('& and the user is setting the re5uired &'. and ('. !) remote communication.

2.-

SE(ECTION O% R2N;ES

The accuracy /&.E1 and adHusted range of an instrument should be selected to cover the operating window /&.>1, which includes applicable abnormal operation and alternative operating modes. Dnless otherwise stated, the normal design value should lie between ?7$ and @?$ of the adHusted range
12#E: 6or certain applications it might not !e possi!le to com!ine all normal and a!normal operating conditions in one measurement at the re5uired accurac). +n such cases, a case-!)-case anal)sis should disclose whether additional instruments are re5uired or the accurac) re5uirements and$or operating window ma) !e relaxed. +t might !e accepta!le to present measured values during some of the a!normal operating cases at a lower accurac) or it might !e /ustifia!le for the measurement not to produce a sensi!le signal under some of the a!normal process conditions during start-up, commissioning, regeneration, emergenc) conditions and the li7e.

I! transmitters should have the same instrument range, adHusted range and accuracy as corresponding process transmitters in order to facilitate measurement comparison. or details and exceptions, see 4=! -&.E7.>7.>7+0en. Trip settings should lie between >7$ and F7$ of the adHusted range. The "6V should be selected so that the displayed result represents the 9ero or sub+9ero value of the process variable /e.g. 7+>?7 tons,day, 7+>77$ level, 7+>7 bar /ga1, +>,K- bar /ga1, 7+?77 R', +?7,K?7 R' etc.1. =levated 9eroIs />77+-77 tons,day, >77+&77 R'1 should be avoided.

Close ta!C &ith &et le.: <pan 2 /O1 /0"1 (: at minimum level 2 / P 1 / 0" 1 S / d 1/ 0< 1 (: at maximum level 2 / O K P 1 / 0" 1 S / d 1 / 0< 1 :here: 0" 2 <pecific gravity of tank li*uid 0< 2 <pecific gravity of tank li*uid (: 2 =*uivalent head of water O, P and J are shown in fig. 3)O "=V="

I 3I. "=V=" B

"

=xample : O 2 -77 inches P 2 ?7 inches d 2 ?77 inches 0" 2 7.E 0< 2 7.F <pan 2 / -77 1 / 7.E 1 2 &B7 inches (: minimum level 2 / ?7 1 / 7.E 1 + / ?77 1 / 7.F 1 2 + B>7 inches (: maximum level 2 / -77 K ?7 1 / 7.E 1 S / ?77 1 / 7.F 1 2 + >@7 inches 'alibrated range 2 + B>7 to S>@7 inches head of water. / minus sings indicate that the higher pressure is applied to the low pressure side of the transmitter 1

,-. What is p#r.e le)el s+ste$? This method is also known as bubbler method of level measurement. ) pipe is installed vertically with its open end at the 9ero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge or to T! transmitter. To make a level measurement the air supply is adHusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the pressure due to the height of the li*uid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. The gage then measures the air pressure needed to over come the pressure of the li*uid. ,U ! 2 ( O 4

USE: %n for corrosive li*uids where the transmitter cannot be directly connected to process eg... )cids, <ome organic li*uids.

,/. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a le)eltrol. The leveltrol is used for measuring level of li*uids in a closed vessel. >. !6I.'I!"=. : It works on )rchimedes principle "The loss in weight of a body immersed in a li*uid is e*ual to amount of li*uid displaced by the body". The leveltrol basically consists of the following : &. 4I<!")'=6: It is consists of a cylindrical shape pipe sealed and filled inside with sand or some weight. The purpose of this is to convert change in level to primary motion. The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in li*uid level varies the net weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the tor*ue arm. This change is directly proportional to change in level and specific gravity of the li*uid. -. 6=")P: )mplifies pressure variations at the no99les. B. 6=V=6<I.0 )6': It is used for the following purposes. 3otions take of from Tor*ue tube. 3eans of reverse control action. )dHustment for specific gravity. ?. !6%!=6TI%.)" D.IT. : 'onverts primary motion to a proportional output air pressure. C. '%.T6%" <=TTI.0 D.IT: !rovides motions of varying the set point. ,1. E@plai! the &orCi!. a! electro!ic le)eltrol. 6=0 K 6V4T %<' K + V J=6%
%! ) 3!

4' 3%4 K + 4' )3!"I I=6 <!).

The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in li*uid level, varies the net weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the tor*ue arm. This change is directly proportional to the change in level and specific gravity of the li*uid. The resulting tor*ue tube movement varies the angular motion of the rotor in the 6V4T /6otary Variable 4ifferential. Transformer1 providing a voltage change proportional to the rotor displacement, which is converted and amplified to a 4.'. current.

,3. 0o& &ill +o# re)erse a! actio! o the le)eltrol? The reversing are serves as motion take off arm from the tor*ue tube. It is provided with a slot on each side of the center so that link can be connected either for reverse or direct action. ,6. What is i!ter ace le)el? 0o& "o +o# calc#late it? :hen a vessel is filled with two li*uids of two different specific gravities the level measurement refers to as interface level. 4! 2 ( /4 + d1

4=.<ITP d

4=.<ITP 4 (! "! %n a level set the difference of two specific gravities. ,7. 0o& &ill +o# calibrate a le)eltrol i! the iel"? 4isplacer chamber "evel transmitter.

Transparent !.V.' tube

'alculation W > If the calibrating li*uid is water: !rocess "i*uid 4ensity , >X 4isplacer height 2 mm of (&%.

'alculation W & If the calibrating li*uid is other li*uid: !rocess "i*uid 4ensity , 'alibrating li*uid density X 4isplacer height 2 mm of (&%. /'alibrating li*uid height in mm1. >. irst close both the primary isolation valves and drain the li*uid inside the chamber. &. )dHust the 9ero to get 7$ output. -. 'onnect a transparent !V' tube to the drain point as shown in hook up. B. ill it to the center of the top flange. ?. )dHust the specific gravity or span adHustment /=lectronic "evel1. C. ill it up to ?7 $, check linearity. -8. 0o& &ill +o# calibrate o! i!ter ace le)el co!trol. ? %n an interface leveltrol there are two li*uid of two different specific gravities. >. The level will be 9ero when it is full of lighter li*uid. Jero $ level 2 ( O d. ( 2 4isplacer length d 2 <pecific gravity of lighter li*uid. & The level will be >77 $ when it is full of heavier li*uid. >77 $ level 2 ( O 4. 4 2 <pecific gravity of heavier li*uid. 'alibration with water: >. ill ( O d level with water adHust 9ero. &. ill ( O 4 level with water adHust <p. gravity or span. -. 'heck linearity. 4isplacer length: " in mm 4ensity "ow : dl in 5g , > 4ensity (igh : 4( in 5g , > )larm , Trip point $: O (( Trip !oint: P in mm P2 "X /4( O K />+ >77 >77 O 1 X dl1

-1. 0o& &ill +o# appl+ &t. lest calibratio! to a le)eltrol. :t. test calibration method: >. 6emove the displacer from the tor*ue arm. &. )pply e*uivalent weight on the tor*ue arm that is e*ual to the wt. of the displacer. )dHust 9ero $ output. -. or <pan : V 2 8r&h "oss in weight 2 :t. of float + wt. of the float immersed in li*uid "oss in weight 2 Y wt. of float + Vol. x d Z <pan wt. 2 /wt. of float + "oss in wt.1 r 2 radius of the displacer. h 2 ht. of displacer. B. )pply e*uivalent wt. e*ual to the /:t. of float + "oss in weight1. )dHust <pan to get >77 $ out put.

?. To check linearity apply average of the two weights. -2. What &ill happe! i the "isplacer has alle! "o&! &hile i! li!e ? The output will be maximum. -,. What &ill happe! i the "isplacer has a hole i! it &hile i! li!e? The output will be minimum. --. What is the #se" o S#ppressio! a!" ele)atio!? <uppression and elevation are used on "evel applications where />1 transmitters are not mounted on some level /&1 :et leg. I.e. condensable vapors are present. -/. What are the li$itatio!s o le)eltrol? The limitations of a level control that it cannot be used for lengths more than @& inches. -1. 0o& &ill +o# co$$issio! D.'. tra!s$itter i! iel" i! press#riDe" )essel. >. 'lose both the isolation valves, Vent the (.!. side. &. ill it with the sealing li*uid. -. %pen the ".!. side vent valve. B. )dHust 9ero with suppression spring. ?. 'lose the ".!. side vent valve. C. %pen both the isolation valves.

-3. 0o& &ill +o# checC Dero o a le)el D.'. tra!s$itter &hile is li!e? >. 'lose both the isolation valves. &. %pen the vent valve on ".!. leg and (.!. leg drain. -. 'heck and adHust 9ero if necessary. -6. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a! E!ra le)el .a#.e? The =nraf precise level gauge are based on servo powered null+balance techni*ue. ) displacer serves as a continuous level sensing element. !rinciple: ) displacer with a relative density higher than that of the product to be measured, is suspended from a stainless steel wire A, that is attached to a measuring drum. ) two phase servo meter controlled by a capacitive balance system winds or unwinds the measuring wire until the tension in the weighing springs is in balance with the weight of the displacer partly immersed in the li*uid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance formed by the moving center sensing rod = provided with two capacitor plates and the side plates. In balance position the capacitances are of e*ual value. ) level variation will a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in the direction of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes a difference in value of these capacitances. Ay an electronic circuit this change is detected and integrated. 4uring

the rotation of the servo motor the cam driven transmitter continuously change the voltage pattern to a remote indicator of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating level variation.

