Materials Science

Tensile Testing Masterclass Teacher Notes

Contents
Page 2: Tensile Testing A Simple Introduction
Ref. Physics Education: 41:1:57-62 http://www.iop.org/E /toc/!!"1-#12!/41/1

An article for teachers describing a simple investigation that has applications across the ability and secondary age ranges The investigation can be considered simply as a !ay of teaching scientific methodology" or as an introduction to tensile testing at A#level

Page 1$: Stress#Strain %iagrams &ecorded on a Tensometer

An overvie! for teachers covering the interpretation of 'engineering( stress#strain diagrams

Page 1): *lastic +imit and +imit of Proportionality A ,loser +ooA more detailed analysis of the elastic limit and !hy the limit of proportionality is located .ust beyond the linear part of the curve

Page 1/: Ac-no!ledgements Page 10: Appendices

Images and charts that illustrate the e1periments described in 2Tensile Testing A Simple Introduction3 and also from the Tensile Test Masterclass

Tensile Testing A simple Introduction

Ref. Physics Education: 41:1:57-62 http://www.iop.org/E /toc/!!"1-#12!/41/1

Preamble
If an engineer !anted to design a bridge to span a river" it !ould be absurd to consider building it out of papier#m4ch5 or rubber 6e -no! this because !e -no! something about the demands that !ill be put on the bridge and !e -no! that these materials do not satisfy the re7uirements After considering other materials" perhaps titanium or high tech aluminium alloys" !e may discount them on the grounds of cost even if they do have suitable mechanical properties to ma-e a good bridge *ventually !e may decide on steel8 but !hich one9 There are thousands to choose from 6hich has the best properties at an affordable price9 The cost effectiveness of any material is a matter not to be dealt !ith here but !e must as- 2!hich steel has the most appropriate physical properties3 In order to ans!er this 7uestion" !e must conduct tests on different steels and compare the results !hen samples of the steel are tested to destruction Since metals have e1cellent tensile properties" they tend to be used in structures !here tensile properties are important To help !ith engineering design" data on the tensile properties of metals is !idely available to enable *ngineers to select the most appropriate material for their pro.ect Much of the data is obtained from tensile tests !hich provide information on :oung;s Modulus" :ield Stress" Tensile Strength 'TS( and brea-ing strength The data are usually lin-ed to the hardness" microstructure of the material and" in the case of carbon steels" the amount of carbon 'alloying material( contained in the steel <y lin-ing the properties to the composition and microstructure of the material" !e are ta-ing the first steps to!ards understanding !hy these materials behave in the !ay they do" and ho! to modify the properties of materials to perform different tas-s

Plain Carbon Steels

0% C 0.15% C

0.45% C

0.65% C

0.8% C

10 m Typical microstructures and properties of 2normalised3 'slo! cooled( carbon steels

$igure 1: Properties of car%on stee&s as a function of percentage car%on content. In conclusion" tensile testing is important to help in the selection of the most appropriate material for many engineering pro.ects and for developing techni7ues to modify a material;s properties so that !e can customise the material to a specific purpose =

Introduction
I still recall the difficulty that I had" as a si1th former" in understanding the shape of the +oad v *1tension graphs of ductile metals illustrated in my Physics te1t boo-s The initial linear" elastic region !as no problem and the rising curve of the plastic region !as also understandable" but after the ma1imum tensile strength '>TS( a decreasing load resulting in a continued increase in the length of a specimen9 ?o !ay@ It seemed counter#intuitive@ If I had had the benefit of the follo!ing very simple investigation" I may have been able to grasp the sub.ect more firmly at an earlier stage This e1ercise helps" not so much to e'p&ain the effect" but to give a concrete e1perience of the effect In this !ay" the e1perience fits the data and the data become more acceptable *ngineering Stress '?m#2(

Increasing e1tension for a %ecreasing load9

C1

Strain '%imensionless( $ig. 2: (che)atic stress * strain diagra) for a ducti&e )eta&

Although my primary intention for this e1periment is that it should be an introduction to tensile testing for si1th formers !ith a follo!#up of a piece of e1tension !or- 'no pun intended( involving a visit to the Materials %epartment in !hich I !or- to carry out tests on carbon steels" the e1periments also ma-e an e1cellent e1ercise for AS= and AS) pupils of all abilities After all" fe! pupils of any ability !ill refuse an opportunity to play !ith plasticine and they !ill learn something as they do it If this can satisfy the re7uirements of and count to!ards course!or-" then it is !orth giving a try@

