Chapter Summary for Chapter 4 Globalization and Social Change 12-year-old girl wins $256,000 lawsuit against her

mother (BWNToday)
The scale of the contrast between the contemporary world and earlier societies is summed up by the relatively recent human population expansion, transformations unleashed by modern technologies and, latterly, by globalization. Three previous types of society have existed: hunting and gathering societies were the dominant form of social organization throughout human history but are now restricted to a few small parts of South America and Africa; pastoral societies herd animals in environments where agriculture is difficult; agrarian societies are similar except that they raise crops and are therefore more geographically settled and accumulate more material possessions. Industrialization makes agricultural employment an activity of the few as most of the population is freed up to work in factories, shops and offices. Cities increase the density of population but simultaneously increase the anonymity of modern life. Local variation gives way to a more integrated social and political network and the nationstate becomes the model for human societies across the modern world. Three centuries of colonialism led to the creation of Three Worlds. While this is convenient shorthand, it is no longer a very useful typology. The terms developed and developing societies are now more common. Developing societies differ from traditional societies in three respects: politically they are nation-states; most are undergoing the experience of urbanization; agriculture dominates but as an export crop rather than for subsistence. Three main features and causes of globalization exist: a growth in information and communications technology, most notably the advent of fibre-optic cables and communications satellites; the weightless, knowledge-based, information-led global economy, dominated by transnational corporations; the spread of institutions of government that do not match national boundaries, such as the EU, the UN and a tranche of non-governmental bodies. Three broad positions exist on the significance of globalization: hyperglobalizers see globalization changing every aspect of life; sceptics argue that the nation-state

remains the central actor; whilst transformationalists see some major transformations but also the persistence of older patterns. Many examples of life affected by globalization can be found. For example, global influences are present in reggae and other musical forms. Supermarkets carry a large array of fresh produce from across the world. Indeed the concepts of food miles and local produce have become pervasive in recent environmental debates. Does this inevitably lead to a global culture? Phenomena like television, the global economy, citizens of the world, transnational organizations and electronic communications seem to push the world in that direction. However, Kuwaitis use of the Internet (see pp. 143-5) suggests this will be no simple matter and Robertsons concept of glocalization aims to capture the diverse cultural responses to global economic forces. Ironically, under conditions of globalization, there can result a form of new individualism, an environment where the pressure is on to be much more active in choosing identities. The chapter conclusion raises the question of the need for new structures of governance at the global or, at the very least, supra-national level in order to deal with the unpredictability of the many constituent processes within the globalizing dynamic.

Chapter Summary for Chapter 3 Theories and Perspectives 82-year-old man jailed after his dog killed a cat (BWNToday)
Theoretical thinking in sociology is needed if we are to explain and understand social life, and theories are linked to societys main problems. Understanding the field of sociological theory today is more complex than in the past because societys central problems are changing and sociologists have been forced to develop new theories as a result. Students therefore need to grasp both classical and contemporary theories. There is a distinction between grand theory and the less ambitious pursuit of theories of the middle range. The latter combine general applicability with the criterion of testability, one example being the theory of relative deprivation. However, there has been a return to grand theorizing in recent times.

Early sociological thinkers, such as Comte and Spencer, drew heavily on the successful natural sciences and were influenced by emerging evolutionary theory. Comtes positivism and Spencers theory of social evolution are good examples of this trend. Marxs theory of successive modes of production leading from primitive communism through feudalism and capitalism towards communism is probably the most influential example of grand theory yet seen. Later scholars influenced by Marx include the Frankfurt School, which sought to address some of the problems within Marxist theory. However, it was Durkheim who did most to establish sociology as an academic discipline within universities. His argument about the existence of social facts and the need for a new discipline capable of studying them marked a major turning point in the social sciences. The later structural functionalism of Parsons became dominant in sociology for a time, but his overly abstract systems theory and unconvincing handling of social conflicts led to the emergence of a plurality of theoretical perspectives. Max Webers study of the Protestant Ethic is an example of good theory because it is counter-intuitive, solves a puzzle and can be applied beyond its immediate context to act as a stimulus to further research. Along with Meads ideas, Webers work provided the basis for numerous interactionist studies and perspectives rooted in the study of micro-level phenomena. Symbolic interactionism, phenomenology and ethnomethodology are the main variants of such broadly interactionist perspectives. Two enduring dilemmas can be identified in theoretical thinking within sociology: action versus structure, and consensus versus conflict. Durkheim believed that social structure is external to the individual in the same way as are the walls of a room. While this is a widely accepted view, its critics argue that society is nothing but a composite of many individual actions. Norbert Eliass figurational perspective does not try to bridge the structureagency dilemma in sociology. Rather, it effectively dissolves the problem altogether: there is no need for sociologists to focus exclusively on the micro or the macro level, but they should rather seek to understand shifting figurations. Anthony Giddenss concept of structuration holds that structure and action are necessarily related to each other: societies have structure insofar as people behave in regular ways, and action is only possible because each individual possesses socially structured knowledge. The second controversy is consensus versus conflict. Durkheim, and most functionalists after him, emphasize integration and harmony in society. Those more influenced by Marx see societies as inherently full of tension: conflict is