TEM'RETURE -7. What are the "i ere!t $etho"s o te$perat#re $eas#re$e!t? E@plai!. The different methods of temperature measurement are: >. 3echanical &. =lectrical. Mecha!ical $etho"s: 1. Merc#r+ i! .lass ther$o$eters: This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore Hoined to a reservoir at the bottom and sealed at the top. ) measured *uantity of mercury is the enclosed. :hen the thermometer is heated the mercury expands much more than the glass and is therefore forced to rise up in the tubing ) scale is fixed at the side. 2. 4i$etallic Ther$o$eter : Two metals whose coefficient of linear expansion is different are welded and rolled together to the desire thickness. The actual movement of a bimetal is its flexivity with one end fixed, a straight bimetal strip "e lects i! proportion to its temperature, to the s*uare of its length and inversely with its thickens.

,. 'ress#re Spri!. Ther$o$eters: There are four classes of pressure spring thermometers. >. "i*uid filled 2 class > &. Vapor pressure 2 class & -. 0as filled 2 class B. 3ercury filled 2 class B (i9#i" ille" J Merc#r+ ille": Aoth typeQ operate on the principle of thermal expansion. :here the bulb is immersed in a heated substance. The li*uid expands causing the pressure spring to unwind. The indicating, recording or controlling mechanisms are attached to pressure spring. 'ompensated Thermometer <ystem: 'ompensations are provided in order to nullify the effect of changes in ambient temperature. The compensation in li*uid filled expansions thermal system consists of the second tubing and helical element, both li*uid filled. The two elements are so constructed that the measuring helical floats on a movable base the position of which is governed by the compensating helical. The two tubing and helical are matched in volume so that variation in temperature at the instrument case and along the capillary tubing produces e*ual motion from both helical. <uch motion nullity each other so that only motion produced by varying the bulb temperature actuates the recorder pen. ;as ille" Ther$o$eters: This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confirm gas /constant volume1 due to temp. Increase. The relate between temp. )nd pressure in this kind of system follow 'harles law and may be expressed. !> T> !& T& The system is filled under high pressure. The increase pressure for each degree of temperature rise is therefore greater than if the filling pressure were low. .itrogen the gas most after used for such systems, because it chemically insert and possesses a favorable coefficient thermal expansion.

Vapor ? 'ress#re Ther$o$eters: Vapor pressure thermometers depend upon vapor pressure of li*uid which only partially fills the system. )t low temperatures the vapor pressure increase for each unit temperature charge is smallQ at higher temperature the vapor pressure change is much greater.

Electrical $etho" o te$perat#re $eas#re$e!t: >. Thermocouples: It is temperature measurement device .its works on principal of <== A)'5 = ='T. )ccording this when two dissimilar metal wires Hoined at their ends. Aetween the two Hunction the electromotive force is produced.

'old or reference [unction (ot or measuring [unction Ther$oco#ples T+pes a!" Ra!.e: Type T,' /[1 /51 /=1 /T1 /61 /<1 !ositive wire ; color Iron ; :hite 'hromel ; Pellow 'hromel ; !urple 'opper ; Alue !latinum and >7$6hodium ; Alack !latinum and >-$6hodium ; Alack .egative wire ; color 'onstantan ; 6ed )lumel ; 6ed 'onstantan ; 6ed 'onstantan ; 6ed !latinum ; 6ed !latinum ; 6ed 6ange 9 +-77 to>B77 +-77 to&-77 +-77 to>C77 +-77 to C?7 -& to &@77 -& to &@77

6esistance S Temperature 4etectors /6T41: 6T4Gs are generally used for precise temperature measurement. It consists of a five wire wrapped around an insulator and enclosed in a metal. The most sheath of a resistance thermometer resembles that of bimetallic thermometer bulb. !6I.'I!"=: "6esistance increases as temperature increase" Rt. E Ro <1 > K t= 6t. 2 6esistance of Temperature to measured. 6o. 2 6esistance of 9ero temperature. \ 2 'o. off of thermal /expansion1. t 2 Temperature to be measured. These metals have a positive temperature co+efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance increases as the temperature increases. Types of material used: />1 !latinum /&1 .ickel These metals have a positive temperature co+efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance increases as the temp. Increases.

Calc#latio! o Resista!ce or 't188. 6o. 2 >77 O for platinum 2 7.77-E? ,c. To calculate 6esistance at >77Gc. 6>77 2 >77 Y>K /-E.? x >7 B x >771Z 2 >77 K />77 x 7.-E?1 6>77 2 >-E.? Resista!ce at 1885c E 1,6./ /8. What is 't 188 $ea!?

!t>77 means >77 %(3< at 7G' for a platinum resistance bulb. /1. What is t&o &ire a!" three &ire R.T.D. s+ste$? Two wire 6 .T .4. system: Two wire 6T4 system use for short distance like a compressor field local panel. Three wire <ystem: Three wire systems use for long distance coke a field to control 6un. The third wire is used for compensation of lead wire resistance. T&o?&ire R.T.D Three?&ire R.T.D

> ? R1 R2

> ? R1 R2

0 al R,

0 al R,

R.T.D R.T.D /2. Dra& a pote!tio$eter te$p. Meas#ri!. circ#its a!" e@plai! its? Ther$o Co#ple T&o "i ere!t si.!al UN C!o& Si.!al Ser)o bala!ci!. $otor Meas. Circ#it Co!sta!t )olta.e H!o&! si.!al si.!al 2M'

O'ER2TION: The input to the instrument is a measurement of some in the processes using a sensing element /such as thermocouple1 or a device to produce direct voltage, which is the voltage /signal1. This voltage is subtracted from a voltage developed by a known constant voltage in a potentiometer measuring circuit. The subtraction occurs by connecting two

voltages in series with the opposing polarity, difference between these two voltages produces signal, the voltage going to the amplifier. The error will positive or negative depending on which of the two voltages greater. :hen amplified, the error signal will drive servo balancing motor in appropriate direction to adHust circuit /actually drive the slide wire1 until the difference between the feedback voltage and the input voltage is balance out. )n error signal e*ual to 9ero results /null point1 the balancing /servo motor is be longer driven1 /,. What is the co!sta!t )olta.e #!it? 6&2&F.B 63 6c 'r> '> @CB] 66esistance lead of 'r+ '6T 2 -B-.-The constant voltage circuit consists of a rectifier, '6, a filter capacitor '>, followed by two stages of 9ener regulation. )bridge configuration is provided to >amp line voltage regulation 9ener '6-, 6> and 6& combine provide relatively constant current to 9ener '6B, Thus variations. 6esisters 6& and 6- form a bridge that any remoment line voltage effects. /-. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a bala!ci!. $otor. <ignal in control winding appears as due tank circuit formed by winding and capacitor of amp. board. 6=4 'ontrol signal winding from amplifier 6> &k K 'rB

06==. Kve signal : It lags F7G from due to line phase capacitor amp. board. +ve signal : "eads F7G from line due to line phase capacitor of amp. board. The servo / balancing 1 motor is an induction motor that functions by creating a rotating magnetic field in the stator. The rotor / armature 1 turns by following this field. The field is developed by the use of two windings in the stator.

It has got two windings, one of which is continuously energi9ed by the line voltage. The other winding is energi9ed by the power amplifier, with a current whose phase with respect to line current determines the direction of rotation of motor. //. What is b#r!o#t eat#re ? E@plai!. Aurnout provides the warning feature of driving indicator the end of scale if the input circuit should open. ) burnout resistor is provided which develops a voltage drop between the measuring circuit and the amplifier. The polarity of the signal determines the direction of the servo drive upon an open circuit in the input. Dpscale burnout : 6 value >7 3 4ownscale burnout : 6 value &.& 3 /1. E@plai! the blocC "ia.ra$ o a! a$pli ier i! a te$p. recor"er. /3. Wh+ is a co!)erter #se" i! a te$p. recor"er ? The converter is designed to convert 4. '. input voltage into an ). '. input voltage proportional in amplitude to the input. /6. Wh+ are Ther$o&ells #se" ? In numerous application it is neither desirable nor practical to expose a temperature sensor directly to a process material. :ells are therefore used to protect against damage corrosion, erosion, abrasion and high pressure processes. ) thermowell is also useful in protecting a sensor from physical damage during handling and normal operation. Selecti!. a Ther$o&ell : The significant properties considered in selecting a material for the well are as follows : >. 6esistance to corrosion and oxidation. &. 6esistance to mechanical and thermal shock. -. "ow permeability / 6esistance to gas leakage 1. B. 3echanical strength. ?. Thermal conductivity. Material or Wells : >. <tainless steal. &. Inconel. -. 3onel. B. )lloy steal. ?. (astelloy G'G. /7. 0o& &ill +o# calibrate a te$p. recor"er #si!. a pote!tio$eter ? 'onnect the potentiometer output to the input of temp. recorder. >. 'onnect the / Kve 1 to the / Kve 1 and / +ve 1 to the / +ve 1. &. If ambient compensation is provided in potentiometer set it to the correct ambient temp.

