ENGLISH SKILLS FOR POLITICAL SCIENCE LESSON 1 a.

Introduction This course focuses on the skill of reading and understanding texts in English, rather than grammar or productive skills like speaking or writing. Reading is a receptive skill, like listening. This means it involves responding to text, rather than producing it; at a basic level, reading involves making sense of text. To do this we need to understand the language of the text at a word level (the lexical units), at a sentence level (the grammar of the sentences) and the whole-text level. The boy was surprised because the girl was much faster at running than he was. To understand this sentence, we need to understand what the individual words mean (including collocations like faster at running), the grammar of comparatives (much faster than) and the syntax of a complex sentence (main clause the boy was surprised, subordinate clause because the girl) However, we also make sense of this sentence by knowing that, generally speaking, girls do not run as fast as boys. Our knowledge of the world helps us understand why the boy was surprised. A text is usually longer than just a word or a sentence; it often contains a series of sentences, which are connected to each other by transition signals, and by coherence and cohesion (see below). When we read, we do not necessarily read everything in a text. What we read depends on why and how we are reading. For example, we may read a travel website to find a single piece of information about prices. On the other hand, we may read a novel in great detail because we are interested in the story and the characters. Thus we read different types of texts, and we read for different reasons. Text types range from notices and e-mails to poems, articles and novels. They have different lengths, layouts, topics and kinds of language. Learning to read also involves identifying and learning how to handle different text types. Reading sub-skills When we try to make sense of a text in English, we use a series of strategies, known as sub-skills. One important sub-skill is guessing the meaning of words from the context of the sentence or text. Often the meaning of an unknown word can be deduced from the words on either side of it, its cotext: we will have to side-step the problem side-step is obviously a verb, which forms a partnership with (or collocates with) problem; the meaning of side and step allow us to arrive at the idea of avoid, go round, ignore the problem. Or a word can be inferred from the context of the rest of the sentence: the door was so low he hit his head on the lintel here we can infer that a lintel is the upper cross beam of a door, not the side or bottom. Our reasons for reading can involve other sub-skills: for example, if we read a text just to find a specific piece or pieces of information, we use a sub-skill called scanning, or reading for specific information. When we scan, we dont read the whole text; we hurry through it until we find what we are looking for. Another reading sub-skill is skimming, or reading for gist reading quickly through a text to get a general idea of what it is about. A third sub-skill, reading for detail, is employed when we need to get all the necessary information out of a text, and we read it slowly with attention to every point of detail. When we read long pieces of text, such as a novel or an article, our attention and interest can vary, and we may read some parts of the text in detail and skim through others. This is known as extensive reading. We can see that reading is a complicated process: it involves understanding words and sentences, understanding the connections within and between sentences (cohesion), identifying different text types, making sense of the text through our knowledge of the world, and using the appropriate sub-skill.

LESSON 1 b. INFERRING FROM CONTEXT Guessing the meaning of words.

TEXT ONE Look at the text and see if you can answer the five questions. Barack Obama je prezidentom spojenych statov. Bol zvoleny v novembre 2008, im porazl George W. Bush. Ma 50 rokov, a jeho manzelka je Michelle Robinson Obama. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kto je prezidentom spojenych statov? Kedy bol zvoleny? Koho porazl? Kolko ma rokov? Koho ma za manzelku?

TEXT TWO What do the underlined words mean? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Without gutters, the rain would fall straight off the roof. She read his letter slowly to the end and then tore it to shreds. The bank sends you your statement every few months. John got on to the motorbike; I sat behind him on the pillion. The door was so low I hit my head on the lintel. Is this full-fat milk? No, its skimmed.

Can you guess the meaning of these words? To sidestep a problem A traffic warden A watering-can

TEXT THREE Without using a dictionary, see if you can guess the approximate meaning of the underlined words. The table manners of the old hag opposite him and the endless chaff of the men as they tried to show off in front of the young women had been jarring on him all through the meal. At this time of year the hotel was catering to an assortment of guests with nothing in common except the lateness of their holidays, and the banality of his surroundings gave him a mounting sense of claustrophobia, Despite the chill of the evening, he went out again as soon as possible, down the now familiar lane to the shore, in order to calm the turmoil within him. The gloom on his face and the slowness of his gait made him look anything but a holiday-maker. He trudged across the shingle and stood out of the cold wind behind one of the groynes; clouds drifted across the sky as spindrift from the waves moistened his face and hands.

Answers: Text one 1. Barack Obama, 2. November 2008, 3. George W. Bush, 4. 50, 5. Michelle Robinson Obama. The language is Slovak. How was it possible to answer the questions without knowing a word of the language? There are three main reasons: a) we already know who the people are Obama, Bush and Michelle, so we can infer that the text is about the American presidency. Imagine the difficulty if the text described the Slovakian political situation: Vladimir Husa je prezidentom slovakiet statov. b) there are several words that appear to be similar to English or Italian words: prezidentom, statov, novembre; remember that 60% of written English is derived from Latin, so many words can be inferred as having the same meaning. Be careful, however of false friends English words that resemble Italian words, but have completely different meanings: from easy ones like camera and pile, which mean macchina fotografica and mucchio to words like sensible and actually, which in fact mean pratico and effettivamente. c) Slovak, like English and Italian, is an Indo-European language, with a similar grammatical structure (unlike Chinese or Japanese), with subjects and objects, verbs, prepositions, etc. So je is (probably) the verb to be, 3rd person singular, and ma the verb to have (notice Slovak is closer to Italian here than English). Manzelka could be the verb sposare or the noun moglie, but it doesnt affect our comprehension of the text we know that Barack and Michelle are husband and wife. Text two 1. grondaie 2. pezzi, brandelle (lidea di strappare violentamente) 3. estratto conto 4. sellino posteriore (anche se non c una parola specifica in italiano) 5. architrave 6. scremato What can you do with a problem? You can solve it, ignore it, avoid it. To step is fare un passo, side is lato, so, evitare il problema. A warden is the same as guardian, so, vigile, or more precisely, ausiliario del traffico A can is a container, usually of metal, so coca-cola can or oil can; but here we have waterING can, not water can; water must be a verb: dare acqua. a? i fiori, dunque, unannaffiatoio! Text three 1. table manners: buone maniere a tavolo, modo di mangiare 2. hag: vecchia brutta donna 3. chaff: stupidaggine, chiacchierate banali 4. to jar: infastidire, irritare 5. to cater: ospitare 6. lateness: il fatto che erano fuori stagione 7. chill: freschezza, freddo 8. lane: sentiero 9. shore: spiaggia 10. turmoil: tormento, inquietudine 11. gloom: espressione tetra, triste 12. gait: andamento, modo di camminare 13. to trudge: camminare con fatica, stanchezza 14. shingle: sassolini, ghiaia 15. groyne: muretto frangiflusso 16. spindrift: schiuma sulle onde, sparsa dal vento 17. to moisten: inumidare

LESSON 2a: LEXICAL UNITS All utterances and texts in English consist of a vast number of pre-defined lexical units, of which native speakers know and use thousands every day. A language is lexis, i.e. vocabulary, and with lexis only, communication can be achieved; with grammar only, no communication can be achieved. 1. SINGLE WORDS Here a distinction has to made between words with a low or zero information content (of, have, do, just, by) and those with a high information content (advertise, haemoglobin, screensaver). The second group have very specific meanings (and are much easier to translate into other languages), while the first group have little or no intrinsic meaning, and need more information to be added: have a shower, do me a favour, by the way, just a minute. This gives the words contextual meaning, using collocation (the words which are usually found together see next lesson). Again lets take two examples: the verb take and the preposition by TO TAKE to take someone somewhere: they took her to the doctor she takes the children to school take a photograph a period of time: it wont take long, it took me an hour to get here lets take the car; he took the train to London take an exam take a break take the responsibility for something take a decision, take a risk by the way (incidentally, I just thought of something) Hamlet was written by Shakespeare do it by yourself by car, sea, train, air by all means by next week by day, night to learn a poem by heart to swear by, pass by, stand by, divide by, have children by

BY

2. POLYWORDS (MULTI-WORD UNITS) Thousands of lexical units in English are not single words at all, although they have definite meanings. They include the huge collection of what are known as phrasal verbs (though a better description would be multi-word verbs): give up, put on, put up with, get along with, etc. Usually these verbs have a precise word partnership with other words: bring up, for example, means to educate a child, in a family so the natural collocates are parents and children: parents bring up children (you cant bring up a dog, and schools dont bring up children). There are also thousands of units containing prepositions, such as of course, for some time now, all at once, by the way, and units like the day after tomorrow, as a matter of fact, which only happen to consist of four or five single words; in Italian they are expressed by one word: dopodomani, infatti. 3. LOCUTIONS These are fixed expressions used widely by speakers of English, and can be considered to be lexical units. There are thousands of them, of course, including:

just a second, back in a minute, whats going on? certainly not, not yet, Im afraid so, Ill be in touch, therell be hell to pay, you must be joking, its got nothing to do with me There are many locutions using will (which does not necessarily denote the future): Ill get it, Ill give you a ring, Ill see what I can do, Ill see you later, youll never get away with it, itll be all right, thatll do, well see Many locutions begin sentences, and are used to direct the flow of the conversation: I dont know what to/whether to/how to; I was going to say.. I think I might.. take my word for it personally speaking.. as I see it.. as far as Im concerned.. funny you should say that.. I see what you mean but.. sorry to interrupt but.. yes, but its not that simple.. Finally, many locutions can be uttered or written into a connected monologue, known as a prescripted text: Good morning, ladies and gentlemen, on behalf of , Id like to welcome you to. its a great pleasure to have you with us today if there is anything we can do to help, please do not hesitate to ask Ill now hand you over to my colleague When reading a text, it is a good idea to be aware of how it consists of lexical units grouped together: Social welfare denotes the full range of organised activities of public and voluntary agencies that seek to contribute to the solution of a selected set of social problems All texts of an academic or scientific character, as well as newspaper and journal articles, are usually decipherable in this way. It is also the way that English speakers break up a text when reading aloud, or even in normal conversation. EXERCISE ONE Insert these lexical units into the text: in general often nobody wins on both sides to have taken its toll

this conflagration one characteristic of wars in the American Revolution somebody did

____________________, ___________________________ is that ___________________. _____________________________, however, _________________________; but even _________________________ is said ____________________ ____________________.

EXERCISE TWO Read the text and put the relevant lexical units into the table below. For example, welfare can be preceded by social and followed by organisations (line 1). So for n 1, you should write social welfare organisations. The units are not in order.