Experiment Overview
Metals combine both elastic and plastic deformation !hen tested to destruction but it is the plastic deformation that is most li-ely to cause difficulties in understanding To model the plastic component" !e turn to an ideal plastic material" i e plasticine &olled into cylinders" the plasticine can be pulled slo!ly but steadily 'constant" slo! strain rate( bet!een the fingers Arm muscles registering the variable force re7uired and the plastic flo! e1perienced directly through the fingers The plasticity of the plasticine can be modified by adding another material that does not deform plastically 'referred to as an inclusion(8 I use carborundum" simply because I have some available" but the method !or-s .ust as !ell !ith coarse sand 'builders version not the fire#buc-et -ind( ,hanges in the ductility can easily be measured and related to the amount of inclusions added to the material This is analogous to carbide precipitates in carbon steel ?eedless to say" as !ith all models" there are !ea-nesses: plasticine behaves as though it is amorphous and the metals are crystalline Plasticine behaves as a fluid and metals flo! by a slip mechanism along slip planes Bo!ever" there are so many slip planes in so many randomly oriented grains 'crystals( that the metal 'once undergoing plastic flo!( has some similarities to plastic flo! in a fluid

Preparation
Plasticine Pupils could prepare their o!n specimens" though it !ould be better if they could be prepared by a lab technician beforehand as this ta-es time and some care is needed It is best to have specimens that you +now are made up correctly if you !ant to use them !ith other groups >se a different colour of plasticine for each specimen *ach specimen should contain =D $ E $ 1 g of plasticine To minimise the ris- of anomalies" plasticine should be used from the same source8 that is" the same manufacturer and appro1imate age

Note: ,he consistency of the resu&ts o%tained wi&& i)pro*e as the p&asticine is used - possi%&y due to a )ore e*en dispersion of the .sand/ grains and possi%&y i)pro*ed wetting of the grains with oi& fro) the p&asticine and hence i)pro*ed continuity %etween sand and p&asticine phases. 0hen first prepared1 the differences %etween different sa)p&es )ay not %e e*ident1 %ut they do i)pro*e with age and use. There are several effective !ays of mi1ing either to flatten the plasticine" sprin-le some of the sand over the surface and fold it in" sprin-le onto a flat" clean surface and roll the plasticine over it The plasticine must be thoroughly rolled" folded and -neaded to ensure good mi1ing This is important@ The colours and amounts described belo! are suggestions only and you can tailor the amounts to your o!n needs and availability of material ,olour ,ode 'suggested( Mass of 2Sand3 G g E $ 1 Mass per specimen G g Sand J of total mass Freen $$ =/ $ $ &ed ) )$ 1$ <lue /) )2 ) 1D Purple H )D $ 2$ <ro!n 12 )I $ 2D

,a%&e 1: 2ass of .sand/ added to each "5g of p&asticine Cnce specimens have been made" it is inevitable that they !ill get mi1ed up by pupils Try to avoid mi1ing the colours" but providing colours are not mi1ed" it is a simple tas- to re!eigh the plasticine to recover samples for ne1t time Test Specimens Specimens should be rolled into cylinders of about the same diameter" of about 1 Dcm It is important that the diameters are as close as possible to begin !ith The properties of plasticine are temperature dependent" so !ith this in mind" either the specimens should be tested immediately after rolling" or they should all be left to reach the same temperature 6ith a little inventiveness" the investigation could be e1tended to compare results at different test temperatures by placing specimens in small plastic bags and leaving in a !aterbath to reach a steady state temperature A further e1tension !ould be to use different grades of sand" or different granular materials such as talc In another e1periment that could be used as a follo!#on investigation" a simple hardness tester can be used to test the hardness of the different specimens D