-. If no ambient compensation is provided take a thermometer and measure the correct ambient temp.. ind out the corresponding mV s for that temp. for the given input type of thermocouple. B. :hile feeding subtract the ambient temp. m v s from the corresponding temp. every time. ?. )dHust the necessary adHustments. 3easuring Temperature :ith a !otentiometer: >.'onnect the input of the potentiometer to the thermocouple. &.If no ambient compensation is provided find out the corresponding millvolts for that ambient temp. for the type of thermocouple used. -.)dd the ambient temp. millvolts to the corr. input millvolts measured. ind out from the chart for the corresponding temperature. 18. What t+pe o se!si!. ele$e!t &o#l" +o# #se to $eas#re )er+ lo& te$perat#re ? The sensing element used for measuring very low temperature is 6. T. 4. / 6esistance Temperature 4etector 1

11. What are sCi! te$perat#re ther$oco#ples ? <kin thermocouples are those which are directly connected to the process without any thermowell. Dsed for measuring the skin temperature of heaters furnaces, flue gas etc. 12. What is the specialt+ o ther$oco#ples lea" &ires ? They should be of the same material as the thermocouple. 1,. What is the "i ere!ce the a &heatsto!e bri".e a!" a pote!tio$eter ? The difference between a potentiometer and a wheatstone bridge measuring instrument is that potentiometer is a voltage measuring instrument and wheatstone bridge is a current measuring instrument. 1-. E@plai! the co!ti!#o#s bala!ce pote!tio$eter s+ste$ #si!. R. T. D.5s. 'onverter Voltage !ower amplifier amplifier

=nergi9ing coil <lide wire

Aalancing motor R.T.D In a balance wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer a resistance bulb is connected into one branch of a d.c. bridge circuitQ in another branch is a variable resistance in the form of a calibrated slidewire. Variations in temp. of the measured medium cause a change in resistance of the bulb and a conse*uent unbalance of the bridge circuit. ) self balancing wheatstone bridge recogni9es the condition of unbalance, determines its direction and magnitude and position the slidewire contractor to rebalance the bridge and indicate the temp. on the scale. The 4. '. potential appearing at )) is converted by the converting stage to an ). '. voltage appearing at AA and is multiplied by the voltage amplifier to a large value at cc. It is then used to control the power amplifier output 44 which drives the balancing motor in the proper direction to balance the bridge. The polarity of the signal at )) determines the phase of the alternating voltage at AA which in turn determines the direction of rotation of the balancing motor.

1/. 0o& is a#to$atic Re ere!ce L#!ctio! co$pe!satio! carrie" o#t i! te$p? Recor"ers? Rheostat K + <cale Variable Resistor Re ere!ce M#!ctio! N'

+ 0ot L#!ctio!

or automatic reference Hunction compensation a variable nickel resister is used. )s the temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference Hunction compensatory is located, so that it will be at the temperature of the reference Hunction. The reference Hunction is at the position where the dissimilar wire of the thermocouple is reHoined, which invariably is at the terminal strip of the instrument.

CONTRO( SBSTEMS 11. E@plai! the applicatio! o proportio!al i!te.ral a!" "eri)ati)e actio!? 'roportio!al co!trol o!l+ : !roportional control only attempts to return a measurement to the set point after a load upset has occurred. (ow ever it is impossible for a proportional controller to return the measurement exactly to the set point. Use : It is normally used for level controls. It reduces the effect of a load change but it can not eliminate it. 'roportio!al pl#s reset co!trol: 6eset action is introduced to eliminate offset. It will integrate any difference between measurement and setpoint and cause the controllerGs output to change until the difference between the measurement and set point is 9ero. 6eset will act as long as the error exists.

Use: !roportional K 6eset controllers are by far the common types used in industrial process control and where predominate dead times occur. 'roportio!al pl#s reset pl#s "eri)ati)e: 4erivative or rate action helps the controller overcome system inertia and result in faster, more precise control. 4erivative action occurs whenever the measurement signal changes. Dnder study conditions the rate action does not act. 4erivative allows the controller to inHect more corrective action. Use : %n temperature controls. 13. What is "i ere!ce .ap co!trol? 4ifferential gap control is similar to on off control except that a band or gap exists around the control point. Use: In industry differential gap control is often found in non critical level control applications where it is desirable only to prevent a tank from flooding or drying. Whe! a measured variable exceeds the upper gap the control valve will open fully or be closed fully. <imilarly when it exceeds the lower gap it will open or close fully. 16. Where is o! o co!trol #se"? %n off control is used when >. !recise control is not needed. &. !rocesses that have sufficient capacity to allow the final operator to keep up with the measurement cycle. -. It is mainly used in refrigeration and are conditioning systems. 17. What is reset?&i!" #p? :hen reset action is applied in controllers :here the measurement is away from the set point for long periods the rest may drive the output to its maximum resulting in rest wind up. :hen the process starts again the output will no come off its maximum until the measurement crosses the so point causing large overshoots. This problem can be avoid by including anti+reset wind up circuit which eliminates the problem of output saturation. 38. Wh+ is reset calle" i!te.ral a!" Rate "eri)ati)e ? 6eset is called integral because of the mathematical relationship to the output. 6ate is called derivative because
t2i

%i 2 f : e / dt 1 K %7
t2o

%i 2 r / de , dt 1 K %7 r 2 is the rate time

%i 2 %7 2 e 2 t 2 f 2

is the %utput at any given time is the out put at time 9ero or 9ero error. is the error signal is time. is the reset rate in respects per minute.

31. E@plai! t#!i!. o co!trollers. Tuning basically involves adHustment of proportional. Integral and derivative parameters to achieve good control. The gain, time constants, and dead times around the loop will dictate the settings of various parameters of the controller.

T#!i!. $etho"s are broa"l+ classi ie" i!to t&o : >. 'losed "oop 3ethod : e.g. Dltimate 0ain 3ethod. &. %pen "oop 3ethod : e.g. process 6eaction curve. Ulti$ate .ai! $etho": The term ultimate gain was attached to this method because its use re*uire the determination of the ultimate gain /sensitivity1 and ultimate period. The ultimate sensitivity 5u is the maximum allowable value of gain /for a controller with only !roportional mode1 for which the system is stable. The ultimate period is the period of the response with the gain set at its ultimate value. 'rocess reactio! c#r)e : To deter mine the process reaction curve, the following steps are recommended. : >. "et the system come to steady state at the normal load level. &. !lace the controller on manual. -. 3anually set the output of the controller at the value at which it was operating in the automatic mode. B. )llow the system to reach the steady state. ?. :ith controller on manual, impose a step changes in the output of controller, which is an signal to value. C. 6ecord the response of controlled variable. @. 6eturn the controller output to its previous value and return the controller to auto operation. 32. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a! electro!ic '.I.D. co!troller. Input from the measurement transmitter is compared with the set point voltage to produce a deviation signal. The deviation signal is combined with a characteri9ed feed back signal to provide the input for the function generator amplifier. This amplifiers output is delivered to the feed back network, and to the final output which is a >7+?7m.a. do signal for actuation of final operators. <et 3anual 3easurement 4eviation )mplifier 3anual )utomatic

0ain

To final operator

'roportio!al actio!: It is a obtained by adHusting the magnitude of feed back signal. )n increase in negative feed back means less effective gain and thus a broader proportional band. Reset actio!s: It is obtained by charging the reset capacitor at a rate determined by the value of reset resister. The reset resister is variable, and constitutes reset adHustment. Deri)ati)e actio!: The connection of a derivative capacitor across the feedback circuit delays feedback until the capacitor is charged to a value approaching amplifier output. This delay is controlled by value of derivative resister. This resister is variable and constitutes derivative adHustment. 3,. What is a! a!alo.#e i!te.rator a!" a! a!alo.#e "i ere!tiator ? 2!alo. i!te.rator: RC Vi! > 2V ?1 ? Vo#t V8 E Vi!"t RC 2!alo. "i ere!tiator: R C " V8 E ? RC "t Vi! Vi! ? > 2V Vo#t

3-. What is a! a!ti reset &i!" #p ? If the limit acts in the feed back section of the control amplifiers integral circuit, the controller output will immediately begin to drive in the opposite direction as soon as the process signal crosses the set point. This approach is referred to as antireset wind up. 3/. What are De?sat#rators ? :hen, in some processes, e.g. batch process, long transient responses are expected during which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continuously drives the output to a minimum or maximum value. This phenomenon is called "integral saturation of the control unit". :hen this condition. 31.What is the e ect o &eep hole o! calc#latio! o ori ice bore? <"$=2 " E "$ O 1 > 8.// "h

&here: "$ E Meas#re" "ia$eter o ori ice. "h E Drai! hole "ia$eter. " E Correcte" "ia$eter ori ice siDe.

33. E@plai! the &orCi!. o Rota$eter?

OUT (ET The flow rate varies directly as the float rises and falls in the tapered tube.

Tapered glass tube <cale

IN (ET Variable area meters are special form of head meters. :here in the area of flow restrictor is varied. <o as to hold the differential pressure constant. The rotameters consists of a vertical tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in upward direction. ) "float" either spherical or cone shaped, actually more dense than the fluid being measured, creates an annular passage between its maximum circumference and the weight of the tapered tube. )s the flow varies the "float" rises or falls to vary the area of the passage so that the differential across it Hust balances the gravitational force on the "float" i.e. the differential pressure is maintained constant. The position of the "float" is the measured of the rate of flow. 36. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a $a.!etic $eter. )n electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic field. In most electrical machinery the conductor is a "wire"Q the principle is e*ually applicable to a moving, electrically conductive li*uid. The primary device of commercial magnetic meters consists of a straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a pair of electrodes nearly flush with the tube wall and located at opposite ends of a tube diameter. ) uniform a.c. magnetic field is provided at right angles to electrode diameter and to the axis of the tube. The a.c. voltage developed at the electrodes is proportional to the volume flow rate of fluid, and to a magnetic field strength. This device is limited to electrically conducting li*uids. The magnetic meter is particularly suited to measurement of slurries and dirty fluids, since there are no location for solids to collect except the walls of the tube itself. 37. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a t#rbi!e $eter. Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free to rotate, about its axis which is fixed along the center line of the tube. <traightening vanes upstream of the turbine minimi9es possible rotational components of fluid flow. In most units a magnetic pick+up system senses the rotation of the rotor through the tube wall. The turbine meter is a flow rate device, since the rotor speed is directly proportional to flow rate. The output is usually in the form of electrical pulses from the magnetic pick+up with a fre*uency proportional to flow rate. Turbine meter are primarily applied to measurement of clean and non+corrosive hydrocarbons. 68. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a 'itot t#be.