Any discussion of the development of social welfare organisations would be incomplete without identifying the value context within which they occur. Values are assumptions, convictions or beliefs about the way people should behave and the principles that should govern behaviour. In as much as values are beliefs, they may vary with socialisation experiences. Many values hold a dominant position and are supported by a majority of the population. For example, life is considered to be sacred, and taking anothers life is viewed as a criminal offence by all social classes. On the other hand, support for capital punishment is a value causing divisions within society. The history of social welfare development reflects value differences as they relate to social responsibility for the needy; Availability of resources, however, coupled with economic and political influences, usually

results in an evolving policy of welfare system development and efficient ways to help the disadvantaged members of society. 1. ______________________ welfare ______________________ 2. capital _______________________ 3. a majority ___________________________ 4. ____________________________ resources 5. ____________________ members ______________________ 6. _________________ and political ______________________ 7. principles that ______________________________________ 8. criminal ____________________ 9. _______________ other _____________ 10. __________________ system _________________________

ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE In general, one characteristic of wars is that often nobody wins. In the American Revoution, however, somebody did; but even this conflagration is said to have taken its toll on both sides. EXERCISE TWO 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. social welfare organisations capital punishment a majority of the population availability of resources disadvantaged members of society 6. economical and political influences 7. principles that govern behaviour 8. criminal offence 9. on the other hand 10. welfare system development

LESSON 2b : COLLOCATION Collocation is when two or more words form partnerships; that is, they automatically go together. This is common in all languages and is an excellent way of building and remembering vocabulary. Examples in Italian would be il piccolo schermo, esamimare attentamente, una fascia protetta, etc. In English the most common examples come in three groups: 1) adjective + noun: special measures serious illness heavy smoker 2) verb + noun make a mistake pass an exam keep a secret change abruptly examine carefully rain heavily

3) verb + adverb

Over 70% of what we read, say, hear and write is made up of collocated language. Some collocations in English are unique (only these two words go together): to foot the bill (to pay a bill unwillingly or for someone else); you can only foot a bill in English. to wage war; to shrug your shoulders (you cannot shrug any other part of your body) Often collocation can show the difference between synonyms: The work is tiring in this job. Both words can be translated by the Italian lavoro. What is the difference? We have a lot of work to do Our immediate job is to define. Hes out of work/ he hasnt got a job Shes going to change her job Youre only making more work for yourselves The underlined words are examples of collocations. As you can see from the contexts, job is more like the Italian posto di lavoro or mestiere (in example 2 it means compito). Many things can be long or short or good or bad; a blue shirt, a red car are NOT collocations, but white wine, a blackshirt, a red face are, since white does not refer to the actual colour of the wine, a black shirt means a fascist, and you have a red face when you are embarrassed. It is often a good idea to make a collection of collocates in this way: What can you do with an exam? You can take sit pass an exam fail retake scrape through (scrape through means you only just pass, with 18 maybe!)

Many sentences contain several interconnected collocations: If you wanted to say my uncle had a big operation, but now hes getting better, this can be rewritten as : he is recovering from a major operation. The two collocates are recover from an operation and a major operation She holds strong views on marriage Here there are three: to hold views, strong views, views on We can also arrange collocations on a grid: events old antique ancient new recent current modern furniture + + + + + + + + history ideas + movies +

+ + + + + + + +

EXERCISE ONE Match the verb on the left with a noun on the right. 1. ask 2. drive 3. light 4. sail 5. pack 6. ride 7. sing 8. fly 9. comb 10. send 1 2 3 a. a bicycle b. a song c. an e-mail d. a question e. a ship f. your hair g. a car h. a fire i. a plane j. a suitcase 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

EXERCISE TWO One word in each group does NOT collocate with the word in capitals. Which one? 1. BRIGHT 2. CLEAR 3. LIGHT 4. NEW 5. HIGH 6. MAIN 7. STRONG 8. SERIOUS idea green smell child day room need instructions attitude conscience road alternative traffic work suitcase day green lunch rain job potatoes baby food year experience season house price priority opinion reason entrance road speed course point possibility coffee views smell rain influence relationship illness crime advantage injury

EXERCISE THREE Use the words in the box to make collocations with the nouns below. The number of words is given for each noun.

antique

wide

spicy

detective oriental pocket

boring colourful cold

bilingual loud

black and white Indian

attractive

mid-winter

priceless

dining-room exciting

up-to-date old

commanding

cocktail

1. A/an dictionary (3) 2. A/an.day (2) 3. A/an story (2) 4. A/an.meal (2) 5. A/an.party (2) 6. A/an.smile (2) 7. A/an.carpet (2) 8. A/an.voice (2) 9. A/an.film (2) 10. A/anchair (3) ANSWERS EXERCISE 1 1d 6a 2g 7b 3h 8I 4e 9f 5j 10 c

EXERCISE 2 1. smell 2. attitude 3. day 4. food 5. house 6. speed 7. rain 8. advantage

EXERCISE 3 1. up to date, bilingual, pocket 2. cold, mid-winter 3. exciting, detective 4. spicy, Indian 5. boring, cocktail 6. wide, attractive 7. colourful, oriental 8. loud, commanding 9. old, black and white 10. priceless, antique, dining-room

LESSON 2c: COMPOUND WORDS In English, we can combine two or more words together into COMPOUNDS, which often have a different meaning from the single words contained in them. The most common forms are: NOUN-NOUN compounds: car key, TV screen, science department, health farm, table leg, cash dispenser Often the compound is written as one word: housewife, racehorse, tablecloth Sometimes, when the first element is a prefix, a hyphen (-) is used between the two parts: non-European, anti-smog, euro-sceptic ADJECTIVE compounds: hard working, short sleeved, green eyed, oil producing VERB compounds: babysit, sightsee A racehorse, or a horserace? The second element in a compound tells you what it is; the first element (like an adjective) tells you what kind it is. So, a racehorse is a horse which takes part in races, and a horserace is a race in which horses take part. A man who cleans windows > a window cleaner A person who designs dresses > a dress designer A thing that opens bottles > a bottle opener The first element acts as an adjective, and so loses its plural form. Notice also: a girl who is 21 years old > a 21 year old girl A country that produces wine > a wine producing country A company that builds ships > a shipbuilding company The verb becomes an adjective, and takes the ing form. He was educated at Oxford University > hes university educated The firm is based in Manchester > its a Manchester based firm The passive verb retains the participle as an adjective. Notice also: a girl with green eyes > a green-eyed girl Then there are complex compounds or compounds of compounds: The car is a Ford Focus It was constructed in 2004 It has four doors > It is a 2004 four-door Ford Focus. He is 40 years old He sells cars He was educated at Oxford The cars are second hand > he is a 40-year-old Oxford-educated second hand car salesman Its a knife Its used in the kitchen Its sharp, like a razor > its a razor-sharp kitchen knife Here are some other examples: A Coventry car factory strike committee A political science department secretarial office memo A road traffic regulation technology provider Remember, the compounds should be read backwards, from right to left, to get their meaning: a committee which manages strikes in a car factory based in Coventry; a memo from the office of the secretary of the department of political science; a company which provides technology for the regulation of road traffic (presumably it makes traffic lights).

EXERCISE ONE Combine words from the left list with words from the right to form 15 compounds Dish Pain Trade Pay Ballet oxygen long status background weather CD air stock food vacuum forecast mixer suffering player washer union mask dancer market symbol fares killer rise noise cleaner

EXERCISE TWO Reduce the parts in capitals to form compounds or complex compounds; e.g. A COLLEGE WHICH TRAINS TEACHERS becomes a teacher training college. John hopes to go to A COLLEGE WHICH TRAINS TEACHERS after graduating from A COURSE FOR A DEGREE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE WHICH LASTS FOUR YEARS. His father MANAGES SALES in A FIRM WHICH IMPORTS SUGAR, and his mother DESIGNS DRESSES PART OF THE TIME. His younger sister Patricia has enrolled in A COURSE FOR TRAINERS OF CHILDREN WHO ARE DISABLED run by THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE COUNCIL OF INNER LONDON. His brother Alan PLAYS TENNIS AT A FIRST CLASS LEVEL; he recently took part in A COMPETITION OF TENNIS BETWEEN SCHOOLS and was one of THE PEOPLE WHO WON PRIZES. ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE dishwasher; oxygen mask; CD player; painkiller; long suffering; air fares; trade union; status symbol; stock market; pay rise; background noise; food mixer; ballet dancer; weather forecast; vacuum cleaner. EXERCISE TWO A teacher training college A four-year English Language degree course A sales manager A sugar importing firm A part-time dress designer A disabled children trainer course The Inner London Council Physical Education Department A first-class tennis player An inter-school tennis competition A prize winner

LESSON 3a: SENTENCE STRUCTURE English has 4 main sentence structures: SUBJECT VERB (SV) SUBJECT VERB OBJECT (SVO) SUBJECT VERB ADVERBIAL (SVA) SUBJECT VERB OBJECT ADVERBIAL (SVOA) The girl was laughing He caught the bus Tom is here I put the forks on the table

An adverb like sometimes can be inserted into a sentence in different places: S * she * V reads O a book * A in bed *

The position between the subject and verb is the neutral or unmarked one: she sometimes reads a book in bed The other positions are possible if the speaker or writer wants to emphasise part of the sentence: sometimes, she reads a book in bed she reads a book, - sometimes in bed she reads a book in bed, - sometimes NOTE that the only position where sometimes cannot go is between the verb and its object. In fact, nothing can come between the verb and the object in English. It is a common mistake to say I like very much ice cream instead of I like ice cream very much. Generally speaking, The first noun or pronoun you meet in an English sentence is almost always going to be the subject of the sentence, followed by the verb, followed by the object or adverbials. The examples above are all of simple sentences, with one finite verb. However simple sentences are actually quite rare in written English. There are in fact three different kinds of sentence: 1. the simple sentence 2. the compound sentence 3. the complex sentence A simple sentence, then, is a basic SVO(A) pattern, ended by a full stop: He had his dinner at 8 pm. He went to bed. Imagine (as is very probable, since English written in this way would be very boring) that we want to combine these two sentences. The simplest way is to join them with a coordinating conjunction, in this case, and: He had his dinner and went to bed. We can omit the second he since the subject of the two sentences is the same. However, the sentence is not entirely clear; we need to express the fact that he had his dinner first and took to his bed second. We can add the adverb then to and: He had his dinner and then went to bed. This is an example of a compound sentence. The name given to all the conjunctions and adverbials used to connect sentences together is transition signals, and we will be looking at them in more detail in the next lesson. The signal and then expresses the sequence of the two actions. Other signals used in compound sentences are but, which marks a contrast, or used to show an alternative, and so which marks a consequence: She looked for him everywhere but she couldnt find him. I can find a job or join the army.