Technique <efore starting" it !ould be !ise to !eigh the total mass of each colour of plasticine This provides the easiest and 7uic-est method to monitor the return of at least most of the plasticine at the end of the lesson The specimens should be held in the fingers of both hands !ith tips of fingers and thumbs roughly in the centre Pull firmly but gently to ma-e the ends move apart at a constant rate This is essential" as different results are obtained by different strain rates greater strain rates produce less ductile results In itself" this is an important point to ma-e and pupils can try this in the practice stages <e a!are that some pupils 'particularly the younger or sillier ones( may deliberately let their hands fly apart !hen the specimen brea-s and so hit people ne1t to them It !ould therefore be useful to get pupils to stand apart during the testing Things to observe This section deals !ith the perception during the test and gives pupils an opportunity to be descriptive about !hat they e1perience in an 2Cbservations3 section Starting !ith 2Pure3 plasticine: It is helpful to close your eyes !hen doing this it helps to cut out e1traneous distractions and focuses the attention on your muscles and sense of touch More consistent results !ould be obtained if each pupil ma-es her G his o!n individual tests not least of all because some !ill pull faster than others" produce cylinders of different diameters or simply hold the specimens in a different grip ?otice that it is relatively hard at first to pull the plasticine The plasticine feels to be flo!ing" sliding under the fingertips At the same time :our muscles can rela1 a little to maintain the constant strain rate At the end Almost no force is needed" the plasticine flo!s steadily and the sample nec-s do!n to a fine point maybe 1 mm or less in diameter if done carefully

&epeating the above method for plasticine mi1ed !ith sand" it may be observed that the initial force is the same" or even slightly larger The flo! of the plasticine decreases !ith increasing sand content The nec-ed diameter of the final specimen '12 g sand( is almost the same as the original diameter of the cylinder Placing the t!o bro-en halves together" it is possible to see a permanent increase in length This permanent e1tension could also be measured and found to be related to the amount of sand added This part is probably more appropriate for top F,S* or A; level classes as there needs to be more careful preparation of the samples to produce specimens of consistent dimensions

Cbservations of the fracture surface are important The surface sho!s the characteristic 2dimpled3 structure of a ductile failure A piece of 2sand3 !ould be the stress concentrator responsible for the dimpled appearance as the plasticine flo!s around the sand This feature is mimic-ed in the ductile failure of metals !hich e1hibit a similar dimpled surface !ith inclusions associated !ith each dimple either in the surface being e1amined or its matching half /

Measurements *ach test should be carried out at least t!ice If results agree closely" an average can be calculated If they are deemed to be significantly different" pupils must decide if the conditions !ere the same for both tests and if one should be discarded A third test !ould then be carried out There !ill be inevitable scatter of results" particularly if care is not ta-en to ma-e initial diameters and other variables consistent such as temperature" !hich !ill change as the specimen is !or-ed The minimum diameter should be identified and a measurement made8 either circumference" diameter or cross sectional area depending on the abilities of the class ',ross sectional area !ould be more 2professional3( Permanent e1tension could be recorded by placing the bro-en ends together and measuring the final length of the specimen *1pressing changes in dimensions as a percentage of the original 7uantity 'or change in original 7uantity( ma-es allo!ance for random variations in the initial dimensions of different specimens by standardising the results for any diameter G length Quantity Initial "mm #inal "mm Normalised $no units% Change or& ' change iameter %1 %2 %2 G %1 '%1 %2( G %1 orK '%1 %2( G %1 1 1$$J Area A1 A2 A2 G A1 'A1 A2( G A1 orK 'A1 A2( G A1 1 1$$J !ength +1 +2 +2 G +1 '+2 +1( G +1 orK '+2 +1( G +1 1 1$$J

$igure 2: 3ata to %e co&&ected and how to treat the resu&ts

Treatment o( )esults Fraphs of 2,ross Sectional Area3 etc versus 2Percent of Sand3 should be plotted Pupils should use their graphs to predict values for a specimen made of" say" / Dg of sand" before preparing a sample and testing it Alternatively they could be given a specimen of un-no!n plasticine G sand composition" and they must determine the sand composition by testing and comparing to their o!n results Fiven the considerable variations in the initial siLe of the starting cylinders" strain rate" possibly temperature and a range of other variables" pupils !ill be able to accept the variations that they get in their measurements It is recommended that the normalised results are used !herever pupils can treat results this !ay The fact that a pattern does emerge is an opportunity to discuss error !ithin data#points and to introduce the concept of error bars for the brighter pupils

Cut*+ut Calliper

$ig. ": 4ard%oard ca&&ipers. 4opy onto card1 cut out and 5oin using a paper c&ip to pro*ide a hinge. Pupi&s 6especia&&y younger ones7 can then )easure dia)eters )ore consistent&y without scoring the p&asticine too deep&y.