The pitot tube measures the velocity at point in the conduct. If *uantity rate measurement is desired, it must be calculated from the ratio of average velocity to the velocity at the point of measurement. 'ri!ciple : If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid, then the fluid impinging on the open end will be brought to rest, and the kinetic energy converted to pressure energy. This the pressure built up in the tube will be greater than that in the free stream by the impact pressure or pressure produced by loss of kinetic energy. The increase in pressure will depend upon the s*uare of the velocity of the stream. The difference is measured between the pressure in the tube and static pressure of the stream. The static pressure is measured by a tapping in the wall of the main or by a tapping incorporated in the pitot static tube itself. The difference between the pressure in the tube and static pressure will be a measure of the impact pressure and therefore of the velocity of the stream oil. 61. Where is the i!te.ral ori ice #se" ? Integral orifice is used to measure small flow rates. It is mounted directly on the secondary device. The integral orifice diameter varies between 7.7&7 inch and 7.&?7 inch diameter. The integral orifice finds considerable use in laboratory and pitot plants. 'alculation of flow rate : *! A %c E Hs @ C&i @ %a @ %$ @ ;p A ;e : h& 62. E@plai! the &orCi!. o a tar.et $eter. The target meter combines in a single unit both a primary element and a force balance flow rate transmitter. ) circular disc /or target1 supported concentrically in the pipe carrying the flowing fluid results in an annular orifice configuration. !ressure difference developed by the fluid flow through this annular orifice produces a force on target proportional to the s*uare of the flow rate. This force is carried out of the pipe through a rod passing through a diaphragm seal, and is measured by a pneumatic or electronic force balance system identical with the mechanism of the force balance 4.!. cell. The advantages of the target meter lies primarily in its single unit construction the primary device and responsive mechanism in a single structure. This eliminates the diff. pressure fluid connections in most heads meters. This is particularly used for sticky and dirty material which may plug up differential connections and for li*uids which re*uire elevated temperatures to avoid solidification, this elimination of li*uid connection is useful. :m & 2 'st a m c rf 6,. Where is a 9#a"ra!t ori ice #se" ? If the fluid is viscous and the operating 6eynolds number is low *uadrant orifice is preferred 6-. What are t+pes o taps #se" or ori ices ?

1. %la!.e taps:

This are most commonly used on pipe si9es of & inches or larger. They are located in the orifice flange & inch from upstream and > inch downstream from the faces 7 orifice plate.

2. Cor!er taps:

%n pipe si9es less than & inches corner taps located directly at the face of the orifice plate.

,. Ve!a co!tracta a!" ra"i#s taps:

Vena contracta taps located at > pipe diameter upstream and at point of minimum pressure downstream. There are mostly widely used for measurement of steam. 6adius taps are located > pipe diameter upstream and ^ pipe diameter downstream for the inlet face of the orifice are a close approximation to vena contracta taps upto 7.@& d , 4. -. %#ll lo& taps: ace flow taps are located at &^ pipe diameter upstream and A pipe diameter downstream. ull flow taps at &^ and A pipe diameter have the same advantage as vena contracta or radius taps. Ve!t#ri T#bes or applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a venturi tube / igure C1 can be used. Aecause of its gradually curved inlet and outlet cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also minimi9es wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids through without obstruction.

(owever a Venturi tube does have disadvantages: 'alculated calibration figures are less accurate than for orifice plates. or greater accuracy, each individual Venturi tube has to be flow calibrated by passing

known flows through the Venturi and recording the resulting differential pressures. The differential pressure generated by a venturi tube is lower than for an orifice plate and, therefore, a high sensitivity flow transmitter is needed. It is more bulky and more expensive.

)s a side noteQ one application of the Venturi tube is the measurement of flow in the primary heat transport system. Together with the temperature change across these fuel channels, thermal power of the reactor can be calculated. 6/. What is Re+!ol"s !#$ber ? 4ynamic similarity implies a correspondence of fluid forces in two systems. In general situation there are many classes of forces that influence the behavior of fluids. <ome of these are inertial viscous, gravitational, compressibility, pressure and elastic forces. 'ertain dimensionless ratio are developed based on fluid properties. Velocities and dimension, which are essentially force ratio. The more important of these are 6eynolds number V E )elocit+ )DQ D E i!si"e "ia$eter o pipe RE Q E l#i" "e!sit+ R R E )iscosit+ or most applications in practical flow measurement the 6eynolds number is taken to be sufficient criterion of dynamic similarly. The magnitude of 6eynolds number not only indicates whether the flow is laminar or turbulent but also furnishes the probable shape of velocity profile. 4ue to the strong role it plays as an indicator of varying flow characteristics, many of the deviation from the theoretical e*uations are called 6eynaldo number effects. 61. 0o& &o#l" +o# choose "i ere!tial ra!.e ? The most common diff. range for li*uid measurement is 7+>77" ( &%. This range is high enough to minimi9e the errors caused by une*ual heads in the seal chambers, differences in temps. of load lines etc. The >77" range permits an increase in capacity up to B77" and a decrease down up to &7" by merely changing range tubes or range adHustments. 63. What is positi)e Displace$e!t $eters ? pri!ciple: The principle of measurement is that as the li*uid flows through the meter it moves a measuring element which seals off the measuring chamber into a series of measuring compartments each holding a definite volume. )s the measuring element $o)es: these compartments are successively filled and emptied. Thus for each complete of the measuring element a fixed *uantity of li*uid is permitted to pass from the inlet to the outlet of the meter. The seal between measuring element and the measuring chamber is provided by a film of measured li*uid. The number of cycle of the measuring element is indicated by means of a pointer moving over the dial, a digital totali9er or some other form of register, driven from the measuring element through an adHustable gearing. The $ost co$$o! or$s o positi)e "isplace$e!t $eters are :

>. 6eciprocating !iston type. &. 6otating or %scillating !iston type. -. .utating 4isc type. B. luted <piral 6otor type. ?. <liding vane type. C. 6otating vane type. @. %val 0ear type. 66. Wh+ are t&o pl#.s pro)i"e" o! a D.' tra!s$itter? >.The top plug is a vent plug for venting the air entrapped inside the cell. &.The bottom plug is a drain plug for draining the li*uid accumulated inside the cell.

CONTRO( V2(VES 67. What is a co!trol )al)es ? ) control valve is the final control element, which directly changes the valve of the manipulated variable by changing the rate of flow of control agent. ) control valve consists of an operator and valve body. The operator provides the power to vary the position of the valve plug inside the body. The plug is connected to the operator by a stem, which slides through a stuffing box. The air signal from the controller is applied above the diaphragm. The increasing air signal from the controller is applied above the diaphragm. )n increasing air signal will push the operator stem downwards against the force exerted by the spring on the diaphragm plate. The valve is adHusted in such a way that the plug starts moving when - psi is applied to the diaphragm and touches the seat when >? psi is applied to the diaphragm. Thus an increase in air pressure will close the valve. (ence the home ")ir to 'lose". )nother type is ")ir to open", such that - psi on the diaphragm the value is closed and >? psi air signal it in fully open. 78. What are the "i ere!t t+pes o co!trol )al)es ? The commonly used control valves can be divided as follows. >. 4epending on )ction. &. 4epending on the Aody. 1. Depe!"i!. o! actio!: 4epending on action there are two types of control valves, />1 )ir to close, /&1 )ir to open. 2. Depe!"i!. o! bo"+: >. 0lobe valves single or double seated. &. )ngle valves. -. Autterfly valves. B. Three way valves. 71. What is the #se o si!.le seate" )al)e ? The single seated valve is used on smaller si9es, and in valve of larger si9es, where an absolute shut off is re*uired. The use of single seated valve is limited by pressure drop across the valve in the closed or almost closed position.

72. What is the #se o "o#ble seate" )al)e ? In double seated valves the upward and downward forces on the plug due to reduction of fluid pressure are nearly e*uali9ed. It is generally used on bigger si9e valves and high pressure systems. )ctuator forces re*uired are less i.e. ) small si9e actuator. 7,. What is C) o a )al)e ? 'v is the capacity of a valve and is defined as : ".o of gallons per minute of water which passes through a fully open valve at a pressure drop of > psi. 'V 2 * / _! , 0 1 :here: 'v 2 Valve co+efficient * 2 Volumetric flow rate / gallons minute 1 _! 2 !ressure drop across the valve in psi. 0 2 <pecific gravity of flowing fluid. The valve coefficient 'v is proportional to the area G)G between the plug and valve seat measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow. 7-. What are the "i ere!t t+pes o act#ators ? The different types of actuators are : >. 4iaphragm %perated. &. !iston %perated.