She couldnt find him so she decided to go home. The most numerous type of sentence, however, is the complex sentence. If we return to our friend: He had his dinner. He went to bed. We can connect these sentences together using another type of signal, the time conjunction, for example, after or before: After he had his dinner, he went to bed He had his dinner before he went to bed The part of the sentence he went to bed and he had his dinner is called the main clause and the part after he had his dinner, before he went to bed is known as the subordinate clause. We could, of course, reverse these: He went to bed after he had his dinner Before he had his dinner, he went to bed Which part we put first depends on what we think is most important, the bed or the dinner. It is another example of the marked and unmarked forms mentioned earlier. Notice, also, that if we join the sentences together using when, we no longer have the idea of sequence, since when does not include the idea of after or before: He went to bed when he had his dinner. In this case, to make the meaning clearer, we could change the verb tense: He went to bed when he had had his dinner. The use of the past perfect clarifies the fact that one action preceded the other. Words like when, after, before are transition signals used inside a sentence, between the main clause and the subordinate clause, known as conjuncts. Lets look at a short list of the most important: TIME: when, after, before, while, since, as, until, as soon as, just as, now that PLACE: where CAUSE: because, since, as CONDITION: if, unless, as long as CONCESSION: although, even though There are several more, but these are the most important. Another group of words useful for combining parts of sentences are the so-called relative pronouns, even though they are conjuncts: WHO or THAT: Thats the girl who bought my car. Hes the man that did it. Thats the girl who/that Mark is in love with notice that since the girl is the subject of the main clause, and Mark that of the relative clause, we can omit the relative altogether: Thats the girl Mark is in love with. WHICH or THAT: Thats the house which/that is on the market. Which is used for non-human beings. Thats the house which/that I want to buy or, as above, thats the house I want to buy. WHOSE: Thats the boy whose brother Sue likes.

EXERCISE ONE Join these sentences into ONE SENTENCE, using the transition signals provided. You can change the order of the sentences if you wish. Her husband died The old lady lived alone She bought a parrot She saw the parrot in a pet shop It used bad language The neighbours complained That but because after since

EXERCISE TWO Do the same with these sentences, changing the order if necessary. There are no transition signals provided. They first met in the summer of 2003 Neither of them could speak the others language They got married They had known each other for six weeks Today they have three children The children can speak both their parents languages EXERCISE THREE Identify the main clause and the subordinate clauses in this sentence: John, who was becoming more and more ill at ease and embarrassed, told Mary, who was busily engaged in giving her opinion of what was wrong with the people sitting at the next table, that if she went on talking like that he was going to leave the restaurant.

ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE Since the old lady lived alone after her husband died, she bought a parrot (that) she saw/had seen in a pet shop but the neighbours complained because it used bad language. EXERCISE TWO Although neither of them could speak the others language when they first met in the summer of 2003, they got married after they had known each other for six weeks, and today they have three children who can speak both their parents languages. EXERCISE THREE MAIN CLAUSE: John told Mary SUBORDINATES: who was becoming more and more ill at ease and embarrassed who was busily engaged in giving her opinion of what was wrong with the people sitting at the next table that he was going to leave the restaurant if she went on talking like that

LESSON 3b: TRANSITION SIGNALS - DISJUNCTS So far the transition signals we have examined have appeared inside a sentence, linking main clauses to subordinates, expressing time, sequence, condition, relation, and so on. We now take a look at signals that link one complete sentence with another, forming part of the cohesion pattern of a text, and which are known as disjuncts. Look at the following: Shes walking quite naturally. Here the adverb naturally is part of the sentence, modifying the verb is walking. Naturally, shes walking. Here naturally is not grammatically part of the sentence, but stands outside it, expressing some kind of attitude of the sender, and also making reference to some wider context; for example, the woman in question hates travelling by car, and usually goes everywhere on foot, as we all know. In this sentence, naturally is a disjunct. A disjunct is usually found at the beginning of the new sentence (but not always), followed by a comma. There are hundreds of them, but they can be classified into various types: a. ADDITIVES: these have the same function as the coordinator and to add more information: She is in a difficult situation. She has five children and lives in a 3-room house. This can be expressed by using a disjunct: She is in a difficult situation. She has five children. What is more, she lives in a 3-room house. Other additives include in addition, besides this, also, furthermore, moreover b. ADVERSATIVES: these correspond to the coordinator but: He was a wealthy man but he was severely depressed He was a wealthy man. Nevertheless, he was severely depressed Others include despite this, nonetheless, yet A sub group have the function of CONTRASTIVES or CORRECTIVES: I didnt ask her to leave. On the contrary, I tried to make her stay. Others include actually, to tell you the truth, in fact, instead c. ALTERNATIVES: corresponding to the coordinator or: You can pay in cash or buy it in instalments You can pay in cash. Alternatively, you can buy it in instalments Others include otherwise, as an alternative, on the other hand d. RESULTATIVES: these have the function of the coordinator so: The parrot used bad language, so the neighbours complained The parrot used bad language. As a result, the neighbours complained Others include consequently, accordingly, therefore, thus These are the disjuncts that correspond to the four coordinators. There are other types which can be categorized as follows: e. SEQUENCE MARKERS: these are common when a writer has several points to make, or is describing facts or events in a particular order: There are three reasons for this: first of all, the overall situation is unstable. Secondly, the lack of capital investment. And finally, the ECBs decision to Others include for a start, to begin with, in the first place, then, next, lastly Concluding signals include in conclusion, all in all, to sum up Notice that first or firstly are not the same as at first or at the beginning, which refer to the start of a narrative: At first, there was no need to intervene...

f. CLARIFICATION MARKERS: when the writer needs to explain his terms, or restate a point, or give examples of what he is dealing with: The Ministry has various functions. For example, it is responsible for. It has a decision-making capacity. In other words, it has the ability to. Other exemplifying markers include for instance, namely, and the Latin abbreviation e.g. (exempli gratia), found in formal discourse types. Other clarifying markers include that is, in fact, that is to say, to put it another way, and the Latin abbreviation i.e. (id est). g. OPINION MARKERS: Sometimes the writer wants to make a personal observation on what he is writing about: Personally, I would imagine that the second reason is the correct one. Others include as I see it, personally speaking, in my opinion or the use of verbs as disjuncts, such as I think, I believe. The writer can also quote the opinion of a third person: According to Keynes, this is merely the beginning of the problem. Others include as far as Keynes is concerned, in Keynes view Note that according to cannot be used with me: we must use forms like those above. h. ATTITUDE MARKERS: this is by far the largest group of disjuncts, used when the writer comments on, or enters into his own text to express his attitude to the facts or opinions given (not the same as opinion, above). Obviously, this trend cannot last Unfortunately, he took most of the blame Actually, this was not the case at all Presumably, someone had already seen the answers Often the writer wants to generalise: Generally speaking, this was no ones fault For the most part, this holds true Here is a collection of the most common: Honestly, seriously, strangely enough, confidentially, to tell you the truth, surprisingly, suddenly, basically, clearly, undoubtedly, apparently, incidentally, officially, geographically, economically speaking, ideally, theoretically, technically

EXERCISE 1 Insert the appropriate transition signals in this text. There are more than you need. 1.______________________, people in Britain tend to live in large urban centres like Birmingham, Glasgow and Manchester, 2. _______________. 3. __________, the cultural and leisure facilities of a city are a major attraction. 4. ____________, there is normally an efficient network of cheap public transport. 5. _____________, employment opportunities are usually better in cities. 6. ______________, city dwellers spend most of their lives in a polluted environment. 7. _____________, their health suffers and the cost of urban health care services, 8. ______________, is much higher than in rural communities. In the countryside, 9. _____________, house prices are high and public transport infrequent. 10. _______________, it is possible to lead a fulfilling life in both environments, and it is the individuals responsibility to make the most of the situation in which he finds himself.

as I see it in addition on the other hand obviously unfortunately

furthermore however

for example honestly

generally speaking consequently inevitably otherwise

EXERCISE 2 Underline the correct transition signal to fill the gap. Living in an ethnic community is very pleasant, 1) on the contrary/so/but/ it has some disadvantages. Let me explain what I mean from my personal experience. 2) At first/first/ beforehand/, when I came from Cuba to live in Miami, I was very happy 3) despite/because/because of/ all my old friends were living in the same neighbourhood. I was never lonely; 4) besides/nevertheless/first/, if I needed any help, 5) moreover/ for instance/even though/, with the language or the subway, someone was there to help me, and for me that was nice 6) since/while/at last/ it made me feel at home. A year later,7) for example/ however/instead/ my family decided to move from that area, and I found myself in another Miami and felt very unhappy. 8) In fact/Although/Furthermore/ I didnt want to go back to my old life, 9) finally/eventually/after/ I had realised I had to do things for myself 10) in addition/and/ nevertheless/ learn a completely new culture and way of life

ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE 1. generally speaking 2. for example 3. obviously 4. in addition/furthermore 5. furthermore/in addition 6. unfortunately 7. consequently 8. inevitably 9. however/on the other hand 10. as I see it

EXERCISE TWO 1. however 2. at first 3. in fact 4. besides 5. for instance 6. consequently 7. however 8. obviously 9. eventually 10. in addition

LESSON 3c: PARAGRAPHS What is a paragraph? A paragraph is a basic unit of organisation in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea in a coherent way. The sentences are linked together by transition signals and various cohesion devices. The paragraph can be as short as two sentences or as long as ten. Each organised paragraph becomes part of a longer text of several paragraphs, which are also linked together in a coherent way. The following model contains all the elements of a good paragraph. GOLD Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it can be used for jewellery, coins and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian coin remains as bright and new today as the day it was minted 23 centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts suits for protection outside spaceships. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility. A paragraph usually has three main structural parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed in the space of a single paragraph. Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. TOPIC AREA TO BE DISCUSSED The supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by giving reasons, examples, facts or statistics. First of all, gold has a beauty For example, a Macedonian coin Another important characteristic of gold.. The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and summarises its content. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility. Not all of these features need appear in every paragraph, but a well-written paragraph will have unity, in that only one main idea is discussed, which is expressed in the topic sentence, and it will have coherence, in that the supporting sentences are in a logical order and are connected by appropriate transition signals. The topic sentence is the most important sentence in the paragraph, and often helps the reader understand what the paragraph is going to be about. It is usually the first sentence, but not always; for variety and stylistic reasons, the topic sentence could be the second, or even the last sentence in the paragraph. It is always a complete sentence, with a subject, verb and (usually) an object. Driving in Rome and The importance of gold are not topic sentences; they could be, perhaps, the title of a paragraph. Also, a topic sentence is a general statement, which does not give any specific details. Which of the following is a topic sentence?