,lossary o( Terms
Term
<rittle

-.planation
,rac-s easily A crac- is started 'initiated( and rips through the material !ith little energy used Cpposite M Tough The property that allo!s a material to undergo a large permanent shape change due to the application of a tensile force Plasticine is a definitive material to illustrate this property The e7uivalent property for compressive forces is malleable. The property that allo!s a material to regain its original shape once a deforming force is removed A metal spring is an e1cellent material to illustrate this property Cpposite M Plastic A rubbery" polymeric material that e1hibits appro1imate elastic properties If stress is given by +oad G ,ross Sectional Area" as nec-ing occurs and area decreases then localised stress also increases Bo!ever" this is difficult to measure in#situ and does not provide additional useful material 'since the useful limits of the material as a structural material have been far e1ceeded( To simplify matters" the 2*ngineering Stress3 is defined as +oad G original cross sectional area Also see Stress and True Stress A material property that describes the resistance of a material to being deformed Cpposite M Soft The Norce in ?e!tons applied to the specimen The localised deformation and characteristic thinning of a specimen during ductile flo! The ability of a material to undergo permanent shape change Cpposite M *lastic The resistance of a material to elastic deformation The ratio of e1tension to original length: usually e1pressed as a percentage The 7uantity is dimensionless so has no units Bo! fast the strain increases This should be a constant for tensile tests Since strain is dimensionless" the strain rate has the curious unit of s#1 Pupils !ould find this curious and it could open a route to discussing units !ith a lin- to speed for revision purposes The Norce per unit area same as a reduction in pressure 'negative pressure( and has the effect of standardising the load to be comparable to specimens of any cross sectional area: again" this is a useful discussion point to discuss units !ith a lin- to pressure for revision purposes ,ompression !ould be the e7uivalent of an increase in positive pressure A material that resists crac-ing by absorbing a large amount of energy before it brea-s %uctile materials are tough Cpposite M <rittle If the stress at the site of nec-ing is determined from in#situ measurements of cross sectional area" then the True Stress at that point !ould be -no!n As load decreases" the area decreases even faster" so that the True Stress continues to rise up to failure Also see Stress and *ngineering Stress Tensile Strength 'or Stress( This corresponds to the ma1imum 'if there is one( of the test material The point" .ust above the linear region of the stress v strain curve" at !hich plastic deformation results in permanent change in shape of the material

%uctile

*lastic *lastomer

*ngineering Stress

Bard +oad ?ec-ing Plastic Stiffness *ngineering Strain Strain &ate

Stress

Tough

True Stress

>TS :ield Point G :ield Stress G *lastic +imit

,a%&e ": 8&ossary of co))on ter)s

Blan Page

1$

Stress#Strain %iagrams &ecorded on a Tensometer

The shape of the curves can be misleading due to a combination of the design of the Tensometer" !hich is designed to provide a constant strain rate" and the behaviour of the ductile specimen being tested The follo!ing refers to specimen charts illustrated in the *1cel file" Tensile Tests 1ls" on the C1MAT ,% &CM '&eprinted for reference in the Appendi1( An overvie! of the properties of a ductile metal can be e1plained belo! This is most closely represented by ,opper in the data provided in the spreadsheet" but all ductile metals sho! some of these characteristics %ifference corresponding to carbon steel are considered later In the case of the three metals sho!n in the chart" all follo! the follo!ing general patterns:# In the diagram 'right( C M Initial origin CC1 M Permanent elongation A M *lastic limit CA M +inear region < M Feneral point beyond A <C M &ela1ation if stress removed '?ote: C1< is parallel to CA( , M Ma1imum Strength A, M &egion of plastic %eformation O M Nailure ,A M Plastic Nlo! '?ote: This is the region !here 2nec-ing3 or localised thinning of the specimen ta-es place ( *ngineering Stress '?m#2( , < A O

C1

Strain '?o dimensions(

The overall shape 'not values( of the curve !ould be the same for a plot of Norce v length Bo!ever" plotting '*ngineering( Stress v Strain standardises the curve to an initial cross sectional area of 1m2 by dividing by the initial cross sectional area Problems: The plot assumes that the initial cross sectional area and length are constant throughout This is not the case The volume of material remains constant" therefore as the length increases" the cross sectional area decreases This effect is minute and is generally ignored over the elastic region Cnce nec-ing ta-es place" ho!ever" reduction in the cross sectional area at that point becomes mar-ed This is not normally allo!ed for in these plots and can give rise to misleading observations Since the Stress is determined by +oadGArea" as localised area decreases" the stress !ill" in fact increase at this point As the Tensometer cannot measure the decrease in cross sectional area" it is not actually measuring the 2True stress3" but the stress assuming a constant cross!sectional area" referred to as the 2*ngineering stress3 *ngineering stress is generally used for simplicity" since once this starts to happen" any safe loading has been e1ceeded by far" and fe! structures are designed to fail in such a precise !ay *1ceptions may include safety bolts that are designed to fail under dangerous loading conditions