7/. What t+pes o bo!!ets &o#l" +o# #se o hi.h te$p. a!" )er+ lo& te$p. ? 0i.h te$perat#re: Aonnets are provided with radiation fins to prevent glad packing from getting damaged. O! )er+ lo& te$perat#re: =xtended bonnets are used to prevent gland packing from getting free9ed. 71. 0o& &ill +o# &orC o! a co!trol )al)e &hile it is li!e ? :hile the control valve is in line or in service, it has to be by passed and secondly the line to be depressuri9ed and drained.

73. What is the #se o a )al)e positio!er ? The valve positioner is used for following reasons : >. #uick )ction control valve. &. Valve hysteresis. -. Valves used on viscous li*uids. B. <plit 6ange. ?. "ine pressure changes on valve. C. Valve Aench set not standard. @. 6eversing valve operation. 76. Whe! ca! a b+ pass be !ot #se" o! a positio!er ? ) by pass on a positioner cannot be used when : >. <plit 6ange operation. &. 6everse )cting !ositioner. -. Valve bench set not standard. 77. What is the #se o b#tter l+ )al)es ?

Autterfly valves are used only in systems where a small pressure drop across the valve is allowed. The butterfly is fully open when the disc rotates by F7. ) "ra&bacC o this valve is that even a very small angular displacement produces a big change in flow.

188. What is the #se o three &a+ )al)es ?

Three way control valves are only used on special systems, where a dividing or mixture of flows according to a controlled ratio is re*uired.

181. What are the "i ere!t t+pes o pl#.s ? The different types of plugs are generally used are : / > 1 V. port plug / & 1 'ontoured plug V?port pl#.: !orted plug are generally used on double seated valves. This is because ported plugs, have a more constant off balance area. Co!to#re" pl#.: 'ontoured plugs are generally used on single seated valve with small trim si9es. 182. What is a ca.e )al)e ? ) cage valve uses a piston with piston ring seal attached to the single seated valve "plug". (ere the hydrostatic forces acting on the top or the piston or below the valve plug tend to cancel out. The seat ring is clamped in by a cage. 'age valves are generally used for noise reduction. 18,. What are the a")a!ta.es o Ca$ le@ )al)es ? 'amflex valves are intermediates between globe valve and butterfly valve. The plug rotates C7G for full opening. 2")a!ta.es: >. )ctuator forces re*uired are very less. &.=xtended bonnet and hence can be used on any service i.e. on high temp. and very low Temperature. -. Variations in flow. B. "ight weight. 18-. What is the #se o li!C co!!ecte" to the )al)e positio!er ? The link serves as the feed back to the value. )nt valve movement is sensed by this link. <ometimes due to line pressure changes on (.!. service the valve position may be changed, the link in turn senses this change and the positioner will produce an output which will operate the valve to the original position. 18/. What is the #se o booster rela+s ? Aooster relays are essentially air load, self contained pressure regulators. They are classified into three broad groups : 1. Vol#$e 4oosters : These are used to multiply the available volume of air signal. 2. Ratio Rela+s : Dse to multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal. ,. Re)ersi!. Rela+s : This produces a decreasing output signal for an increasing input signal. 181. What is the #se o 2!.le )al)es ?

)ngle valves are used where very high pressure drops are re*uired and under very severe conditions. :here the conventional type of valve would be damaged by erosion. 183. What are the "i ere!t )al)e characteristic ? The different types of valve characteristic are : >. "inear &. =*ual !ercentage -. #uick %pening.

1.(i!ear: The valve opening to flow rate is a linear curve 2.E9#al perce!ta.e: or e*ual increments of valve opening it will give e*ual increment in flow rate range. )t small opening the flow will also be small. ,.*#icC ope!i!.: )t small opening the increments in flow rate is more. )t higher opening the flow rate becomes steady. 186. What is a sole!oi" )al)e ? Where it is #se" ?

) solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consist of a solenoid / coil 1 in which a magnetic plunger moves which is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the value. There are two types of solenoid valves : >. .ormally open &. .ormally closed USE : It is used for safety purpose. 187. 0o& &ill +o# cha!.e the )al)e characteristics &ith positio!er ? The positioner contains different types of came in it. selection of the proper cams in it.Ay selection of the proper cam the valve opening characteristics can be changed. 118.0o& &ill +o# cha!.e the actio! o a co!trol )al)e ? >. If the control valve is without bottom cap. The actual needs to be changed. &. If bottom cap is provided. a1 4isconnect the stem from the actuator stem. b1 <eparate the body from the bonnet. c1 6emove the bottom cap and the plug from body. d1 4etach the plug from the stem by removing the pin. e1 ix the stem at the other end of the plug and fix the pin back. f1 Turn the body upside down. 'onnect it to the bonnet after inserting the plug and stem. g1 'onnect back the stem to the actuator stem. h1 ix back the bottom cap. i1 'alibrate the valve. 111. 0o& &ill +o# select the co!trol )al)e characteristics ? The graphic display of flow various lift shows then the 4esired or inherent characteristic is changed by variations pressure drop. This occurs as the process changes from condition where most of pressure drop takes place at the control valve is a condition where most of the pressure drop is generally distributed through rest of the system. S %lo& : This variation in where most of the total drop take place is one of the most important aspects is choosing the proper valve characteristics for give process. %lo& co!trol : .ormally =*ual percentage valve is used. 'ress#re Co!trol : .ormally linear valve is used to maintain a constant pressure drop. Te$p. Co!trol : .ormally e*ual percentage valve is used. (i9#i" (e)el Co!trol : .ormally linear valve is used. Aasically in selecting a valve characteristic two important point have to be taken into account. a1 There should be a linear relationship between the position of the plug and the flow through the valve in a wide range of change in the pressure drop across the valve. b1 The pressure drop across a valve should be as low as possible. Co!trol )al)e siDi!. 112. What is the e ect o pipe re"#cers o! )al)e capacit+?

:hen control valves are mounted between pipe reducers, there is a decrease in the actual valve capacity. The reducers create an additional pressure drop in the system by acting as contractions of enlargements in series with the valve. 3etric formula: for inlet and outlet reduces. 2 "2 R E 1 T 1./ 1? C)2 D2 8.8-"2 or outlet reducer only or inlet reducer with entrance angle less than B7 inches. 2 "2 R
2

C)2 8.8-"2

1 T 1./

1? D2

" E )al)e siDe $$. D E li!e siDe $$. C) E re9#ire" )al)e co?e icie!t. To compensate for reducer losses at sub+critical flow, divide 'v calculated by 6. 11,. 2! operator tells +o# that a co!trol )al)e i! a st#cC ? 0o& &ill +o# start checCi!. ? >. irst of all get the control valve is passed from operation. &. 'heck the lingual to the diaphragm of the control valve. -. 4isconnect it possible the actuator stem from the control valve stem. B. <troke the actuator and see whether the actuator operates or not. It not then the diaphragm may be punctured. ?. If the actuator operates connect it back to the plug stem stroke the control valve. If it does not operate loosen the gland nuts a bit and see if it operates. If it does not then the control valve has to be removed from the line to w,shop. 11-. Where is a! 2ir to close a!" 2ir to ope! co!trol )al)es #se" ? 2ir to close: >. 6eflux lines. &. 'ooling water lines. -. <afety 6elief services. 2ir to ope!: >. eed lines. &. <team <ervice. 11/. Wh+ "oes co!trol )al)e operate at IS psi ? %n higher pressure the actuator si9es becomes bigger in area. The actual force produced by the actuator. orce 2 !ressure x )rea. 2 >? psi x )rea, If )rea 2 >?" orce produced 2 >? psi x &? in& 2 -@? pounds. )ctual force acting on a control valve 2 -@? pounds.

;ENER2( *UESTIONS 111. E@plai! Casca"e Co!trol s+ste$ &ith a "ia.ra$. What &o#l" happier i a si!.le co!troller &ere #se" ?

TT

TIC Master co!troller Sla)e or Se Co!"ar+ Co!troller

Stea$ 'T %ee" &ater

%#el .as

'V 'ascade means two controllers is series. %ne of them is the 3aster or !rimary and the second is the secondary of slave controller. The output of the secondary controller operates the final control element, that is the valve. (oop e@pla!atio!: The output of the temp. transmitter goes as measurement signal to the TI' which is the master controller. <imilarly the output of pressure transmitter goes as measurement signal to the !I' which is the secondary controller. The output of TI' comes at set point to !I' which is turn operates the valve. The re*d. temp. is set on the TI'. Use o casca"e s+ste$: 'ascade loops are invariably installed to prevent outside disturbances from entering the process. The conventional single controller as shown in the diagram cannot responds to a change in the fuel gas pressure until its effect is felt by the process temp. sensor. In other words an error in the detected temperature has to develop before corrective action can be taken. The cascade loop in contrast responds immediately correcting for the effect of pressure change, before it could influence the process temperature. The improvement in control *uality due to cascading is a function of relative speeds and time lags. ) slow primary /3aster1 variable and a secondary /<lave1 variable which responds *uickly to disturbances represent a desirable combination for this type of control. If the slave can respond *uickly to fast disturbances then these will not be allowed to enter the process and thereby will not upset the control of primary /master1 variable. It can be said that use of cascade control on heat transfer e*uipment contributes to fast recovery from load changes or other disturbances.