1. 2. 3. 4.

English is a difficult language to learn. The slang expression so long probably derives from the Arabic salaam. Driving in Rome requires a lot of skill and attention if you are not a native driver. How to register exams at Rome University.

The answer, of course, is n 3; n 1 is too general but it could be made into a topic sentence by adding an area: English is a difficult language to learn for three main reasons. N 2 is too specific, and n 4 is not a complete sentence. EXERCISE 1: Decide which of the following sentences is the topic sentence of the paragraph. Write TS on the line next to that sentence. Decide the order of the remaining sentences and number them 1, 2, 3, etc. PARAGRAPH 1 __________ a. It enables a customer to do several banking transactions 24 hours a day. __________ b. In addition, a customer can transfer funds between accounts or get a cash advance on a credit card. __________ c. An automated teller machine, or cash point, is a convenient miniature bank. __________ d. For example, a customer can use a cash point to deposit money and withdraw a limited amount of cash. PARAGRAPH 2 __________ a. Another important change was that people had the freedom to live and work wherever they wanted. __________ b. The earliest significant change was for farming families, who were no longer isolated. __________ c. The final major change brought by the automobile was the building of superhighways, suburbs, huge shopping centres and theme parks like Disney World. __________ d. The automobile revolutionised the American way of life. __________ e. Cars enabled them to drive to towns and cities comfortably and conveniently. __________ f. In fact, people could work in a busy metropolitan city and drive home to the quiet suburbs. EXERCISE 2: Re-order the sentences into a paragraph, again beginning with the topic sentence. a) If done properly, a handshake gives the impression of strength and honesty, and if done improperly, it conveys weakness and dishonesty. b) In some cultures, people bow, and in others they shake hands. c) In English-speaking countries, shaking hands is the custom. d) A proper handshake has four ingredients: pressure, up and down movement, eye contact, and verbal message. e) The way people greet each other when they meet for the first time varies from culture to culture. f) How one shakes hands sends an important message about ones character. ANSWERS Exercise 1: Exercise 2: Paragraph 1: TS: c, 1a, 2d, 3b Correct order: e, b, c, f, a, d. Paragraph 2:TS: d, 1b, 2e, 3a, 4f, 5c

LESSON 4a: LEXICAL COHESION Cohesion is the name given to the systems which create meaning through relationships and connections between parts of the text, and between the text and the outside world. Cohesion devices can be divided into grammatical cohesion, created by grammatical words and structures, and lexical cohesion, created by nouns and content words. However, there is considerable overlapping between the categories. The systems we have already examined, of conjuncts and disjuncts, are also cohesion systems, and are often included in the class of grammatical devices. Look at the words highlighted in these sentences. 1. Im a friend of Stephens. Could you give me his cell phone number? 2. I first visited Florence in 1990 and Ive loved the city ever since. 3. Look at these vases. Which one shall we buy? 4.The Left Democratic Party was founded in 1991. Now it has a membership of. In sentence 1, the cohesive device is the pronoun his, which obviously refers to the last male person mentioned, i.e. Stephen. In sentence 2, there are two different cohesion devices: the city substitutes Florence and ever since means ever since 1990. In sentence 3, one refers to and substitutes vase. In sentence 4, it refers back to the Left Democratic Party. Let us take a closer look at some of these cohesion devices. We can divide them into LEXICAL and GRAMMATICAL types. LEXICAL COHESION 1.Reiteration: here the word is repeated exactly, sometimes to provide emphasis: This is a lesson on cohesion. The lesson is in two parts. 2. Collocation: many of the words in the text belong to the same topic or generally belong together: The course was difficult. The students had to study hard to learn all the material; in the end, however, the exam results were excellent. 3. Substitution: this can be with a synonym: The exercises are not very difficult. In fact, the activities are quite easy. Or with a headword: In fact, the material is fairly easy. Or often with a general word: In fact, the stuff used is pretty easy. General words include: thing, idea, place, situation, problem, issue, person. Here are some further examples: Does she eat eggs? - Yes, she eats the same food as everyone else. Can I take my car? No, all vehicles are banned. Where shall I put the roses? I dont like flowers in the bedroom. Do you ski? No, I prefer summer sports like tennis.

LESSON 4b: GRAMMATICAL COHESION There are three principal devices: reference, substitution, and ellipsis. Reference: determiners such as the articles a and the, and personal, possessive and demonstrative pronouns can all act as cohesive devices: Ive got a new job. The job is tiring, but Lend him a pen. His is broken. Wheres your homework? Its overdue. Helen has left her job. This doesnt surprise me. Notes: it refers to an object recently mentioned, as in the third sentence above. This and that refer to a piece of text: I can get us a cheap flight to London That will be great! Students often make the mistake of writing or saying It will be great; it can only refer to a cheap flight while that refers to the fact that I can get us a cheap flight This, like here, now, refers to something close to you, both in time and space; that, like there and then refers to something more distant: Helen has left her job. This doesnt surprise me. Helen said she hated her job. That was the last time I spoke to her. This, but not that, can be used to refer to something not yet mentioned: Youre not going to believe this Helens got a new job! Substitution: the most common substitute words are one or ones, the same, and so. I like that picture. Which one, the red one or the white one? The red one. What about the one with the tree? Terry loves that one. What sort of games do you like? - The ones where I get to win. Ill have the fish. - The same for me, please. I always save my e-mails. - I do the same. You should complain to the boss. - Ive already done so. The butler was the murderer. - Ah, I thought so. Notes: One usually refers back to a noun with the indefinite article, while it refers to one with the definite article: A university degree is becoming essential. If you have one, you can. The FCE certificate is an essential qualification. If you have it, you can. Ellipsis: Here the reference consists in the omission of a verb: Do you smoke? No, I dont, but my girlfriend does. John looks unhappy. He always does. They want me to take the job, but Im not going to. EXERCISE ONE In these sentences, the word it is used wrongly. Replace it with an appropriate cohesion device. 1. Male employees are willing to change departments, but women staff often refuse to do it. 2. The peoples last weapon is civil disobedience. It means actions that disobey the authority of the state. 3. She spent her life helping others. It is the reason we want to honour her. 4. When should I register? You should have already done it. 5. Do you have a pencil sharpener? No, Im afraid I havent got it.

EXERCISE TWO Fill in the missing verb form in the following examples of ellipsis: 1. Scientists hope to find a cure for cancer. One day they ________, but not for some time yet. 2. Everything would have been fine if he had arrived on time, but he _______, and it was a disaster. 3. They all said I should sell the house but I ____________. 4. He said he would write when he got to London. He _________, but it was only a postcard. 5. Many people feared the new laws would be unjust. They ________, and that is why we have all this unrest. EXERCISE THREE What do the underlined words refer to? In February 1917, there was general support in the country for some kind of coalition. This quickly came to mean support for the Soviets; it did not involve the Provisional Government. However, support for them did not mean support for the Bolsheviks. They were a small band of disciplined fanatics; Lenin had taken for his faction the name Bolshevik (derived from the word for majority) because it had won a majority in party elections. His opponents were known as Mensheviks (from minority) from their poor showing in them. ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE 1. women staff often refuse to do so. 2. This means actions 3. That is the reason 4. You should have already done so. 5. Im afraid I havent got one. EXERCISE TWO 1. one day they will.. 2. but he didnt .. 3. I wouldnt (or I didnt) 4. he did 5. They were,.. EXERCISE THREE This general support It general support Them the Provisional Government They the Bolsheviks It his faction His Lenins Their the Mensheviks Them the party elections

LESSON 5a: UNDERSTANDING NEWSPAPER HEADLINES The headlines of British and American newspapers and magazines are notoriously difficult to understand. This is especially true of the tabloid press where the headlines seem to be written in a kind of secret code, with obscure references, plays on words and invented language. However, these are extreme cases, and in this module we will look at the standardised headline language used both in Britain and the USA. Headline language has developed into a style of its own for several reasons: Brevity: the editors have little space available, so unimportant words are cut, shorter words are preferred to longer, etc. US CALLS FOR FARM AID CURB Here, the meaning is that the United States has strongly demanded that subsidies to farmers should be limited. call and curb are shorter words than demand and limit, while aid is easily understood as assistance. Notice also the use of complex compounds farm aid curb. Dramatic effect: the editors want to draw the readers attention immediately, so more dramatic or violent words are preferred to the standard vocabulary. STORM OVER WAGES DEAL Here, storm means violent dispute about the agreement reached on workers salaries; a much stronger word than argument. This kind of restriction and codified vocabulary has led to a kind of headline grammar being invented. Here are some of its rules: 1. Complete sentences are not necessary: MORE QUAKE DEATHS 2. The verb to be is omitted, even when it is the auxiliary in continuous or passive verbs: NEW PLAY IMMORAL SAYS BISHOP; WORLD HEADING FOR ENERGY CRISIS; MAN HELD BY POLICE 3. No articles are used: CHILD HURT IN BLAST AT WAREHOUSE 4. The simple present is used for past and perfect tenses: ITALY SENDS AID TO REFUGEES 5. The infinitive of the verb is used for the future: QUEEN TO VISIT FIJI As you can see, this has resulted in a form of simplified English whose rules are always followed; if you know the rules, you can decipher the headline. The special vocabulary used in headlines is quite restricted; the same short dramatic words are almost always used. These consist mainly of nouns and verbs, although notice the special use of the preposition over above, with the meaning of because of. Here are some of the most common; these are all verbs, but as is common in normal English, some of them, marked with an asterisk, can also be nouns. AIM* to try or attempt AIR to express an opinion AXE to remove, reduce or destroy BACK to support BAN* to prohibit BOOST* to help, encourage CALL FOR to demand strongly

CURB* to limit HEAD* to lead, to be the leader HIT to affect badly, to harm HOLD to keep in custody, arrest OUST to replace, substitute PLEA* to call for help PROBE* to investigate QUIT to resign SOAR to increase TOP to exceed VOW to promise WED to marry These are some of the most common nouns: BLAST an explosion BLAZE a fire CLASH a confrontation CUT a reduction DEAL an agreement DRIVE a campaign HAUL stolen goods ORDEAL a painful experience PACT an agreement, a contract STORM a violent disagreement, a protest TALKS discussions THREAT danger TOLL the number of victims

EXERCISE ONE Choose the best explanation of these headlines: 1. BLAIR CALLS FOR NEW TALKS ON WMD a) Blair plans to announce that he wants new discussions on weapons of mass destruction. b) Blair said that he wanted new discussions on WMD. c) Blair is saying that new discussions on WMD have begun. 2. NUS LEADER TO QUIT OVER SCANDAL a) The NUS leader has resigned because of a scandal. b) The NUS leader is going to resign because of a scandal. c) The NUS leader will resign despite the scandal. 3. CH4 HEAD AXES SOAP DEAL a) The director of Channel 4 is going to refuse an agreement on a soap opera. b) The Ch4 director is refusing an agreement on a soap opera. c) A soap opera agreement has been refused by the director of Channel 4.

