ABSOLUTE GEOMETRY

A. History Farkas Bolyai's mother was Krisztina Pvai Vajna and she inherited a small farm at Domld which was near Marosvsrhely in Transylvania. Today Marosvsrhely is called Tirgu Mures or T!rgu Mures" and is the ca#ital of Mures judet county" situated in north$central %omania. &ar'as (olyai's father )s#r (olyai was *+ years old when &ar'as was ,orn. -e came from a family with a long history of fighting against the Tur'ish invaders and his ancestors had ,een wealthy. ,ut although )s#r still owned a small estate at (olya near /agysze,en. the family were ,y this time no longer wealthy. Today /agysze,en is called 0i,iu and is the ca#ital of 0i,iu judet county" situated in central %omania. 1hen &ar'as was ,orn /agysze,en was the military centre of Transylvania and the ca#ital of the region. &ar'as was taught at home ,y his father until he reached the age of si2 years when he was sent to the 3alvinist school in /agysze,en. -is teachers immediately recognised his talents ,oth in arithmetical calculation and in learning languages. 1hen he was twelve years old he left school and was a##ointed as a tutor to the eight year old 0imon Kem4ny who was the son of (aron Kem4ny. This meant that (olyai was now treated as a mem,er of one of the leading families in the country. and he ,ecame not only a tutor to 0imon ,ut a close friend. 5n 6789 (olyai and his #u#il ,oth entered the 3alvinist 3ollege in Kolozsvr where they s#ent five years. The time s#ent in Kolozsvr was im#ortant for (olyai's develo#ment. The :nlightenment had s#read across :uro#e and ,y this time was influencing Transylvania. This meant that (olyai was #resented with its fundamental idea that reason was the route to understanding the universe and to im#roving the #osition of

man. Knowledge. freedom. and ha##iness should ,e the aims of a rational human ,eing. ;n the other hand nationalist feelings were on the increase in -ungary. The country had ,een freed from ;ttoman rule in 6<88 and after an attem#t at gaining inde#endence. -ungary had ,een controlled ,y the -a,s,urgs. There was an increasing resentment against the -a,s,urgs. #articularly from the wor'ers. and (olyai too felt su##ort for -ungarian culture. language. and nationality. There were also conflicting religious #ressures as ,ranches of the 3hristian 3hurch argued against each other and against the ideas of the :nlightenment. The #rofessor of #hiloso#hy at the 3ollege in Kolozsvr was an im#ressive #erson. and he tried to turn (olyai against mathematics and towards religious #hiloso#hy. (olyai on the other hand had wide ranging interests. science. mathematics. and literature all interested him and in 678= after leaving the 3ollege he s#ent a few wee's considering a career as an actor. -owever. he decided to go a,road with 0imon Kem4ny on an educational tri# funded ,y (aron Kem4ny and. after a delay caused ,y an une2#ected illness. they set off in the s#ring of 678<. &irst they reached >ena where (olyai for the first time ,egan to study mathematics systematically. -e would go for long wal's on his own and thin' a,out mathematics as he wal'ed. ?fter si2 months in >ena (olyai and Kem4ny went to )@ttingen. There he was taught ,y KAstner and ,ecame a life long friend of )auss. a fellow student at )@ttingen. This was the time when one could say that (olyai really ,ecame a mathematician. -e ,egan to thin' a,out :uclid's geometrical a2ioms and in #articular the inde#endence of the &ifth Postulate. -e discussed these issues with )auss and his later writing show how im#ortant he considered their friendshi# to ,e for his mathematical develo#ment. (y the autumn of 678B (olyai and Kem4ny had com#leted their studies ,ut ,ac' in -ungary (aron Kem4ny had hit hard times financially and although he su##lied enough money for his son to return. (olyai was left #enniless in )@ttingen. -e s#ent a year there relying on charity and ,orrowed money for food to survive. 5t was a year of great hardshi#. yet one where he continued to develo# mathematically surrounded ,y other talented mathematicians. ?fter a year a friend sent him enough