11

!ine +A: The line is linear and the material follo!s Boo-e;s +a! &elieving stress returns the specimen to its original" unstretched length /eyond A: the stress is such that dislocations 'later( in the crystal start to move This changes the spatial arrangement of some of the atoms relative to each other" hence a permanent change in length is observed and the line is no longer linear &ela1ing the specimen of all stress at this point allo!s the Stress v Strain line to follo! a path parallel to the line CA" as the slope is a property of the material ':oung;s Modulus M StressGStrain(" but returns to point C1 !here CC1 indicates the permanent e1tension resulting from the movement of dislocations Carbon Steels The above applies to carbon steels also" but the alloying element carbon affects the behaviour of the dislocations ,arbon atoms are small compared to iron and tend to fit bet!een iron atoms in the crystal lattice 'interstitial alloy(" as opposed to occupying the site of an iron atom in the crystal as happens !ith metal#metal alloys 'substitutional alloys( The position of carbon atoms increases the local stress 'same dimensions as pressure( in the crystal If the atoms could be positioned in a region !here the crystal lattice is imperfect" and greater gaps bet!een iron atoms are found" then the stress !ill be reduced Placing the interstitial atoms in these spaces 'see dislocations" later( forms a lo!er energy situation than having the carbon distributed !ithin a perfect crystal lattice Such imperfections occur at grain boundaries '!here crystals of different orientation meet( and at dislocations ?atural systems ad.ust from high to lo! energy systems" therefore" to minimise the energy of the system" carbon atoms diffuse to these sites that is" grain boundaries and dislocations ,arbon atoms occupy the larger than usual gap at a dislocation This prevents the dislocation from moving and is said to 2pin3 the dislocation If the dislocations in iron are pinned" then they cannot move" preventing plastic deformation at stress values that !ould other!ise result in plastic deformation This e1tends the useful range of the iron by e1tending the elastic region of the stress v strain curve There is a limit" ho!ever" and once it is reached" the dislocation is forced past the carbon atom that has been pinning it This results in a slight rela1ation and an initial pea- at the end of the elastic region More dislocations are pinned" preventing further deformation" hence the line rises again This stress and rela1ation pattern repeats a number of times giving the series of pea-s observed in the graph Stress

, Steel Pure Iron

?CT TC S,A+* Strain

12

islocations Koccur !hen an other!ise perfect region of a crystal has an 2e1tra3 plane of atoms inserted The e1tra plane displaces ad.acent planes" increasing local stress <onds bet!een metal atoms are strained and therefore of higher energy than those !ithin the bul- of the perfect crystal and can" therefore" brea- more easily ?ote: in diagrams a and b " the three shaded atoms represent a plane of atoms perpendicular to the plane of the paper The 2e1tra space3 forms a lo! energy 2tunnel3 into !hich carbon atoms can diffuse >nder the influence of a stress 'tensile or compressive(" metallic bonds bet!een the metal atoms become strained and brea-" reforming !ith atoms of the ad.acent 2e1tra3 plane 'figure c ( *ffectively" the dislocation moves" disturbing the arrangement of atoms and giving rise to a permanent change of shape 'ringed in figure d ( ,onsider crystal planes" vie!ed edge#on" so they appear as straight linesK

a A perfect crystal

b A dislocation

1 1 1 1 2 2 2

= = * * = =

) ) ) )

c >nder stress" bonds 2flip3

Insertion of a lo! concentration of 1 2 = ) interstitial atoms" such as carbon" into the dislocation ma-es 2bond flipping3 more 1 2 = ) difficult simply because the carbon 2gets in the !ay3 Freater energy is needed to ma-e the dislocation move past the carbon 1 2 * = ) atoms Cnce the dislocation has moved" the material continues to deform until held 1 2 * = ) bac- by more pinned dislocations" resulting in greater resistance to plastic d The dislocation 2moves3 changing the deformation: this is indicated by further spatial arrangement of the atoms around it: rising of the curve The process repeats that is a slight" permanent change of shape several times resulting in a series of pea-s occurs before all dislocations have become unpinned At higher concentrations" more dislocations are pinned simultaneously" so the material resists slip until a greater energy: a higher proportion of dislocations fail simultaneously" so progressively fe!er pea-s and troughs '+uders bands( are seen Please note. This is a simplified e1planation of the influence of carbon" or other interstitial alloy elements on the behaviour of dislocations in steel The !hole process is also affected by heat treatments '!hich can produce a variety of different microstructures and crystal allotropes !ithin the steel(" other alloy materials and actual strain rates of the test Bo!ever" it should be more than detailed enough for any A#+evel treatment of the sub.ect 1=