EXERCISE TWO Rewrite these headlines in normal English: 1. LONDON POLICE PROBE BLAST 2. UNIONS BACK OVERTIME BAN 3. BRITNEY TO WED STUDIO HEAD 4. BLAZE TOLL TOPS 50 5. BLAIR VOWS TALKS TO BOOST AIDS RESEARCH 6. STRIKE THREAT AFTER FIRMS AXED

ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE 1. b 2. b 3. c EXERCISE TWO 1. London police have investigated an explosion. 2. Trade unions supported a prohibition on working overtime. 3. Britney is going to marry the director of a studio. 4. The number of victims of the fire is more than 50. 5. Blair has promised to hold discussions to encourage more research on AIDS. 6. There is danger of a strike after the closure of some companies.

LESSON 5b: AMERICAN ENGLISH British English and American English are of course the same language, but over the last three hundred years both languages have developed in slightly different ways. However, the differences are not very great not as great, for example, as the differences between standard English and the Scots dialect of Scotland and most British and American speakers can understand each other (although pronunciation can cause a few problems). The main differences are small grammatical features, vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. GRAMMAR Americans (US) often use a past simple where the British (GB) use the present perfect: US: I already had lunch; did you see him yet? She just went home GB: Ive already had lunch; have you seen him yet? Shes just gone home Americans prefer do you have a problem? and he doesnt have a dog rather than the British have you got a problem? he hasnt got a dog. The American past participle of got is gotten; in British English it is got: Ive gotten to know him well Other US forms are dreamed, learned and burned instead of dreamt, learnt and burnt (although GB is now using these forms regularly); dove as the past of dive (GB dived), waked instead of woke, and fit, fit, fit and quit, quit, quit, where GB has fitted and quitted. The subjunctive is also more common in American: It is essential that he be informed, where British English prefers it is essential that he should be informed. There are a few differences in the use of prepositions and adverbs in certain lexical units: I have to check it out (I have to check it); well have to do it over (well have to do it again); Im meeting with Jack (Im meeting Jack); they stayed home (they stayed at home); write me soon (write to me soon); Monday through Friday (Monday to Friday). In informal speech, Americans say Hello, is this Jack? on the telephone, instead of Hello, is that Jack?; he looked at me real strange (he looked at me really strangely). VOCABULARY This the area with the largest number of differences. Sometimes different words are used for the same thing: apartment = flat, and sometimes the same word has different meanings: mad US = angry, GB = crazy. Some of the most important (and often confusing) words are the following: Attorney barrister or solicitor intersection crossroads Bar pub mail post Cab taxi math maths Can tin motor engine Candy sweets movie film Closet cupboard the movies the cinema Cookie biscuit pants trousers Drug store chemist or grocers purse handbag Elevator lift railroad railway Fall autumn rest room public toilet Faucet tap schedule timetable Freeway motorway sidewalk pavement Garbage rubbish store shop Gas petrol subway underground Highway main road vacation holiday

SPELLING Especially during the 19th and 20th centuries, Americans simplified the spelling of many English words. Some examples: Traveler, leveling = traveller, levelling Theater, center, meter = theatre, centre, metre Color, honor, labor = colour, honour, labour Dialog, catalog, analog = dialogue, catalogue, analogue Realize, analyze, organize = realise, analyse, organise Defense, license, offense = defence, licence, offence Check = cheque Jewelry = jewellery Pajamas = pyjamas Program = programme Plow = plough Specialty = speciality Tire = tyre (on a car) In informal writing and songs, etc, the following can be found: Nite, lite = night, light; thru = through I gonna, I gotta, I wanna = Im going to, Ive got to, I want to I aint = Im not, I havent PRONUNCIATION Generally speaking, American speakers lengthen their stressed vowels more, which makes their speech seem slower. Some vowels are nasalised, and this makes the two forms of English sound very different. Some vowel sounds are very different: The sound in GB hot or rob is hatt, rabb in US. GB class, cant, fast becomes cless, cent, fest The distinctive ou sound of GB no or home is not a diphthong in US. Americans pronounce r where the British tend not to, in words like car, turn. The sounds of t and d in the middle of words are pronounced identically in US writer and rider, while in GB they are distinct. US say toon, noo doo where GB has a tyu nyu dyu sound. Words ending in -tile are pronounced ta-il in GB and tl in US: fertile, reptile As we can see, the differences are not many, and the two nations can understand each other most of the time, although the British are far more exposed to American English (through films, TV programmes and advertising) than Americans to British English. In fact some British films have been dubbed or subtitled when exported to the USA!

EXERCISE ONE Rewrite the sentences in British English.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Brenda already mailed the letter I wrote you. You wanna check that out with the mailman? The patrolman insisted I show him my license. Moms gonna make us some chocolate cookies. What color purse does she have? Our neighbors gotten real mad at us over the garbage cans. Huey musta learned to play checkers someplace. They ran outta gas on the freeway and had to thumb a ride.

EXERCISE TWO Rewrite this letter in GB English. Hi Bonnie, I just finished college and Im now on vacation in London. Ive gotten myself a neat apartment not far from the center and real close to the subway and met a cute English chick who lives across the hall. Yesterday she fixed me lunch and tonite were taking in a show at the local theater. Did you visit with your old high school buddies yet? Write me soon! See ya, Kevin.

ANSWERS EXERCISE ONE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Brenda has already posted the letter I wrote to you. Do you want to check that with the postman? The policeman insisted that I should show him my licence. Mum is going to make us some chocolate biscuits. What colour of handbag has she got? Our neighbour has got really angry with us about the rubbish bins. Huey must have learned to play draughts (dama) somewhere. They ran out of petrol on the motorway and had to hitch a lift.

EXERCISE TWO Dear Bonnie, I have just finished university and now Im on holiday in London. Ive got myself a nice flat not far from the centre and really close to the underground, and Ive met a nice English girl who lives across the corridor. Yesterday she made lunch for me and tonight were going to see a play at the local theatre. Have you visited your old secondary school friends yet? Write to me soon! See you, Kevin.

LESSON 6a: READING A TEXT 1 Paul Ginsborg is Professor of Contemporary European History at the University of Florence, and this text is taken from his second book on modern Italian society. His first, A History of Contemporary Italy 1943 1988, was acclaimed both in Britain and Italy. In Italy and its Discontents he chronicles the years 1980 to 2001, tracing all the threads of Italian social life, the role of the family, the influence of the Church and organised crime; he examines the fall of the First Republic and the rise of Silvio Berlusconi, ending at his electoral victory in 2001. The text is an example of academic writing addressed to a wider public, not only to scholars of contemporary history; there are apex numbers referring to a note section at the back of the book and a comprehensive index. 1. There is much in modern Italian society which favours the growth of a democratic culture within its families the material wealth of a majority of the population, the striking change in the condition of many Italian women in the last three decades, spreading educational opportunity, increased access to information of every kind, including everwidening internet access, the tentative introduction of the theme of democratic participation in the recent teachings of the Church, and last but no means least, the growth of a plural and critical civil society both in the south as well as the north of the country. 2. However, there is also much that threatens it the extraordinary power and cultural penetration of the mass media, of which a very significant part belongs to a single family; the lasting structures of professional corporations; the vertical ordering of relationships through clienteles and reciprocal favours, dominated almost always by ageing male figures; the temptation to follow, in times of political uncertainty, a single charismatic leader; lastly, the lack of profitable and satisfying employment, or even employment itself, for so many of Italian young people, especially those living in the south. 3. In the 1980s, the performance of the political and administrative class did little to enrich Italys democratic culture, to encourage its civil society, to change the widespread attitudes of distrust and cynicism towards the state which permeated so many Italian families. On the contrary, so great were its misdeeds that many elements of it were swept away by the extraordinary series of events which formed the crisis of 1992-3. 4. From that critical season, it seemed as if a new Italy could emerge; an Italy not radically transformed, but at least with different priorities and with a different line of march. The crisis offered the possibility of creating a critical civil society in which Italian citizens could more easily observe some of democracys virtues and not just its vices, and with which they could perhaps come to identify.

ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT Paragraph 1: the topic sentence is the first part of the first sentence, followed by six citations of features that exemplify much which favours the growth of a democratic culture; the sentence periods grow longer and longer and the internal rhythm of the sentence is noteworthy as it leads up to last but no means least his most important point comes last, and is the longest sentence period. Paragraph 2: he begins with however he is moving on to the negative aspects, which threaten it (notice that it, which refers all the way back to a democratic culture within the family in the 2nd line of paragraph 1) threatens balances favours in the 1st paragraph. In fact, the 2nd paragraph mirrors the first, with another list of features (notice the covert reference to Berlusconi in belongs to a single family and perhaps a single charismatic leader. Again, reflecting the structure of the 1st paragraph, he ends lastly with his most important and longest sentence period, and once again mentioning the south of the country. Paragraph 3: Here he continues his explanation of the causes of Italys problems: the political class did little with three examples. Then, on the contrary, he tells us how the politicians misdeeds led to the 1992-3 crisis (the Mani Pulite campaign and the fall of the DC). Paragraph 4: that critical season refers to 1992-3; the key word here is seemed; a new Italy an Italy not transformed; the crisis points back to that critical season. Then he makes a balance of democracys virtues and its vices, referring to the misdeeds of the politicians of the First Republic.