money from -ungary to #ay the de,ts he had incurred and he set off on foot to return in >uly 6788. (ac' on the family estate at (olya he undertoo' research in mathematics. -e went to Kolozsvr where he ,ecame a tutor. There he met Csuzsanna (en'@ and they married in 6B96. 5n Csuzsanna's #arents home on 6= Decem,er 6B9D their son >nos (olyai was ,orn. 1hen &ar'as (olyai was offered a jo, at the 3alvinist 3ollege in Marosvsrhely he was rather reluctant to acce#t ,ut his father. wanting his son to have a secure jo,. #ressed him to acce#t. (olyai taught mathematics. #hysics and chemistry at Marosvsrhely for the rest of his life. Eife was not easy for (olyai in Marosvsrhely. -e was #aid very little for his teaching at the 3ollege and had to ta'e on e2tra wor' to ,ring in e2tra money. -e wrote and #u,lished dramas. he ran the 3ollege #u,. and he designed tiles and cast iron stoves which were #roduced commercially. Eife was not easy at home too. for (olyai's wife was a difficult #erson to live with and ,ecame increasingly difficult over the years as her health steadily deteriorated. (olyai taught his son >nos mathematics. for this was the su,ject which he ho#ed that he would follow. F# until >nos was nine years old students from the 3ollege taught >nos other su,jects. and only at this age did he attend school. Mathematics. the su,ject which &ar'as (olyai loved. was relegated to something to do for rela2ation. 3ertainly he gained little satisfaction from his mathematics teaching at the 3ollege for the level of his students was low. >nos left home in ?ugust 6B6B to study at the ?cademy of :ngineering at Vienna. Three years later. on 6B 0e#tem,er 6BD6 (olyai's wife died. -e remarried in 6BD* to Ter4z /agy. Through all these difficult years (olyai was wor'ing on the Tentamen. his mathematical master#iece #u,lished in 6B+D. The only mathematical #leasures in his difficult life were the letters he e2changed with )auss and. in later years. the mathematical achievements of his son. ?ll his life (olyai was interested in the foundations of geometry and the #arallel a2iom. -is main wor'. the Tentamen. was an attem#t at a rigorous and systematic foundation of geometry. arithmetic. alge,ra and analysis.

The Tentamen is ,uilt on (olyai's ,elief that mathematics consists of arithmetic and geometry with arithmetic as the mathematics of time and geometry as the mathematics of s#ace. -e tries to set ,oth disci#lines on an a2iomatic ,asis and one his strong ,eliefs is that the a2ioms should ,e inde#endentG$ ... no thing should ,e included among the a2ioms which follows from the others. ?lso the a2ioms should. argues (olyai. ,e o,viously trueG$ ?n a2iom is a judgment that common sense acce#ts without further arguments. as a matter of course ... The #ro,lem which had #er#le2ed (olyai most in his study of mathematics had ,een the inde#endence of :uclid's &ifth #ostulate. 5n 6B9* he ,elieved that he had a #roof that it could ,e deduced from the other a2ims. ,ut he sent his #roof to )auss who discovered the error. :ventually he gave u# his attem#ts to #rove its inde#endence and tried instead to find an eHuivalent version which was more easily acce#ted ,y common sense. The Tentamen contains eight a2ioms eHuivalent to :uclid's &ifth Postulate such asG$

/o s#here may differ from any other s#here in any #ro#erty e2ce#t its size and location. Three points which o not lie on the sa!e strai"ht line !#st lie on a circle. There are other ideas in the Tentamen which show the Huality of (olyai as a mathematician. &or e2am#le he gave iterative #rocedures to solve eHuations which he then #roved convergent ,y showing them to ,e monotonically increasing and ,ounded a,ove. -is study of the convergence of series includes a test eHuivalent to

%aa,e's test which he discovered inde#endently and at a,out the same time as %aa,e. ;ther im#ortant ideas in the wor' include a general definition of a function and a definition of an eHuality ,etween two #lane figures if they can ,oth ,e divided into a finite eHual num,er of #airwise congruent #ieces.

$%nos Bolyai was a Magyar. who was ,orn in Decem,er 6=th. 6B9D in Transylvania. at that time a #art of -ungary in the ?ustrian :m#ire and now #art of %omania". -is father. &ar'as (olyai. was a #rofessor of mathematics. #hysics. and chemistry in the college at Marcos$Vasashely. 1hile >anos was 6+ years old. he had mastered calculus and was an accom#lished violinist. &urther on. he studied at the %oyal :ngineering 3ollege in Vienna from 6B6B to 6BDD. -e. then. joined the army engineering cor#s in which s#ent 66 years. -e gained a re#utation as the ,est swordsman and dancer in the ?ustrian 5m#erial ?rmy. -e was an accom#lished linguist s#ea'ing nine foreign languages including 3hinese and Ti,etan. ?s had his father ,efore him. >nos (olyai ,ecame interested in the Parallel Postulate #ro,lem. Des#ite. his fatherIs a##ealG J&or )odIs sa'e. #lease give it u#. &ear it no less than the sensual #assion. ,ecause it. too. may ta'e u# all your time and de#rive you of your health. #eace of mind and ha##iness in life.K >nos #ersevered. Then. he died in >anuary D7th. 6B<9. The :uclidean system of geometry rests on a num,er of inde#endent a2ioms and #ostulates. ?mong these is one on #arallel lines. which is usually stated in the formG JL if a straight line meets two straight lines. so as to ma'e the sum of the two interior angles on the same side of it ta'en together less than two right angles. then these straight lines ,eing continually #roduced will at length meet u#on the side on which the angles are less than two right angles.K &or those who view a2ioms and #ostulates as self$evident truths. this so$called fifth or Parallel Postulate doesnIt seem to meet the criterion. &rom earliest times it was ,elieved that :uclid had somehow