-ngineering and True Stress " Strain In tensile testing" the load cell in the tensometer detects load only The tensometer is designed to test specimens of fi1ed dimensions and hence of fi1ed and constant cross sectional area and original length >sing these pre#defined values" output is read in terms of stress and strain
$ " !here N and a are the applied load '?( and cross sectional area 'm2( a e Strain is defined as = " !here e and l are the linear e1tension 'm( and original length 'm( &

Stress is defined as =

As the test proceeds and the elastic limit is e1ceeded" the specimen nec-s and permanent e1tension ta-es place" hence both the cross sectional area and 2original3 length of the specimen change The tensometer cannot ta-e these changing values into account and continues to assume the initial values" resulting in error values of the absolute stress and strain In the absence of any cost effective !ay of correcting this defect in the e1perimental design" the output is accepted" but is 7ualified by referring to 2*ngineering3 stress and strain If the true stress and true strain could be plotted" the lines of the charts !ould continue to rise" as the stress in the region of nec-ing continues to rise as a result of decreasing cross sectional area P&ease 9ote: The value of :oung;s modulus ,A??CT be derived from the linear slope at the start of the stress#strain diagram as obtained from a tensometer This is due to the fact that the load cell" to !hich the specimen is attached to measure the load acting on it" moves slightly The movement of the load cell gives a larger than reality value to e1tension and hence to strain Nurthermore" although the tensometer is designed to be rigid" there can be some fle1ing of the frame !hich" in turn" can result in an error in measurement +oad measurements should be accurate and diagrams are self#consistent As the purpose of the instrument is to measure loads ' hence engineering stress( and to e1amine the shape of the diagram" then the fact that :oung;s modulus cannot be measured is not important The non#linear shape at the start of the diagram is also due to e1tension in the load cell !hich !or-s on a lever principle

1)

*lastic +imit and +imit of Proportionality A ,loser +ooIn the detail of a stress strain diagramK *+ +P Stress M M *lastic +imit +imit of Proportionality Strain

Stress
+P

*+

Nrom origin to +P" the metal obeys Boo-e;s +a! That is:#

Nurthermore" e1tension is not permanent" and removing the load !ill return the metal to its original siLe and shape <eyond the point +P" but ?CT coincident !ith it" is a point at !hich plastic flo! starts to occur" *+ <eyond *+" there are t!o components to the e1tension" such that if the load is removed and elastic component !ill result in the material trying to regain its original siLe and shape" but also there !ill be a plastic deformation" resulting in a permanent increase in length The region <*T6**? +P and *+ is also purely elastic" !ith full recovery on the unloading of the metal" but is ?CT linear To e1plain this feature" !e need to consider the Potential *nergy bet!een metal atoms as the separation of the atoms changes As the atoms approach" the P* changes:# 1 %ecreases '#( due to electronic G bonding effects 'inverse s7uare la!( a b c 2 a b c = Cver relatively large distances" the attractive force dominates Approaching from infinity 'moving right to left in figure 2a on the ne1t page(" the P* increases to a large negative value '# for attraction( as the e1tent of electronic G orbital overlap increases The P* increases as the s7uare of the distance Cver very short distances" the repulsive force dominates As the nuclei approach 'moving right to left(" electrostatic repulsion increases the P* 'P for repulsion( bet!een the atoms The P* varies as the cube of the distance Path ta-en on unloading <*NC&* *+

Path ta-en on unloading ANT*& *+

Strain

Increases 'P( due to repulsive forces bet!een nuclei 'inverse cubic(

There is an e7uilibrium position !here the forces balance and the P* is at a minimum value referred to as the Potential *nergy !ell illustrated in Nig 2b on the ne1t page This corresponds to the bond length" or lattice parameter in the case of a cubic metal crystal The P* !ell is not symmetrical To the left" repulsive forces 'varied as 1Gdistance cubed( dominate and to the right" attractive forces 'varied as 1Gdistance s7uared( dominate ,ompressing the material is" therefore harder than e1tending the material In e1tending the material" the atomic distance is increased Cver a short period of time" this appro1imates to a linear relationship +arger distances reduce the attraction bet!een neighbouring atoms ma-ing it easier for bonds to brea- and reform" e g at a dislocation" !here a strained bond brea-s but reforms !ith a closer neighbour Bence !e get plastic deformation <et!een the linear" elastic region and the onset of plastic deformation is a region in !hich a b c The relationship bet!een force and distance is ?CT linear" butK The attractive forces do not allo! for bonds to brea-" henceK A non#linear" elastic region is recognised