LESSON 6b: READING A TEXT 2 Types of Political Systems For most of human history, political domination in the form of empires, hereditary rulers, or aristocracies has been largely taken for granted, notwithstanding sporadic revolts, so that in all societies, from societies that were very meagrely developed and had barely attained the dawnings of civilisation, down to the most advanced and peaceful societies, two classes always appeared a class of rulers and a class of ruled.1 This is no more than the recognition of a historical and comparatively obvious state of affairs. Only in more modern times, since the power of ruling groups was explicitly and widely challenged in the name of democracy, and later of social democracy, has the question of the nature of the basis of the state become a matter of acute controversy, giving rise to two antithetical conceptions. One view refers to the increasing differentiation of social functions as human societies became larger and more complex, and to the need for a superior authority in society capable of regulating conflicts of interest among individuals and groups and of representing in some fashion the general interest. The alternative view is that the state comes into being and is maintained as an instrument of domination, resulting either from the internal differentiation of society into dominant and subordinate classes (according to Marxist theory) or from the imposition of the rule of one group of people upon another by conquest (as argued by Oppenheimer2).
1. G. Mosca, The Ruling Class, New York, 1939 2. F. Oppenheimer, The State, New York, 1975

Adapted from Political Sociology by T. Bottomore. As can be clearly seen, this text is taken from a text book on political science, and is therefore written in a formal, literary style, with long periodic sentences which can be difficult to follow at times. Note also the inclusion of quotations, with apex numbers referring to footnotes identifying the authors, common to this genre of writing. Let us look first at some of the more distinctive uses of language highlighted in the passage. To take something for granted is to assume something is the case without examining it too closely; the equivalent of the Italian dare qualcosa per scontato. Notwithstanding is a very literary preposition equivalent to despite. Meagrely developed: meagre means poor, not plentiful, so hardly developed at all. Two antithetical conceptions: again the use of formal, Latin-based vocabulary meaning two ideas at variance, not in agreement with each other. Other examples of formal collocations include sporadic revolts and explicitly challenged. The cohesion within the text is very distinctive; instead of using transition signals, the writer links his ideas together inside his long sentences in other ways: There is one reference device in line six: this refers to the idea expressed in the quotation from Mosca. A major linking device is to be found in two antithetical conceptions one view .the alternative view. Notice the construction underlined at lines 7 and 9, known as negative inversion, often used in formal language: Only.has the question. become; the verb takes an

interrogative form if the sentence begins with a negative or only. Other examples could be Not only did she refuse to see him, but returned his many letters unopened; Never was such a sight seen as on that night; No sooner had he entered the shower than the telephone began ringing. The author also uses lexical cohesion devices based on repetitions of verb or adjective/preposition pairs, for example: from societies that. down to advanced societies in the name of democracy. of social democracy refers to the differentiation.. and to the need capable of regulating .. and of representing resulting either from the .. differentiation .. or from the imposition By following the various lexical devices in this way, the text can be understood better.

7a. EXAMPLE OF READING COMPREHENSION FOR WRITTEN EXAMINATION Read the following passage and answer the questions below. The USA and Europe share a long and intertwined history, filled with many ups and downs. Their modern transatlantic relationship was created in the aftermath of World war II to deter the Soviet threat and to promote security and stability in Europe. NATO and the European Union, the latest stage in a process of European integration begun in the 1950s, are the two key pillars upon which the US European partnership still rests. The US Congress and successive administrations have supported both of them as means of nourishing democracy, fostering reliable military allies, and creating strong trading partners. Despite the changed European security environment since the end of the Cold War, many observers stress that the security and the prosperity of the United States and Europe remain inextricably linked. Both sides of the Atlantic continue to face a common set of challenges, from countering terrorism to ensuring the stability of global financial markets, and have few other comparable partners. Nevertheless, this transatlantic relationship has been fundamentally challenged in recent years as numerous trade and foreign policy conflicts have emerged. The crisis over Iraq is the most notable of these, but the list of disagreements includes the Israeli Palestinian conflict, the EU arms embargo on China, US treatment of prisoners, and trade in genetically modified food. These divisions have been driven partly by European perceptions of US unilateralism, and partly by the EUs political evolution, set in motion by the end of the Soviet Union and 9/11. Some Americans and Europeans are now questioning whether the two sides of the Atlantic still share the same values and interests, and whether enough common ground exists between them to make the partnership work. Adapted from CRS Report for Congress, January 2007 1. What do the following refer to? a) their (line 1) b) them (line 6) c) these (line 15) d) them (line 20) 2. Match the words underlined in the text with their definitions. 1) intertwined 2) aftermath 3) pillars 4) inextricably 5) embargo a) supports b) suspension c) extremely closely d) closely joined e) consequence, result

3. Decide whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. 1. The European Union was founded in the 1950s. 2. The American government have always supported the relationship with Europe. 3. Europe and the USA have different ideas about fighting terrorism. 4. The US and Europe disagree about the use of genetically modified food. 5. Some people think that the relationship between the US and Europe has now broken down.

7b EXAMPLE OF READING COMPREHENSION 2 Political Rights 1. Equality in political rights is seen first of all in the slow but still far from universal recognition that certain differences between individuals are irrelevant as grounds for discrimination. Examples are differences of sex, religion, property, race or colour. On the other hand, the problem of whether there are any differences that are relevant, for example, differences in intelligence, or interest in and knowledge of public affairs, is still sometimes raised. 2. As far as the right to elect representatives is concerned, democracies have adopted the principle of arithmetical equality one man, one vote, and have excluded weighted voting because of the lack of an agreed method of estimating differences in political capacity. 3. The equalisation of electoral constituencies is another example of arithmetical equality. Where constituencies are unequal, the principle of one man, one vote would conflict with the principle of one man, one vote in the electorate, since in the smaller constituencies each voter would have a proportionately greater share in the making of the government. It must be admitted that no device has yet been discovered which can ensure that each will counts, still less that each counts equally. 4. This difficulty can be seen in the complex problems raised by proportional representation. This is defended on the grounds that it secures the individual voter or party a fair share in the composition of the legislature. Against this, appeal is made to the need for a strong executive, which, it is claimed, cannot be assured unless the party in power has an adequate majority. 1. arithmetical equality means: a) an individual has one vote only b) men and women have the same number of votes c) votes are calculated with a mathematical formula 2. weighted voting means: a) a greater number of votes are counted than expected b) a lot of parties are voted for c) more value is given to some votes 3. a strong executive means: a) a powerful manager b) an effective governing power c) a robust administration True or False? 1. Equality in political rights has been universally recognised and achieved. _______ 2. In democratic governments, some voters have more than one vote. ________ 3. Constituencies with fewer voters participate more in making a government. _______ 4. One man, one vote is the best policy because each vote counts equally. ________ 5. Proportional representation guarantees a strong executive. _________

ANSWERS Reading Comprehension 1 1. a) b) c) d) 2. 1. d 3. 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. FALSE 4. TRUE 5. TRUE their the USA and Europe them NATO and the EU these foreign policy conflicts them both sides of the Atlantic 2. e 3. a 4. c 5. b

Reading Comprehension 2 1. a 2. C 3. B

True or False? 1. FALSE 2. TRUE 3. TRUE 4. FALSE 5. FALSE

READING TEXTS
1. MAGISTRATES AND POLITICIANS IN ITALY The on-going conflict of interest between the magistracy and politicians, widely reported in the media, has done little to enhance Italys image abroad. The picture is that of a society in which two of the key powers of the state, the executive and the judiciary, are at loggerheads with one another, each bent upon depriving the other of its legal status. 150 years after Unification the justice system in Italy is facing a crisis, and is becoming a major problem in a country that can be regarded as one of the fountainheads of Western jurisprudence. The crisis has come about for two reasons: the rapid development of a technocratic society, based on consumerism and mass communications, which has resulted not only in Italy in a major change in traditional notions of justice; and the tendency for the mass media especially in Italy to provide the public with an extremely simplified version of judiciary matters, using language that slavishly echoes that of political dispute. This means that we in Italy have been experiencing, for at least the last twenty years, a destructive enslavement of the legal system to the needs of politics, through a systematic exploitation and popularisation of events concerning the judiciary. It is clear to everyone that Italy is undergoing a politically precarious period and is in need of a new governing class, and it is also well-known how costly corruption and the lack of a meritocracy can be to a society like Italys. Yet it is also obvious that this situation cannot be rectified, and in fact could be aggravated, by media-driven campaigns to treat all politicians as criminals. The inevitable conclusion is that in Italy, the most far-reaching and significant changes in the role of the magistracy have not been brought about by legislators or by popular will, but by the actions of the media, which is now to be considered one of the most powerful forces in modern society, and which, by amplifying, changing and at times distorting the role and image of the magistracy, by the end of the twentieth century had turned it into a real adversary of the political class.

2. RISORGIMENTO No debate, however exact or fruitful, on the contradictions and tensions of the movement for independence can blind us to the basic fact of the historical leap forward that the birth of the national state represented for all Italians, for the people of the whole country, north and south, who became united within one nation. Together they entered the modern world, removing the barriers which until then had prevented their access to it. We should remember how Italians lived before unification. Listen to the words of Giuseppe Mazzini in 1845: We have no flag of our own, we have no name, no voice among the nations of Europe; we possess no common centre, no common market, no common agreement among ourselves. We are split up into eight states, each one independent of the otherseight customs bordersdivide our material interests, hinder our progresseight different monetary systems, weights and measures, eight different civil, commercial and penal legal systems and administrative procedures that make us foreigners to one another. Also, Mazzini went on, these states were despotically governed, one of them, containing almost a quarter of the Italian population, belongs to foreigners, to Austria. And yet for Mazzini an Italian nation existed without a doubt: there were not five, four or three Italys but only one. It was thus the awareness of basic interests and shared pressing needs, as well as a powerful desire for freedom and independence, that led to bands of patriots aristocrats, middle class, workers and ordinary people, the educated and the illiterate, monarchists and republicans to commit themselves to the battles for national unification. Battles that were harsh and bloody, but fought with a magnificent outburst of enthusiasm and heroic willingness to sacrifice on the part of youngsters, some very young indeed, who took part in fearless exploits, some of which were doomed to fail. The events of the Risorgimento are a source of living pride today for Italy and the Italians, from several standpoints: first of all, the supreme wisdom of the political guidance of Cavour, which made possible the achievement of a single, realistic, decisive goal, made up of subjective and objective elements not easily combined, and often in conflict, with one another. Secondly, the emergence, within society, and clearly within social classes in Italian cities, of rich, almost unforeseen reserves a consciousness of political ideals, and human resources to be seen in the eagerness of volunteers, as an active component that was essential for the success of the movement for unification, and also in a growing participation in that movement not only by a restricted intellectual elite but by classes of society that were no less important, thanks to the spread of new forms of communication. These invigorating reasons for Italian national pride were confirmed in the recognition given to them at the time and afterwards, beyond Italy, by the politicians and cultural interpreters of other nations a European-level recognition of the birth of a united Italy, and the impact this had on other nationalistic struggles taking place in Europe in the last decades of the nineteenth century and beyond. Unification could not have been accomplished without taking for granted basic facts such as the abstention from political life of the farming masses, who were a majority of the population at the time. Unification could not have been accomplished without the aegis of a state that was the most politically advanced in Italy, in the sense of being the most liberal, most open and responsive to the cause of united Italy and those fighting for it, in other words under the auspices of the Savoyard dynasty and the moderate political class of Piedmont, personified by Cavour. That was the objective state of affairs acknowledged with realistic generosity by Garibaldi, even though he was a democrat and a republican, with his for Italy and Vittorio Emanuele.