,een mista'en. 0urely this was a theorem. not a #ostulate. and as such it should ,e #ossi,le to #rove it ,y an argument ,ased on the other #ostulates and a2ioms. &or some two thousand years. very com#etent mathematicians tried to #rove the Parallel Postulate. :ach attem#t introduced assum#tions that turned out to ,e eHuivalent to the #ostulate. Then. in the 68th century. three mathematicians from three different countries came to the conclusion that :uclid had not ,een mista'en in #ostulating the statement. (etween 6BD9 and 6BD+. >nos (olyai #re#ared a tract. in which he in essence created a non$:uclidean geometry. The D*$#age article was #u,lished as an a##endi2 to his fatherIs two$volume wor' Tentamen on elementary mathematics. >nos (olyai chose to regard the Parallel Postulate in the eHuivalent form referred to as JPlayfairIs ?2iom.K which statesG JThrough a given #oint one and only one line can ,e drawn through the #oint #arallel to a given line.K The denial of this #ostulate then im#lies either that no #arallel to the line can ,e drawn through the #oint or that more than one such #arallel can ,e drawn. (olyai assumed the second version and went a,out develo#ing the #ro#ositions that could ,e derived from this denial of the Parallel Postulate and the other #ostulates and a2ioms of :uclid. -e was im#ressed with the num,er of #ro#ositions. which were common to all geometries regardless of what assum#tions were made a,out #arallels. -e regarded such #ro#ositions as the ,asis of an absolute geometry. During the inventing activities. young (olyai had two major disa##ointments. 1hen his father wrote a letter to his close friend. 3arl &riedrich )auss. a,out (olyaiIs invention. )auss re#lied that he refused to guide (olyai and he em#hasized that he has already discovered the same invention a,out +9 or += years ago. ,ut it has not #u,lished yet. Then in 6B*B. >nos learned that the %ussian mathematician /i'olai Eo,achevs'y had also discovered the new geometry and had #u,lished his results in an o,scure journal in 6BD8. Today. the three share credit for the invention of non$:uclidean geometry. The invention of non$:uclidean geometries and the discovery that they are as consistent as is :uclidean geometry has affected the ,asic notion of truth in

mathematics. 1hat was once considered a source of a,solute truth has ,een recognized as a creation of mathematicians in much the same way that its writer creates a story. /either :uclidean geometry nor any other geometry com#letely descri,es the world in which we live. ,ut each in a certain way a##ro2imates it. 1hile there is only one :uclidean geometry there are other non$:uclidean geometries ,esides the one develo#ed ,y (olyai and Eo,achevs'y. (ernhard %iemann invented a whole class of non$:uclidean geometries. which were used ,y ?l,ert :instein in develo#ing his general theory of relativity. B. A&sol#te Geo!etry ?,solute geometry is a geometry ,ased on an a2iom system for :uclidean geometry that does not assume the #arallel #ostulate or any of its alternatives. :uclid gave five #ostulates of which his :lements constituted only the first several hundred stories. The first four #ostulates are rather terse and elegantG 6" ?ny two #oints can ,e joined ,y a straight line. D" ?ny finite straight line can ,e e2tended in a straight line. +" ? circle can ,e drawn with any center and any radius. *" ?ll right angles are congruent. The fifth. however. did not share their graceG =" 5f two straight lines in a #lane are crossed ,y another straight line called the transversal". and the interior angles ,etween the two lines and the transversal lying on one side of the transversal add u# to less than two right angles . then on that side of the transversal. the two lines e2tended will intersect also called the #arallel #ostulate" Though he never e2#licitly said so. :uclid considered this #ostulate to ,e somehow inferior to the others. since he managed to avoid using it in the #roofs of the first twenty$eight #ro#ositions. Thus. the first twenty$eight #ro#ositions ,elong to what might ,e called Mfour$#ostulate geometryMN that #art of geometry which can ,e derived on the ,asis of the first four #ostulates of the :lements. without the hel# of the fifth #ostulate.