) D / 0

1D

P- bet1een atoms P* due to Attractive forces P* due to &epulsive forces P* due to ,ombined forces i e the above t!o lines added together Inter*atomic distance

&apid rise in repulsive P* hence compression is very difficult

<eyond recovery" some bonds brea- and ne! ones form bet!een neighbouring atoms 63is&ocations )o*e7

*lastic" but non#linear

&elatively linear over a short region 6:p to ;P on - p&ot7 *7uilibrium condition The <ond +ength 4b5 !in2ing the energy 1ell to the Stress*Strain plot

4a5 Potential -nergy 1ell (or ad6acent atoms in a metal crystal7

N+T dra1n to scale

uring Plastic e(ormation an e.tension and 01or2ed3 e.ample %islocations provide the energy for strained bonds to brea-" but these bonds reform in a less strained position Cther bonds become strained etc as the dislocation moves through the metal It should be noted at this point that 1or2 is being done" since effectively" planes of atoms are moving through the crystal under the influence of an applied force %oing !or- generates heat" hence the metal !arms up This is illustrated clearly byK 1 2 = ) Straighten out a trombone paper clip Place against the lips to notice the temperature 'This may not be necessary( Ta-e the clip a!ay from your lips and bend bac- and forth rapidly until the clip brea-s Place against the lips and notice the very large rise in temperature This may be noticeable through the fingers" but the lips are more temperature sensitive The generation and movement of many dislocations The dislocations are limited to sliding along specific crystal planes <ottlenec-s of dislocations .am up the crystal planes used by the dislocations In turn this restricts G prevents dislocations from moving and hence limits plastic flo! G ductile behaviour The material is hardened" as steel is !ith carbon" by the pinning of dislocations but via a different mechanism This mechanism is referred to as 26or- hardening3

Nurthermore" the clip bends easily at first" but it soon gets harder to bend This is due to 1 2 = ) D

1/

Ac2no1ledgements Than-s to %r &ichard Todd !ho chec-ed the script for accuracy and also made some useful suggestions Than-s also to %avid Button and Qanessa ,heel for their suggestions and corrections in proof reading There is a saying that there is 2nothing ne! under the sun3 The plasticine G sand e1periment is not a ne! idea in itself" but hopefully is presented in a novel !ay !ith ideas for using it more !idely !ithin the school curriculum I !ould li-e to than- the person" !hose name I do not -no!" for the original idea

Nigure 1: Properties o" Engineering #aterials & A Biggins 2nd *dition IS<? $ =)$ /$$== $ <utter!orths

10

Appendi. Images o" plasticine $ sand experiments.

Plasticine test specimens sho!ing amount of sand and the e1tent of nec-ing

A close up of each of the test specimens sho!ing the fracture surfaces

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<ariation of (tress-(train charts with increasing car%on content

Stress-Strain Plots for Different Carbon Contents

1.00E+03 Mil ions Stress / Pa 4.00E+02 3.00E+02 2.00E+02 1.00E+02 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 5.00E-02 1.00E-01 1.50E-01 2.00E-01 2.50E-01 3.00E-01 3.50E-01 4.00E-01 4.50E-01 5.00E-01 Strain
0.02% C 0.18% C 0.41% C 0.54% C 0.8%C 3%C

9.00E+02 8.00E+02 7.00E+02 6.00E+02 5.00E+02

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%teel %amples &ompared Medium ,arbon Steel

A medium carbon steel 'top( compared to a high carbon steel 'belo!( ?ote the relatively large e1tent of nec-ing and permanent increase in length of the medium carbon specimen compared to that of the high carbon specimen <oth steels are compared !ith an untested original specimen to allo! for relative measurements to be made

Bigh ,arbon Steel

+o! ,arbon Steel Nracture Surface ?ote the dimpled interior structure indicating ductile failure and a surrounding smoother 2shell3 !hich denotes a brittle failure across crystal planes Most metals !ill e1hibit this mi1ed failure pattern in varying degrees

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2icrostructures of stee& sa)p&es - =ppro'. !.!2> 4ar%on showing the ferrite structure of *ery &ow car%on stee&.