3. THE MARIO MONTI GOVERNMENT In Italy things seldom happen abruptly. Italians prefer compromise, half-measures and gradual change. But in just four days in mid-November 2011, the pendulum of Italian public life swung giddily from one extreme to another. Silvio Berlusconi, a prime minister notorious for his buffoonery, scandalous private life and iffy business methods, gave way to a sober, monogamous academic and former European commissioner, Mario Monti. The TV moguls cabinet included a former calendar girl, a minister who walked a pig on land earmarked for a mosque and another said to have links to the Cosa Nostra. The new government sworn in on November 16th had the chairman of NATOs military committee, Admiral Giampaolo Di Paola, as defence minister; the boss of Italys biggest retail bank, Corrado Passera, as minister for economic development and infrastructure; and no fewer than seven professors, including the prime minister, out of a cabinet of 17. Mr Monti himself takes the finance portfolio. Only one of three women in the Berlusconi government had a heavyweight job. All three of those in Mr Montis have onerous responsibilities. Anna Maria Cancellieri, a former prefect, became interior minister. Paola Severino, a law teacher and courtroom advocate, is the justice minister. Elsa Fornero, a pension expert, took employment and welfare. The new governments only defect may be that it contains no young people. It is rare for the intellectual firepower of so many technocrats to be trained on a countrys problems. But it is also rare for the problems to be as grave as those left by Mr Berlusconis tragicomic administration. It is hard to exaggerate the responsibilities placed on Mr Monti when President Giorgio Napolitano asked him on November 13th to become prime minister. The 75-year-old Mr Berlusconi had quit the night before, booed from office by a crowd outside the presidential palace. He had to leave ignominiously from a side dooran end to his fourth government that he will not lightly forgive or forget. Mr Berlusconi was forced out because he had lost his majority in the lower-house Chamber of Deputies. But he has not lost control of the upper-house Senate. He and his allies in the Northern League (vehemently against Mr Montis government) can still block legislation there. That weighed heavily on the birth of the new government. But thanks either to his negotiating skills or simply to the gravity of the situation, the new prime minister has still got most of what he wanted.

4. WHY ITALYS SOUTHERNERS ARE STAYING PUT Even though they are reasonably prosperous, many firms in northern Italy are unhappy because they are short of labour. In the Veneto region, inland from Venice, companies poach workers from one another. Big companies threaten to move plants abroad if they cannot find local workers. So they are asking the government to admit more foreign workers. They need around 50,000, fast. The yearly quota of 70,000 entry permits for non-EU workers, known as extracommunitari, was filled as early as March. Compared with other large countries in the EU, Italy has relatively few legal immigrants from outside the Union: only 2.5 million, or little more than 3% of the population, against more than 6% in the EU as a whole. Even if half a million illegals are added, the Italian figure is still much smaller, proportionately, than in northern Europe. The government, with regional bosses wanting to have a say too, seems ready to comply. Yet questions were asked on why so few Italians from the south were coming up north to look for work. There, the unemployment rate is 30%, and joblessness among southerners under 24 is even more dramatic: 60% in Sardinia and Sicily, 65% in Campania, and in Reggio Calabria, on Italys toe, seven out of ten young people have no jobs. Why do more southerners not go north? First, because they are put off by the high cost of living in cities like Milan, where the cheapest jobs barely pay the rent. When southerners went north in their thousands in the 1950s and 1960s, many employers helped them with housing. Nowadays the laws protecting tenants make landlords much less keen to let rooms to poor strangers. A second, perhaps surprising reason, is that many young southerners feel over-qualified for the lowlier jobs on offer up north. Many southern families have invested a lot of money and hope in educating their children to a high level, and are loath to encourage them to seek jobs on building sites or in factories in the north. Many southerners think that northern employers would anyway prefer a shy, ill-paid African to an assertive young Sicilian with a law degree. A third reason has to do with the southern way of life. Southerners are brought up in highly protective families which cosset their young, providing them with bedroom, pocket money, connections and mammas cooking and love, often well into their 30s. Friendships, say southerners, are warmer. So is the climate. The lure of a hard life, albeit with a job, up north is not what it was. No wonder Moroccans are more active in the Milanese job market.

5. THE US POLITICAL SYSTEM Throughout most of its history, American politics have been dominated by a two-party system. However, the United States Constitution has always been silent on the issue of political parties; at the time it was signed in 1787, there were no parties in the nation. Indeed, no nation in the world had voter-based political parties. The Founding Fathers did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. In addition, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was not a member of any political party at the time of his election or throughout his tenure as president. Furthermore, he hoped that political parties would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation. Nevertheless, the beginnings of the American two-party system emerged from his immediate circle of advisers, including Hamilton and Madison. The need to win popular support in a republic led to the formation of political parties in the 1790s. Americans were especially innovative in devising new campaign techniques that linked public opinion with public policy through the party. The modern two-party system consists of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. In general, since the 1930s the Democratic Party positions itself left-of-center in American politics while the Republican Party positions itself as right-of-center. These two parties have won every United States presidential election since 1852 and have controlled the United States Congress since at least 1856. Several other third parties from time to time achieve relatively minor representation at the national and state levels. The Democratic Party is the oldest political party in the United States and among the oldest in the world. Since the division of the Republican Party in the election of 1912, it has consistently positioned itself to the left of the Republicans in economic as well as social matters. The economically left-leaning philosophy of Franklin D. Roosevelt, which strongly influenced American liberalism, has shaped much of the party's economic agenda since 1932. Roosevelt's New Deal coalition usually controlled the national government until the 1970s. In 2004, it was the largest political party, with 72 million voters (42.6% of 169 million registered) claiming affiliation. The president of the United States, Barack Obama, is the 15th Democrat to hold the office, and since the 2006 midterm elections, the Democratic Party is the majority party for the United States Senate. The Republican Party is often referred to as the Grand Old Party, GOP. Founded in 1854 by antislavery expansion activists and modernizers, the party rose to prominence with the election of Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican president. It presided over the American Civil War and Reconstruction but was harried by internal factions and scandals toward the end of the 19th century. Today, the Republican Party supports an American conservative platform, with further foundations in economic liberalism, fiscal conservatism, and social conservatism. Former President George W. Bush is the 19th Republican to hold that office. The party's nominee for President of the United States in the 2008 presidential election was Senator John McCain of Arizona. It is currently the second largest party with 55 million registered members, encompassing roughly one third of the electorate. Since the 2010 midterm elections, the Republicans have held a majority in the United States House of Representatives.

6. DEATH STALKS THE STREETS OF RIO For the four officers, it was a routine patrol. Their police car was cruising along one of the main roads in Rio de Janeiros North Zone last week when it was ambushed. Thirty men armed with shotguns, pistols, rifles, sub-machine guns and grenades attacked the car, killing two of the policemen, and by mistake, a 51-year-old woman in a passing bus. The ages of the gang members, one of the citys most feared drug factions, said police, were between 10 and 25. As the Brazilian film City of God opened in the US last week, the horrors of Rios urban violence were reaching a mass international audience for the first time. But the reality is worse. Since the late 1970s, when most of the film takes place, deaths in the slum shanty towns, or favelas, have skyrocketed, drug gangs have become better organised and better armed, and more children, at younger ages, have become involved. The situation is so bad that gunshot deaths in Rio have exceeded those in conflict zones, including Colombia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Uganda, according to the study Child Combatants in Organised Crime, published last month. Almost 3,000 people in Rio, a city of 5.8 million, are shot dead each year. An estimated 11,000 youngsters are now involved in armed drug gangs in the city, with about half of them under 18. Luke Downey, the author of the study, which is part-sponsored by UNESCO and the Department for International Development, said, Rio has now reached a situation where childrens involvement with guns is comparable to situations in major world conflicts. Even though only 1% of the community is involved, the entire population is affected. For a police sergeant, who refused to give his name, a colleague of the slain officers, the police are grossly under-equipped. The drug gangs have every kind of weapon now, including military hardware like assault rifles and ground to air rocket launchers. They play with grenades as if they were toys. And many of them are 8, 10 or 12 years old, he said. They attack us because they want to demoralise the state, to shoe that they are powerful. A few months ago they killed a solitary policeman for no reason at all, like they were doing it for fun. City of God is the translation of Cidade de Deus, a 1960s housing project on Rios outskirts. During the 70s it turned into a favela. The film, based on the book by a former resident, Paulo Lins, charts the emergence of armed drug gangs with the arrival of cocaine in the favelas in the late 70s. Rio has about 800 favelas, containing more than a million people. Alba Zaluar, an anthropologist who has studied the favelas for 25 years and whose research formed the basis for Lins book, said the main change since the 80s is that the gangs began to be interested in political power inside the favela, as a way of asserting military control over their territory. Now almost all the favelas are controlled by one of three drug factions. The worst violence now happens between factions. Downey said that boys as young as 16 are in control of entire favelas. This was because children are fast and good at handling guns, and at 25 you are likely to be either dead or in prison. Many police say that if they saw a child first they would shoot because a child was more likely to shoot back. Almost 5,000 under-18s were killed in Rio between 1988 and 2010, more than eight times the combined number of Israeli and Palestinian children killed in the same period.