built into the form rather than being a pathological aberration. Once again, these positions are not totally irreconcilable. A further debate in classical sociology concerns the shaping of the modern world. Marx saw capitalism as a motive force behind social change its dynamism, along with its global tendency, is its distinctive feature. The current period sees Marx more criticized than ever, especially since the collapse of Eastern European communism after 1989. Weber is still seen as having carried on a debate with the ghost of Marx, his classic Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism emphasizing the importance of non-economic factors. In addition to capitalism, Weber adds the forces of science and bureaucracy, which together equal rationalization. Further problematizing has appeared in sociology more recently. Issues of gender have been absent from most of classical sociology. The feminist charge is that sociological theory has ignored the gendered nature of knowledge and has been male-dominated a malestream sociology. This involved a perceived male bias in sociological theorizing, which imputed general conclusions from the experience of men. There is an important distinction between the need to incorporate women into sociology and the need to incorporate gender. Forging a relationship between gender and other forms of social division is a major task for the future. Feminist theorists today, such as Judith Butler, are not simply interested in gender inequalities but also in questioning the very concept of gender and its meaning. However, theoretical explanations of womens position differ, sometimes quite markedly. For example, while radical feminists see patriarchy as the main source of oppression, dual-systems theorists argue that both patriarchy and capitalism combine to reproduce male dominance. Black feminism insists that race, racism and ethnicity need to be part of feminist theorizing and criticizes earlier theories for assuming that all women have essentially similar interests despite their radically divergent backgrounds and living conditions Postcolonial sociology explores the ways in which the legacy of European colonialism remains active in both societies and academic disciplines, long after former colonies have achieved independence. Postcolonial studies try not only to expose this continuing legacy, but also to transform the core concepts and theories which failed to take account of colonial and postcolonial relations. Poststructuralists like Michel Foucault have explored the idea of discourse: ways of talking or thinking about health, crime and sexuality, and their powerful impact on the structuring of social life. For postmodernists such as Bauman and Baudrillard, modernity or the modern world itself is the subject of radical critique. Whilst Marxists strive to hold onto rationality

and science, many postmodernists point to their negative impact on societies, which undermines their legitimacy. The identification of closer global interconnectedness and global environmental issues such as climate change has given rise to new theories of globalization and risk. In the work of Giddens and Beck, risk has emerged as a central concept alongside a focus on how global risks are created and managed. In recent years, Becks thinking has followed that of others into a theory of cosmopolitanism which begins from a critique of nation-state-based thinking that is, sociological theories which take national societies as the main unit of analysis. This national outlook fails to grasp that political, economic and cultural action and their (intended and unintended) consequences know no borders. Contemporary theorists all have connections to the classic theories in sociology, but they now look to adapt and refine these in order to explain the characteristics of the contemporary world. In this sense, they are emulating sociologys founders by producing theories of similar scale and scope