113. E@plai! ratio co!trol s+ste$.

U! co!trolle" lo& /)1 %T

Ratio co!troller %1 > %2 Seco!"ar+ co!troller

/A1 %T Co!trolle" lo&

%V

) ratio control system is characteri9ed by the fact that variations in the secondary variable do not reflect back on the primary variable. In the above diagram 7 a ratio control system the secondary flow is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable flow. If we assume that the output of primary transmitter is ), and the output of the secondary transmitter is A, )nd that multiplication factor of the ratio relay is 5, then for e*uilibrium conditions which means set valve is e*ual to measured valve, we find the following relation : 5) + A 2 7 or A,) 2 5, where G5G is the ratio setting of the relay. 116. E@plai! #el to air ratio co!trol o #r!aces. 2ir %RC %T seco!"ar+ %V %#el .as RR Ratio co!troller %T %RC RS' Master stea$ %RC %C pri$ar+

117. What is %#r!ace Dra t co!trol ? Aalanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. :hen both forced draft and induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure will be the same as that of atmosphere. Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to prevent hot gas leakage. =xcessive vacuum in the furnace however produces heat losses through air infiltration. The most desirable condition is that the one have is a very slight /about 7.>" (&7 1 negative pressure of the top of furnace. 128. What is ee" bacC co!trol ? What is ee" or&ar" co!trol ? Disc#ss its applicatio! ? %ee" bacC co!trol: Co!troller<%IC= Meas#ri!. ele$e!t Set poi!t Tra!s$itter

'ROCESS

Co!trol )al)e Ori ice plate eed back control involves the detection of the controlled variable and counteracting of charges its itIs value relative to set point, by adHustment of a manipulated variable. This mode of control necessities that the disturbance variable must affect the controlled variable itself before correction can take place. (ence the term GfeedbackG can imply a correction GbackG in terms of time, a correction that should have taken place earlier when the disturbance occurred. %ee" or&ar" co!trol : Ori ice 'ROCESS %T Co!troller 2""iti)e re.#lator O#tp#t

eed forward control system is a system in which corrective action is based on measurement of disturbances inputs into the process. This mode of control responds to a disturbance such that is instantly compensates for that error which the disturbance would have otherwise caused in the controlled variable letter in time. eed forward control relies on a prediction. )s can be seen from the figure of feed forward control a necessary amount of input goes to the process. This measurement goes to the controller which gives output to the control valve. The control valve regulates the flow.

%ee" bacC co!trol :

In feed forward control no difference between the desired result and actual result need exist before corrective action is taken in feed back control a difference must exist. (ence, open loop or feed forward control is capable of perfect control, but feed back is not. 4ue to economic impartibility of precision , predicting the amount of correction necessary to achieve satisfactory results with feed forward control, feed back control is most often used. In order to properly choose the type of feed back controller for a particular process application, two factors time and gain must be considered.

121. E@plai! three ele$e!t ee" &ater co!trol s+ste$? %ee" &ater co!trol Dr#$ le)el co!trol Stea$ co!trol '2 '1 S9#are root E@tractor ', 'S9#are root e@tractor

Co$p#ti!. e9#atio!: ', E R < '2 ? '1 ? H = > '- > H8 ', E O#tp#t. '1: '2 J '- E I!p#t H1 E 2"L#stable s#ppressio!. H8 E 2"L.4ias.

122. E@plai! 2!ti?s#r.e co!trol? Co$pressor

3 'DT 'i!let Ratio %T %B %RC < %lo& co!)erter= 4+?'ass )al)e This method of surge control uses the ratio of compressor pressure rise to inlet flow rate to set the flow in by+bass loop. :hen the suction pressure drops and discharge shoots up, the compressor starts surging. The pdt senses this and gives the signal to the 6' which will open the by+pass valve. 'o#tlet

What is S#r.e?
<urge occurs in a turbo compressor when discharge head cannot be sustained at the available suction flow. <urge occurs at specific combinations of head and flow, as defined by the compressor manufacturerGs performance curves. %ne or more of the following can result from surge: ` Dnstable operation ` !artial or total flow reversal through the compressor ` 4isrupted process ` 3echanical damage to the compressor S#r.e is #s#all+ acco$pa!ie" b+ the ollo&i!.: ` Increase in discharge temperature ` 6eduction in discharge pressure ` Increase in vibration ` <harp rise in inlet temperature dependent on the volume flow at the suction.

Avoiding Surge

In the gas compressor section/ igure B1, surge can be avoided by recycling a controlled portion of the discharge flow back to the suction through a recycle valve. 6ecycling raises the suction pressure and lowers the discharge pressure, which increases flow and moves the operation away from surge. 6aising speed also moves the compressor away from surge. This is a temporary solution because it also raises !d and lowers !s, which tends to drive the machine back towards surge. In the air compressor section / igure?1, a blowoff valve is used to vent the compressor discharge to atmosphere. This does not affect the suction conditions, but it reduces discharge pressure and increases flow, which moves the operating point away from surge.

;ENER2( *UESTION ? II *#e. : Dra& a! electro!ic t&o &ire s+ste$ co!trol loop. 2!s. : *#e. : What are I!tri!sicall+ sa e s+ste$ ? 2!s. : Intrinsic safety is a techni*ue for designing electrical e*uipment for safe use in locations made ha9ardous by the presence of flammable gas or vapors in air. "4efn. :" Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any spark or thermal effect produce either normally or under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ignition of a specified gas or vapor in air mixture at the most easily ignited concentration. 02G2RDOUS 2RE2S :

The specification of products or systems sold as intrinsically safe must state in what ha9ardous areas they are infect intrinsically safe. Dniversal cooling of ha9ardous areas has not, unfortunately, been adopted in all countries. (owever two sets of codes in common use are. *#e. : What "oes a tra!s$itter o#tp#t start ro$ ,?1/ psi or <8.2 ? 1 H.AC$2= or - ? 28 $a. etc. ? 2!s. : The transmitter output stance from what is known as "live 9ero". This system has specific advantages : >. The systems automatically alarms when the signal system becomes inoperative. &. The output areas is linear / 6atio of > : ? 1. DE2D GERO SI;N2( : The advantage is that it does not have to be biased to true 9ero. ) ""ive 9ero" gives the computer additional information, so that it can takes appropriate alarm action in case of a measurement failure, because it can discriminate between a transmitter operating, but transmitting a 9ero measurement and a failure, in the signal system.

*#e. : What is orce bala!ce a!" $otio!s bala!ce pri!ciple ? 2!s. : %ORCE 42(2NCE 'RINCI'(E : ") controller which generates and output signal by opposing tor*ueIs". The input force is applied on the input bellows which novas the beam. This crackles no99le back pressure. The no99le back pressure is sensed by the balancing bellows which brings the beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about 7.77&" for full scale output. MOTION 42(2NCE 'RINCI'(E : ") controller which generates an output signal by motion of its parts". The increase in input signal will cause the baffle to move towards the no99le. The no99le back pressure will increase. This increase in back pressure acting on the balancing bellows, will expands the bellows, there by moving the no99le upward. The no99le will move untill motion /almost1 e*uals the input /baffle1 motion. 2")a!ta.es o orce 4ala!ce : >. 3oving parts are fever. &. Aaffle movement is negligible. -. rictional losses are less. 2UTOM2TIC CONTRO((ER :

It is a device which measured the value of variable *uantity or condition and operates to correct or lie it deviation of this measured value from a selected reference. 2UTOM2TIC CONTRO( SBSTEM : It is any operable arrangement of one or more automatic controllers in closed loops with one or more processes. SE(% O'ER2TED CONTRO((ER : It is one in which all the energy needed to operate the final control element is derived from the controlled medium through the primary element. RE(2B O'ER2TED CONTRO((ER : It is one in which the energy transmitted through the primary element is either supplemented or amplified for operating the final control element by employing energy from another sources. 'ROCESS : ) process comprises the collective function performed in and by the e*uipment in which a variable is to be controlled. SE(% RE;U(2TION : It is an inherent characteristic of the process which aids in limiting the deviation of the controlled variable. CONTRO((ED V2RI24(E : The controlled variable is that *uantity and condition which is measured and controlled.

CONTRO((ED MIDIUM : It is that process energy or material in which a variable is controlled. The controlled variable is a condition or characteristic of the controlled medium. or e.g. where temperature of water in a tank is automatically controlled, the controlled variable is temperature and controlled medium is water. M2NI'U(2TED V2RI24(E : It is that *uantity or condition which is varied by the automatic controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable. CONTRO( 2;ENT : It is that process energy or material of which the manipulated variation is a condition or characteristic. The manipulated variable is a condition or characteristic of the control agent. or e.g. when a final control element changes the fuel gas flow to burner the manipulated variable is flow the control agent is fuel gas.

2CTU2TIN; SI;N2( : The actuating signal is the difference at anytime between the reference input and a signal related to the controlled variable. This basically known as error signal. DEVI2TION :It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and the value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point. O%%SET : It is the steady state difference between the control point and the value of the controlled variable corresponding with setpoint CORRECTIVE 2CTION : It is the variation of the manipulated variable produced by the controlling means. The controlling means operates the final control element / control value 1 which in turn varies the manipulated variable. RE%ERENCE IN'UT : It is the reference signal in an automatic controller. SET 'OINT : It is the position to which the control point setting mechanism is set. CONTRO( 'OINT : It is the value of the controlled variable which under any fixed set of conditions the automatic controller operates to maintain.