1$$R

D$R

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2icrostructures of stee& sa)p&es - =ppro'. !.2!> 4ar%on showing the white areas of ferrite and dar+er areas of pear&ite.

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2$R

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2icrostructures of stee& sa)p&es - =ppro'. !.4!> 4ar%on. ,he greater car%on content resu&ts in greater a)ounts of pear&ite for)ing.

2$R

2$R

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2icrostructures of stee& sa)p&es - =ppro'. !.54> 4ar%on. ;a)e&&ar structures due to pear&ite for)ation are )ore e*ident. Re)aining ferrite indicates the out&ine of origina& austenite grains.

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2$R

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2icrostructures of stee& sa)p&es - =ppro'. !.?!> 4ar%on. (pacing %etween pear&ite ;a)e&&ae are due to the surface orientation of the grain resu&ting in spacings %eing .spread out/.

2$R

2$R

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8&ossary of 2eta&&urgica& ter)s used There are different structures that occur depending on the amount of carbon present and the heat treatment that the steel has been sub.ected to The different structures are readily identified by observing the microstructure The terms used to e1plain these images are e1plained briefly" belo! The e1planations relate to the te1t of this resource and should not be considered to be e1haustive 'ustenite: Famma 'S( iron 'not magnetic( Austenite is a face#centred#cubic 'fcc( lattice of iron !hich is the thermodynamically stable form of steel at high temperatures ,arbon can dissolve in austenite interstitially Cn cooling" transformations to other phases ta-e place" the e1act structure 'and hence properties( being dependent on cooling rate &ementite: Iron carbide 'Ne=,( Crthorhombic crystalline structure !hich forms in lo! carbon steel as lamellae in pearlite As carbon content increases" the amount of ferrite decreases and the amount of pearlite increases At T$ I$ to T$ IDJ, all of the microstructure is pearlite but once the carbon content e1ceeds T$ IDJ, cementite forms as a distinct phase !ith no ferrite present 'other than that !ithin the pearlite( Nerrite and cementite loo- very similar in micrographs and e1perience is needed to identify them in a steel of un-no!n carbon content (errite: Alpha 'U( iron 'magnetic( Nor most practical purposes" ferrite can be considered as Vpure; iron" being soft" ductile and of relatively lo! strength Nerrite typically contains a ma1imum of $ $=J carbon The iron forms a body#centred cubic lattice !ith carbon atoms dispersed interstitially The magnetic properties of iron are due essentially to ferrite Normalise: This is a preliminary heat treatment in order to allo! all carbon to dissolve interstitially and relieve internal stresses from !or-ing etc The temperature is raised to I/$W, for one hour before allo!ing the steel to cool in still air Pearlite) This is found in all slo!ly cooled structures of carbon steels and consists of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite As the carbon content of the steel increases" the amount of pearlite increases !ith a conse7uent reduction of ferrite content At appropriate magnification the pearlite structure has a fingerprint#li-e appearance 6hen etched" a striped appearance is given to the microstructure The separation of lamellae depends on the angle !ith !hich the crystal stri-es the surface At small angles" the lamellae can behave as a diffraction grating and produce a 2mother of pearl3 impression in !hite light # hence the term pearlite !amellae vie1ed (rom above

Sur(ace o( the steel

!amellae approaching the sur(ace at di((erent angles *or : In the conte1t of applying a force !hich brings about a mechanical change" 6or- is done to move dislocations" induce internal stress" cause fractures etc

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(u))ary of the )icrostructures 'C !o1 Mag 8igh Mag

$ $2

Qery lo! ,arbon +ittle or no pearlite

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Cnce the iron is 2saturated3" pearlite starts to appear

$ )$

Increasing carbon content results in increasing pearlite formation

$ D)

Pearlite is easily resolved in the optical microscope

$ I$

More pearlite forms !ith increasing , content Pearlite is clearly visible as 2Lebra3 stripes !ithin a grain

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(or "urther in"ormation about class experiments+ school visits and courses ,pupils and teachers-+ please contact) Martin ,arr 'Schools +iaison Cfficer( %epartment of Materials >niversity of C1ford Par-s &oad C1ford CO1 =PB T $1I/D 20= 01$ N $1I/D 20= 0IH * Martin ,arrXmaterials o1 ac u6 http:GG!!! materials o1 ac u-GundergraduateGschools html

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