HOME| ABOUT| ORDERING| SAMPLE CHAPTER| RESOURCES o o

|

Lecturer Student Summaries Quizzes Assignments Glossary Links

BLOG

Chapter Summary for Chapter 15 Gender and Sexuality

Judge orders woman to hold "I stole from a 9 year old" sign (BWNToday)
How far are the behaviour and communicative practices of women and men the result of biological differences? Some scientists hold that aspects of human biology, ranging from hormones to chromosomes to brain size to genetics, are responsible for innate differences in behaviour between men and women. Sociologists remain unconvinced by these arguments, which tend to be reductionist. All societies have sexual norms and prohibitions, but these vary widely. Human sexuality is symbolic and imbued with social, cultural and personal meaning. Christianity has shaped Western attitudes to sexuality, but the nineteenth century saw the medicalization of sexuality, transforming sinful practices into unhealthy ones. In the developed countries, the last forty years have seen enormous changes in attitudes towards sex and sexual mores, marriage and divorce, same-sex relationships, abortion and adult pornography. Sexual orientation derives from a complex interplay of biological, psychological, social and cultural factors. The most common sexual orientation in all societies is heterosexuality though homosexuality also exists alongside. There are also many minority sexual tastes and inclinations. Sociologists draw a distinction between sex anatomical and physiological differences and gender psychological, social and cultural differences between females and males. Gender socialization is the process by which humans learn behaviour considered gender appropriate in society. Feminist academics made gender central to sociology, focusing on the position of women in society, though masculinity has also become an area of study in the context of gender relations. Connell identifies three aspects of society which interact to form a gender order: labour, power and personal/sexual relationships. There are different versions of masculinities and femininities, the most powerful of which is hegemonic masculinity. Gender relations are hierarchically organized, but they are not fixed and are remade through social practices and subject to challenge. Gender is a key factor in structuring the types of opportunities and life chances faced by individuals and groups and strongly influences the roles they play within social institutions, from the household to the state. The prevailing division of labour between the sexes has led to men and women assuming unequal positions in terms of power, prestige and wealth. Functionalist approaches to gender relations tended to reproduce uncritically the natural differences approach. Feminism has generated a richer body of theory analysing the position of women in society. Liberal feminism proposes a

fundamental equality between women and men which can be achieved by transforming social attitudes and practices to remove unfair discrimination. Socialist feminism builds upon the Marxist analysis of capitalism. Capitalism intensifies male domination, and relies on the unpaid domestic labour of women. Radical feminism focuses on analysing patriarchy: the system of domination of men over women, emphasizing womens role in biological reproduction, male violence against women and the sexual objectification of women. Walby identifies two forms of patriarchy: private, which takes place in the household, and public, which works to exclude women from wealth and power in the workplace and public life. Over the twentieth century, the balance has shifted towards the latter. Black feminism argues that other feminist approaches have failed to recognize the differences between women, especially those structured by ethnicity and imperialism. Most feminisms take a white, Western, middle-class experience and generalize from it, but this is misleading and inappropriate. Postmodern feminism challenges the idea of a universal category of woman which can be the basis for feminist political action. Multiplicities of individuals and groups are differently positioned and have very different experiences. Queer theory breaks with many conventional sociological ideas on identity. Queer theory challenges the very concept of identity as something that is relatively fixed or assigned to people by socializing agents. Drawing on Foucault, queer theorists argue that gender and sexuality, along with all of the other terms that come with these concepts, constitute a specific discourse rather than referring to something objectively real or natural. Prostitution is usually seen today as one form of sex work. Many feminists campaign against the sex industry, seeing it as degrading to women and ultimately rooted in womens subordination to men. Yet, more recently, sex work has been reappraised by some feminists, who argue that many, though by no means all, women sex workers earn a good living, enjoy what they do, and do not fit the stereotype of being poor, undereducated or forced into prostitution by their circumstances. But the growth of the global sex industry is largely the result of sex tourism and human trafficking, and is based on exploitation and enormous disparities of wealth and power. The long-term development of feminist thought and social movements seeking to promote the rights of women is conventionally seen as passing through a series of three waves. First-wave feminism sought equal access to political power by extending

voting rights to women on the same basis as men, and access to all of societys institutions, including higher education. Second-wave feminism focused on ideas of womens liberation and empowerment. If the first-wave movement was influenced by liberal and socialist political ideals of equality before the law, the second wave was a more radical movement for change in the private world of family life and domesticity just as much as in the realm of public policy and formal politics. Third-wave feminism is characterized by local, national and transnational activism, in areas such as violence against women, trafficking, body surgery, self- mutilation, and the overall pornofication of the media. It criticizes earlier feminist waves for presenting universal answers or definitions of womanhood. The uneven development of regions and societies globally means that many of the equal rights measures that people in the developed world now take for granted have yet to be won in the developing countries. However, increasing globalization and transnational connections illustrate how the global dimension of contemporary social life offers new opportunities for womens movements to join together in the ongoing campaign for gender equality.