D E % I N 2 T I O N. 2CCUR2CB : ) number or *uantity which defines the limit of error under reference conditions. 2TTENU2TION :

) decrease in signal magnitude between two points, or between two fre*uencies. DE2D TIME : The interval of time between initiation of an impact change or stimulus and the start of the resulting response. DRI%T : )s undesired change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input, operating conditions, or load. ERROR : The difference between the indication and the true value of the measured signal. S'2N ERROR : It is the difference between the actual span and the specified span and is expressed as the percent of specified span. GERO ERROR : It is the error of device operating under the specified conditions of use when the input is at the lower range value. ST2TIC ;2IN : It is the ratio of the output change to an input been change after the steady state has been reached. 0BSTERESIS : The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured signal during a full range traverse for the same input. INTER%ERENCE : Interference is any spurious voltage or current arising from external sources and appearing in the circuits of a device. COMMON MODE INTER%ERENCE :

It is the form of interference which appears between the measuring circuit terminals and ground. NORM2( MODE INTER%ERENCE : It is the form of interference which appears between measuring circuit terminals. (INE2RITB : The closeness to which a curve approximate a straight line. R2N;E : The region between the limits within which a *uantity is measured received or transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range values. RE'E2T24I(ITB : The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for the same value of the measured signal under the same operating conditions. RE'RODUCI4I(ITB : The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same value of the input made under the same operating conditions. RES'ONSE : It is the general behavior of the output of a device as a function of input both with respect to time. SI;N2( TO NOISE R2TIO : 6atio of signal amplitude to noise. TIME CONST2NT : The time re*uired for the output to complete C-.& $ of the total rise or decay. S'2N : The algebraic difference between upper and lower range values. GERO S0I%T : )ny parallel shift of the input output curve.

E@pla!atio! o Ter$s #se" i! Co$p#terise" Data 2c9#isitio!

2lter!ati!. C#rre!t )bbreviation ac. =lectric current whose flow alternates in direction. The number of times the current changes direction in one second is called the fre*uency. The normal waveform of ac is sinusoidal. 2l#$el Trade name for an alloy of nickel with up to ?$ aluminium, manganese and silicon, used with chromel in 5+type thermocouples. 2$pere )bbreviation A. <I unit of electric current. 2$pli ier ) circuit that produces a larger output power, voltage or current than was applied at its input. 2$plit#"e The si9e or magnitude of a signal. 2!alo.#e?to?Di.ital <2AD= Co!)erter 'onverts an analogue signal /such as a voltage signal from a temperature sensor1 into a digital signal suitable for input to a computer. 2!ti?2lias %ilter )n anti+alias /or anti+aliasing1 filter allows through the lower fre*uency components of a signal but stops higher fre*uencies, in either the signal or noise, from introducing distortion. )nti+alias filters are specified according to the sampling rate of the system and there must be one filter per input signal. 4acCbo!e The maHor multi+channel link in a network, from which smaller links branch off. 4acC.ro#!" Noise =xtraneous signals that might be confused with the re*uired measurement. 4a#" The rate of data transmission in serial data communications, approximately e*ual to one bit per second. Chro$el )n alloy of nickel with about >7$ chromium, used with )lumel in 5+type thermocouples. Co!sta!ta! )n alloy of B7$ nickel and C7$ copper, with a high volume resistivity and almost negligible temperature coefficient. Dsed with copper in T+type thermocouples. C#rre!t 'urrent is often used to transmit signals in noisy environments because it is much less affected by environmental noise pick+up. Aefore ),4 conversion the current signals are usually turned into voltage signals by a current+sensing resistor.

Di ere!tial I!p#ts 6educe noise picked up by the signal leads. or each input signal there are two signal wires. ) third connector allows the signals to be referenced to ground. The measurement is the difference in voltage between the two wires: any voltage common to both wires is removed. Di.ital?to?2!alo.#e <DA2= Co!)erter Dsed to produce analogue output signals. These may be control signals or synthesised waveforms. Electro$oti)e %orce <e$ = 4ifference of potential produced by sources of electrical energy which can be used to drive currents through external circuits. Dnit is the volt. E!"#ra!ce li$it In fatigue testing, the number of cycles which may be withstood without failure at a particular level of stress. EI2 =lectronic Industries )ssociation. Ether!et ) local area network to which you can connect data ac*uisition devices. E?T+pe Ther$oco#ple 'hromel+constantan thermocouple with a temperature rangeof 7+E77 o'. %I%O b# er ) first in, first out, store. The first value placed in the buffer /*ueue1 is the first value subse*uently read. %ilteri!. )ttenuates components of a signal that are undesired: reduces noise errors in a signal. %re9#e!c+ 3easured in hert9 /cycles per second1, rate of repetition of changes. %re9#e!c+ Co#!ter 'ounts digital pulses over a defined gate time. ) typical gate time is between 7.> and >7 seconds. %ro!t pa!el The front surface of a unit, generally containing switches and indicator lights. ;ai! )mplification of a circuit. ;'I4 0eneral !urpose Interface Aus. )lso known as I===+BEE bus. The 0!IA standard was designed to connect several instruments to computers for data ac*uisition and control. 4ata can be transferred over 0!IA at &77 777 bytes per second, over distances of & meters. ;ro#!" <ee earth. 0ertD <0D= 'ycles per second unit of fre*uency.

0#$a! $achi!e i!ter ace <h$i= )lso known as man machine interface. The communication between the computer system and the people who use it. IEEE?-66 4#s <ee 0!IA I!te.ratio! Ti$e )n integrating ),4 converter measures an input voltage by allowing it to charge a capacitor for a defined period. The integration averages the input signal over the integration time, which if chosen appropriately will average over a complete mains cycle thereby helping to reduce mains fre*uency interference. Isolatio! Two circuits are isolated when there is no direct electrical connection between them. Isolatio! to Earth or S+ste$ ) high transient voltage at one input may damage not only the input circuit, but the rest of the data ac*uisition hardware, and, by propagating through the signal conditioning and ),4 circuits, eventually damage the computer system as well. Pou can prevent this type of damage by isolating the input from the earth of the data ac*uisition and computer hardware. Isolatio! 4et&ee! I!p#ts ) transient at an input can also propagate to other e*uipment connected to that input. This is prevented by providing isolation between inputs. M?T+pe Ther$oco#ple Iron+constantan thermocouple with a temperature range of 7 to @?7 o'. H?T+pe Ther$oco#ple 'hromel+)lumel thermocouple with a temperature range of +&77 to >&77 o'. N?T+pe Ther$oco#ple .icrosil+.isil thermocouple with a temperature range of +&77 to >&77 o'. Resol#tio! The resolution of an ),4 or 4,) converter is the number of steps the range of the converter is divided into. The resolution is usually expressed as bits /n1 and the number of steps is &n /& to the power n1, so a converter with a >&+bit resolution divides its range into &>& or B7FC steps. In this case a 7+>7 volt range will be resolved to 7.&? millivolts. R$s 6oot mean s*uare. The s*uare root of the sum of the s*uares of a set of *uantities divided by the total number of *uantities. Dsed when monitoring ac /alternating current1 signals. 3any power supplies, for example, issue an ac signal. This needs to be converted to a dc /direct current1 signal for the !' interface. The solution is a signal conditioning input that produces a dc signal proportional to the rms of the amplitude of the input signal. The rms operation means the reading will always be positive.

Settli!. Ti$e :hen an output voltage swings full+scale through the range of the 4,) converter, the settling time tells how long it will take for the output to settle to its new value. Si.!al Co!"itio!i!. 3akes a signal suitable for input to an analogue+to+digital converter. or example, a signal may be filtered to remove noise, or amplified to meet the range of the ),4 converter. Si$#lta!eo#s Sa$pli!. :hen all analogue signals are read simultaneously. This is achieved by providing each input with its own ),4 converter, and initiating sampling from a single clock. It ensures that there is no reduction in sampling rate when more signals are connected. Sle& Rate The maximum rate of change of an output signal. Strai! ;a#.e ) device which experiences a change in resistance when it is stretched or strained. Ther$istor ) temperature sensor. The name comes from thermal resistor. It comprises a mixture of certain oxides with finely divided copper, of which the resistance is very sensitive to change of temperature. Ther$oco#ple !opular temperature sensor because of its low cost, versatility and ruggedness. 'onsists of two different metals Hoined together, making a continuous circuit. :hen one Hunction has a different temperature from the other an electromotive force /voltage1 occurs. There are several types of thermocouples, constructed from different metals and with differing temperature ranges and accuracies. Tra!s"#cer ) device which converts a physical *uantity into an electrical signal. =xamples include thermocouples and photocells. Tra!sie!t ) short surge of current or voltage, often occurring before steady+state conditions have become established. T?T+pe Ther$oco#ple 'opper+constantan thermocouple with a temperature range of +&77 to B77 o'.

' R E S S U R E. 'RESSURE CONVERSIONS : 1psi E 1 H.Ac$2 E 1 4ar E 1 Hpa E 1 H.Ac$2 E 1 4ar E 1 H.Ac$2 E 1 Torr E 23.3- U 02O 1-.22, psi 1-./8- psi 8.1-/ psi 18.888$$ o 028 1.8173 H.Ac$2 8.76 4ar 1 $$ o 0..

*#e. : E@plai! the &orCi!. o a! E!ra le)el .a#.e ? 2!s. : The =nraf level precise level gauges are based on servo powered null balance techni*ue. ) displacer serves as continuos level sensing element. 'ri!ciple : ) displacer ) with a relative density higher than that of a product to be measured, is suspended from a stainless steal wire A tat is attached to a measuring drum. ) two phase servo motor controlled by a capacitive balance system winds unwinds the measuring wire until the tension on the weight springs is in balance with the wt. of the displace part immersed in the li*uid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance formed by the moving central sensing rod = provided with two capacitor plates and the si plates. In balance position the capacitance are of e*uip value. ) level variation will cause

a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in to direction of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes difference in value of this capacitance. Ay an electrolyte rotation of the servo motors the can driven transmitter continuously change the voltage pattern to remote indicate of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating low variation.