7. STEVE JOBS: THE WORLD PAYS TRIBUTE People all over the world felt extremely emotional at news of the death of the co-founder and former CEO of Apple Inc. Its a dark day in Silicon Valley, wrote Matt Drance, a former Apple employee. Steve Jobs, cofounder of Apple Inc., who died at 56 from cancer, inspired the strongest feelings. In Beijing, mourners and admirers came to lay flowers and light candles at the Apple Store. They also left messages: You have enriched our lives. Thank you for changing the world, said one in English. It seemed as though everyone had been touched by his work. The tributes came from everywhere. President Obama said he transformed our lives, redefined entire industries and changed the way each of us sees the world. For many businesses computing, film, music, mobile telephony and, most recently, mobile computing Jobs changed everything. Again and again, he refused to accept the conventional wisdom and introduced his own wisdom instead. He lived his life by the instruction he gave in a speech to Stanford graduates: Dont let the noise of others opinions drown out your own inner voice. Stay hungry. Stay foolish. In 1979, three years after setting up Apple with Steve Wozniak, Jobs visited Xeroxs Palo Alto Research Center in California and saw its experimental system which used windows and a mouse. It wasnt complete, he said. It wasnt quite right. But within ten minutes, it was obvious that every computer in the world would work this way someday. Jobs licensed the system from Xerox and oversaw the development of computers using the new windowing system. Jobs also wanted them to be as simple to use as a washing machine. Computers, he thought, were too complicated. Using window systems was much easier. Microsoft agreed. Bill Gates extended the idea of windows to Windows, which quickly overtook Apples products and became the most widely used desktop computer operating s ystem in the world. Jobs was kicked out of Apple in 1985 and, over the next 12 years, Microsoft took over personal computing. All the computers used windows in some form. Jobs had been right. His next target was the film business, Pixar. It was also cutting-edge, making films entirely with computers. Disney bought Pixar in January 2006 for $7.4bn (it was stock in Pixar, not Apple, which made Jobs a billionaire). When he returned to Apple, Jobs quickly took over and became Interim CEO in 1997. It was then that he decided to focus on the music business, something he had always loved. The iPod changed everything, because of its tiny size and its simple, quick synchronization. Then Jobs persuaded the record labels to let him sell music digitally. Apple wanted to sell one million songs in the first year. When the iTunes Music Store opened in 2003, it sold the first million songs in a week. Within a year it had sold nearly 100 million songs and the iPod had 70% of the music player market. The iPhone was the result of a two-and-a-half year project to use touch screens with computers. In mid-2011, Apple became the worlds biggest mobile phone maker. Though Bill Gates introduced tablet computers in 2001, they were not successful. Apple launched the iPad in January 2010: a computer you could carry, operated by touch, with a ten-hour battery life, that used apps. Apple sold tens of millions of them. Our competitors are looking at this [tablet market] like its the next PC market. That is not the right approach to this. These are post- PC devices that need to be easier to use than a PC, more intuitive, said Jobs. All the devices had one important thing in common: people fell in love with them. They felt passionately about them, in a way the world had never seen before. The iPhone felt like a piece of delight. It really is neat to go from one page to the other not by pushing a button but by moving your hand across the page. There will now be questions about Apple and its future though they are exactly the same as those which were asked when Jobs left the company, because of his illness, in August 2011. Can it be the same creative force without him?

8. INTERNATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT The International Criminal Police Organisation (INTERPOL) is the worlds largest international police organisation. With its headquarters in Lyon, France, it was set up in Austria in 1923 and took the name Interpol, which was the organisations telegraphic address, in 1956. The General Secretariat in Lyon operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and is run by the Secretary General. The staff are from more than 80 different countries and work in any of INTERPOLs four official languages: English, French, Spanish and Arabic. INTERPOL currently has 187 member countries. It facilitates cross-border police cooperation and supports and assists organisations, authorities and services whose job it is to prevent or combat international crime. It also has an Environmental Crimes Committee, which is made up of experts from all the 187 member countries. The committee has a special working group that deals with the broad field of pollution crime the handling, transport, trading, possessing and disposing of hazardous wastes or resources in contravention of national and international laws. In November 2000, the UN adopted a special Convention against Transnational Crime and created a special committee to deal with it. European Cooperation The Schengen Treaty was signed in 1985 to remove border controls between certain European countries; the original five participating countries were France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. So far, a further twenty countries have joined the system (the UK so far has not). Many neighbouring Schengen states have introduced bilateral measures for police cooperation in border regions, which are expressly permitted under Article 39, subsection 5 of the Schengen Agreement. Such cooperation may include joint police radio frequencies, police control centres, and tracing units in border areas. Basically this means that criminals are no longer able to evade the police by crossing a border, as the police from one country are allowed to cross the border into a neighbouring country to continue their pursuit. The Schengen Information System (SIS) is a database system used by several European countries for the purpose of maintaining and distributing information related to border security and law enforcement. Currently, SIS is used by 27 countries including Iceland, Norway and Switzerland, which not members of the EU. EUROPOL is a European police organisation which began in 1994 and helps to coordinate law enforcement in certain areas of Europe, especially anything related to drug-trafficking. Civilian Police Missions The United Nations Police (UNP) and organisations such as OCSE (the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe) play an important part in international peace-keeping missions around the world. Civilian police were deployed for the first time in the 1960s as an international peacekeeping force in Cyprus and Congo. Currently more than 7,000 officers from 80 countries are participating in missions in troubled places such as Kosovo and Afghanistan. The US participated in its first CIVPOL (Civilian Police Mission) operation in 1994 in Haiti. Since then, CIVPOL have become increasingly important in US foreign policy and currently more than 1,000 American officers are deployed on CIVPOL missions around the world. The duties of deployed civilian police are many and varied; they include patrolling, advising and assisting the local police, and providing training. Before being delegated to an international mission, candidates have to undergo specific training, which includes theoretical training on the mission organisations (UN, EU, OSCE), psychologically relevant areas (stress management, for example), human rights and gender issues, security and intercultural communication. Additionally, there is practical training that includes deployment tactics, training in ATVs (all-terrain vehicles), navigation and orientation skills. The training courses are held in English, as this will be the language of international communication when they arrive at their new placement.

9. AN OVERVIEW OF THE UK SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT The United Kingdom is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. A king or queen is the head of state, and a prime minister is the head of government. The people vote in elections for Members of Parliament (MPs) to represent them. Constitution The United Kingdom does not have a single, written constitution (a set of rules of government).This doesn't mean however that the UK has an unwritten constitution. In fact, it is mostly written but instead of being one formal document, the British constitution is formed from various sources including statute law, case law made by judges, and international treaties. There are also some unwritten sources, including parliamentary conventions and royal prerogatives. The Monarchy Politics in the United Kingdom takes place within the framework of a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) is head of state and the prime minister is the head of the UK government. Prime Minister and Cabinet The Cabinet is a formal body made up of the most senior government ministers chosen by the prime minister. Most members are heads of government departments with the title 'Secretary of State'. Formal members of the Cabinet are drawn exclusively from the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Parliamentary democracy The UK is a parliamentary democracy. This means that members of the government are also members of one of the two Houses of Parliament (the House of Commons and the House of Lords) and that government is directly accountable to Parliament not only on a day-to-day basis (through parliamentary questions and debates on policy) but also because it owes its existence to Parliament: the governing party is only in power because it holds a majority in the House of Commons, and at any time the government can be dismissed by the Commons through a vote of no confidence. Parliamentary sovereignty The UK Parliament is a sovereign parliament this means that the legislative body has absolute sovereignty, in other words it is supreme to all other government institutions, including any executive or judicial bodies. This stems from there being no single written constitution. In the UK, it is still Parliament (and not the judges) that decides what the law is. Judges interpret the law, but they do not make the law. Royal Prerogative Traditionally, the Royal Prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege and immunity, recognised as belonging to the Crown alone. Today, most prerogative powers are instead directly exercised by ministers, rather than the Crown. They relate to areas including the regulation of the Civil Service, certain areas of foreign and defence policy, and the granting of appointments and honours. These powers are beyond the control of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. This means that if, for example, the British government wanted to put British troops into action, this would not formally require the consent of Parliament even if, in practice, a debate might actually take place in Parliament before such an action was taken. Unitary government and devolution The UK has a unitary system of government, meaning a system where power is held in the centre, although some powers have been devolved to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Permanent and impartial civil service The UK has a civil service that acts impartially and does not change when the government changes. Impartiality is not the same as neutrality. Civil servants work for ministers in the government of the day. Impartiality means that, while working for current ministers, civil servants retain the confidence of the opposition parties to work for them if they come to power.

10. ATHENS IS DYING

Stinking buses, their passengers pale and tired, jam the crowded streets. Drivers shout at one another and honk their horns. Smog smarts the eyes and chokes the senses. The scene is Athens at rush hour. The city of Plato and Pericles is a sorry state of affairs, built without a plan, lacking even adequate sewerage facilities, hemmed in by mountains and the sea, its 135 square miles crammed with almost four million people. Even Athens ruins are in ruin: sulphur dioxide eats away at the marble of the Parthenon and other treasures on the Acropolis. One leading politician has said, the only feasible solution might be to demolish half the city and start all over again. So great has been the population flow toward the city that entire hinterland villages stand empty or nearly so. About 120,000 people from outlying provinces move into Athens every year, with the result that 40% of Greeces citizenry are now packed into the capital. The migrants come for the few available jobs, which are usually no better than the ones they left behind. At the current rate of migration, Athens by the year 2010 will have a population of 7 million, more than half the nation. Apart from overcrowding and poor public transport, the biggest problems confronting Athenians are noise and pollution. A government study concluded that Athens was the noisiest city in the world. Smog is at the level of 250 mg of sulphur dioxide per m3 of air, which is four times the level that the WHO considers safe. Nearly half of the existing pollution is created by private cars. Despite high prices for vehicles and fuel, nearly 150,000 automobiles are sold in Greece each year, and 4,000 driver licences are issued in Athens every month. After decades of neglect, Athens is now getting some attention. Following worldwide attention before and after the Olympic Games in 2004, all the public service ministries began discussing plans to unclog the city, make it livable and clean up its environment. A Ministry of Urban Salvation was set up which immediately set aside a sum of $5 bn and launched social projects to encourage would-be migrants to stay in the countryside. Many government offices have already been moved to the outskirts of the city, and hundreds of trees planted; the public transport system is being rebuilt from scratch, with environmentally-friendly vehicles, and all private cars arriving in the city were subject to high entrance fees. It will take a long time, however, to convince the average Athenian to leave his car at home.