'RIM2RB %EED42CH : It is the signal which is related to the b[.tr[(ab-cdedfeghijakVlVVVmnlV(lopVqfVr3Vith the reference input to obtain the actuating signal. <imply stated primary feedback is the actual measurement of the controlled variable which when compared with the desired measurement of the controlled variable produces the actuating signal. 'OSITIONIN; 2CTION : It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the value of the controlled variable and the position of the final control element. 'RO'ORTION2( 2CTION : It is that in which there is a continuous linear relationship between the value of the actual measurement of the controlled variable and the value position. %(O2TIN; 2CTION : It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the deviation and speed of final control element. DERIV2TIVE 2CTION : It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between a time derivative of the controlled variable and position of final control element. REST 2CTION : It is the value movement at a speed proportional to the magnitude of deviation.

R2TE 2CTION : It is that in which there is a continuos linear relation between the rate of change of controlled variable and position of final control element. 6ate action produces value motion proportional to the rate of change of actual measurement. 'RO'ORTION2( 42ND : It is the range of values of the controlled variable which correspond to the full operating range of the final control element.

RESET R2TE : It is the number of times,minute that the effect of proportional position action upon the final control element is repeated by proportional speed floating action. There are two ways of expressing reset action : >. 6eset time and &. 6eset 6ate 1. Reset Rate : It is commonly expressed as a number of "repeats" per minute. It is determined by dividing. a1 Travel of final control element / Value stroke 1 in one minute as a result of the effect of proportional speed floating action. b1 The travel as a result of the effect of proportional position action with the same deviation in both cases. 2. Reset Ti$e : It is the time interval by which the rate is commonly expressed in minutes. It is determined by subtracting. a1 The time re*uired for a selected motion of the final control element resulting from combined effect of the proportional position plus rate action. b1 The time re*uired for the same motion as a result of the effect of proportional position action alone with the same rate of change of controlled variable in both cases or expressed in another way. It is the time lead in terms of air pressure on the control value produced by rate action compared with proportional position action for the same rate of change of actual measurement in both cases. E(ECTRONICS *#e. : What is a "io"e? 2!s. : ) diode consists of two electrodes />1 )node /&1 'athode. The current flow is only in one direction. ) diode is the most basic solid state /semi conductor1 device. The above figure shows a !... Hunction. The !. material has holes and the .. material has electrons. %ORW2RD 4I2S : REVERSE 4I2S : / > 1 :here the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential /the p side is more positive than the n side1 the current produce is large because maHority carriers cross the Hunction in large numbers. This condition is called forward bias. / & 1 :hen the applied voltage aids the barrier potential /n side K ve than p side1 the current in small. This state is known as 6everse Aias. *#e. : What is a hal &a)e: #ll &a)e a!" bri".e recti ier ? 2!s. : 02(% W2VE RECTI%IER :

%U(( W2VE RECTI%IER : 4RID;E RECTI%IER : 'E2H INVERSE VO(T2;E : 3aximum 6everse voltage across the diode during the cycle. *#e. : What is a ilter #se" or ? 2!s. : The half wave and full wave signals are pulsating 4 . ' . voltages. The use of such voltages is limited to charging batteries, running 4. '. motors, and a few other applications. :hat we really have is a 4.'. voltage that is constant in valve, similar to the voltage from a battery. To get a constant voltage from this, we can use a capacitor input filter. *#e. : What is Ge!er Dio"e ? What is a )olta.e Re.#lator ? 2!s. : The breakdown region of a p n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical 4iodes with almost vertical breakdown region are known as Jever 4iodes. ) Jener diodes operating in the breakdown region is e*uivalent to a battery. Aecause of this current through Jener diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this constant voltage that has made the 9ever diode an important device in voltage regulation.

VO(T2;E RE;U(2TOR : The output remains constant despite changes in input voltage due to Jever effect. *#e. : What is tra!sistor ? What are the "i ere!t t+pes ? )ns. : ) transistor is a three lagged semi conductor device. Aasically a transistor means /transfer + resister1. :hether the transistor is pnp or npn it resembles two diodes /back to back1. The one of the left is called emitter diodes, and the one on the right is the collector diode. <ince two types of charges are involved transistor : are classified as bipolar devices. 4iasi!. the tra!sistor : =mitter + Aase + orward Aias. 'ollector + Aase + 6everse Aias. *#e. : What is C4: CE a!" CC co! i.#ratio! ? )ns. :

Auffer : ) device or a circuit used to isolate two ptGne circuits or stages. The emitter follows is a example of buffer. )lpha 2 I' , I= Aeta 2 I' , IA *#e. : 0o& &ill +o# test a tra!sistor &ith a $#lti$eter. ? )ns. : >. =mitter Kve of meter and Aase +ve output 2 "ow resistance &. =mitter +ve of meter and base Kve output 2 (igh resistance. -. 'ollector Kve and Aase +ve output 2 "ow. B. 'ollector +ve and base Kve output 2 (igh. =mitter : 'ollector 2 (igh 6esistance. 'N' : %pposite 6esults. *#e. : What is a th+ristor ? What are its #ses ? )ns. : ) thyristor is a special kind of semi conductor device that uses internal feedback to produce latching action. Use : Dsed for controlling large amounts of load power in motors, heaters, lighting systems etc. E@pla!atio! : Aecause of the unusual connection we have a Kve feedback also called regeneration. ) change in current at any point in the loop is amplified and returned to the starting point with the same phase. or instance if the 7& base current increases, the 7& collector current increases. This force base current through 7>. In turn this produces a large 7> collector current which drives the 7& base harder. This build up in currents will continue until both transistors are driven in saturation. In this case the latch acts like a closed switch. %n the other hand , if something causes the 7& base current to decrease, the 7& collector current will decrease. This reduces the 7> base current. In turn, there is less 7> collector current, which reduces the 7> base current even more. This regeneration continues until both transistors are driven into cut off. )t this time the latches like a open switch. This latch will always stay in open or close position.

*#e. : What are lo.ic .ates ? E@plai! &ith tr#th table. )ns. : 0)T= : ) gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more inputs . )n output signal occurs only for control combination of input signals. 1. OR ? ;2TE :

SBM4O( : TRUT0 ) T24(E : 7 7 > >

A 7 > 7 >

P 7 7 7 >

De i!e : )n %6 0ate has one output if any or all of its input are >Gs. 2. 2ND ;2TE : De i!e : )n ).4 0ate has output when all inputs are present. SBM4O( : TRUT0 ) A P T24(E : 7 7 7 7 > 7 > 7 7 > > > ,. NOT ;2TE : ) not gate is also known as an inverter. This circuit has one input and one out put . )ll it does is invert the input signalQ if the input is high, the output is low and vice versa. TRUT0 T24(E : Inpu t 7 > %utpu t > 7

4# er : This is a non inverting gate, used to drive low impedance loads. NOR ;2TE : This is an %6 0)T= followed by an inverter. SBM4O( : TRUT0 T24(E : ) 7 7 > > A 7 > 7 > P > 7 7 7

E@cl#si)e ) OR ;2TE 7 7 > >

A 7 > 7 >

P 7 > > 7

N2ND ;2TE : This is an ).4 0)T= followed by an inverter. TRUT0 T24(E : ) 7 7 > > A 7 > 7 > P > > > 7

. *#e. : E@plai! the &orCi!. o TI( ? N2ND ;2TE.

DCS 2RC0ITECTURE
Evolution of DCS:
` ` ` ;neumatic <ontrol =)stem - =ingle &oop <ontrollers, >ore ?ardware, &ess Accurate, <um!ersome >aintenance. =&;< - Electronic <ontrollers, =ingle$multi &oop, >ore ?ardware @<= - +ntroduced in the 3 0s, >icroprocessor Aased, Braphic (ser +nterface, +nterface Cith 2ther @evices, Availa!ilit) of 'eports D @iagnostics, (ser 6riendl).

I/O Block Diagram

I,% Alock 4iagram

ield /Hazardous Area1 'ontrol 6oom /Non-Hazardous Area1

[A

3arshalling

6ack

4'<

Transmitters C/Vs etc.

'rocess Co!trol ? Co$po!e!ts 02RDW2RE

` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` #ransmitter, <ontrol .alves etc. <a!les, Eunction Aox. Aarriers, <onverters etc. ;ower =uppl) >odules +$2 <ards D ;rocessor <ommunication >odules =)stem <ommunication Aus $ 1etwor7 Braphic @ispla) =tation F <'#

2perator +nterface F Ge)!oard$ #ouchscreen $ >ouse etc.

SOFTWARE DCS
` ` ` ` ` ` =)stem <onfiguration F @ata!ase Auilder, <ontrol <onfiguration Etc. Braphic Auilder ?istor) Auilder D 'eport Criter @iagnostic #ools &ogic Editor <ontrol &anguage F (ser ;rogramma!le =oftware

4'< )6'(IT='TD6=
S#per)isor+ Co$p#ter
IN%ORM2TION NETWORH

MIS Co$p#ter

EN;;. Statio!

Operator Co!soles

DCS COMMUNIC2TION 4US

ield I,%s
3arshalling 6ack I,%, !rocessor 6ack

COMM N. IA% COMM N. IA%

!"' , %ther <P<T=3<

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