5t is sometimes referred to as neutral geometry. /eutral geometry is the geometry that is ,ased on the five undefined terms #oint. line. distance. half$#lane. and angle measure together with the following a2iomsG 6. The :2istence Postulate D. The 5ncidence Postulate +. The %uler Postulate *. The Plane 0e#aration Postulate =. The Protractor Postulate <. The 0ide$?ngle$0ide Postulate /eutral geometry is OOneutralII in the sense that it does not ta'e a stand on the #arallel #ostulate. 5t is the geometry we can do without any #ostulate regarding #arallelism. The a2ioms just named s#ell out all the assum#tions we will use to re#lace :uclidIs first four #ostulates together with all the unstated assum#tions that :uclid too' for granted in his #roofs. (y studying neutral geometry as a se#arate su,ject. we are a,le to clarify the role of the #arallel #ostulate in geometry. 5n study of neutral geometry consists of #roving as many of the theorems of #lane geometry as we can without assuming any a2iom regarding #arallelism. The E'istence (ost#late. The collection of all #oints forms a nonem#ty set. There is more than one #oint in that set. The )nci ence (ost#late. :very line is a set of #oints. &or every #air of distinct #oints ? and ( there is e2actly one line l such that ? l and ( l. The R#ler (ost#late.

&or every #air of #oints P and P there e2ists a real num,er PP. called the distance from P to P. &or each line l there is a one$to$one corres#ondence from l to such

that if P and P are #oints on the line that corres#ond to the real num,ers 2 and y. res#ectively. then PP Q R2 S yR. The (lane Separation (ost#late. &or every line l. the #oints that do not lie on l form two disjoint. nonem#ty sets -6 and -D. called half$#lanes ,ounded ,y l or sides of l, such that the following conditions are satisfied. 6. :ach of -6 and -D is conve2. D. 5f P -6 and P -D. then intersects l.

The (rotractor (ost#late. &or every angle (?3 there is a real num,er such that the following conditions are satisfied. 6. for every angle (?3 (?3. called the measure of (?3.

D. +.

if and only if ?ngle 3onstruction Postulate" &or each real num,er r. 9 T r T 6B9 and for each half$#lane - ,ounded ,y there e2ists a uniHue ray such that : is

in - and

*.

?ngle ?ddition Postulate" 5f the ray

is ,etween rays

and

. then

The Si e*An"le*Si e (ost#late. 5f ?(3 and D:& are two triangles such that . ?(3 D:&. and

then ?(3 D:&.

Theore! + ,ASA Theore!-. 5f under some corres#ondence. D angles and the included side of a triangle are congruent to the corres#onding angles and included side of another. then the triangles are congruent under the corres#ondence. Theore! / ,0on1erse o2 )sosceles Trian"le Theore!-G 5f ?(3 is a triangle such that ?(3 ?3(. then Theore! 3 ,E'istence o2 (erpen ic#lars-G &or every line l and for every e2ternal #oint P. there e2ists a line m such that P lies on m and ml. Theore! 4 ,E'terior An"le-. The measure of an e2terior angle of a triangle is greater than the measure of either o##osite interior angle. 0orollary 5 ,Uni6#eness o2 (erpen ic#lars-. Q .

&or every line l and for every e2ternal #oint P. there e2ists e2actly one line m such that P lies on m and m l. Theore! 7 ,AAS 0on"r#ence Theore!-. 5f ?(3 and D:& are such that ?(3 D:&. (3? :&D. and then ?(3 D:&. Theore! 8 ,Hypoten#se Le" Theore!-G 5f ?(3 and UVC are two right triangles with right angles at vertices ( and V. res#ectively. . and . then ?(3 UVC. .

Theore! 9 ,SSS (ost#late-. 5f ?(3 and D:& are two triangles such that then ?(3 D:&. Theore! : ,Scalene )ne6#ality-. Eet ?. (. 3 ,e three no collinear #oints. Then ?3 W ?( if ?(3" W ?3(". . and .

0orollary +;G 5f a triangle has an o,tuse or right angle. then the side o##osite that angle has the greatest measure. 0orollary ++G The hy#otenuse of a right angled triangle has measure greater than that of either leg. Theore! +/ ,Trian"le )ne6#ality-. 5f ?. (. 3 are any + distinct #oints. then ?( X (3 Y ?3. with eHuality only when the #oints are collinear and ? Z ( Z 3. 0orollary +3 ,Me ian )ne6#ality-.

0u##ose that ?M is the median to side (3 of ?(3. Then. ?M T [ ?( X ?3". Theore! +4 ,SAS Trian"le )ne6#ality or Hin"e Theore!-. 5f in ?(3 and UVC. we have ?( Q UV. ?3 Q UC ,ut m ? W mU. then (3 W VC. <e2inition +. D distinct lines l and m are said to ,e #arallel if they lie in the same #lane and do not meet. /otationG 5f l and m are #arallel lines then we use the notation l || m to re#resent this fact. <e2inition /. ? transversal is a line that intersects D other lines. #arallel or not.

Theore! +5 ,Alternate )nterior An"les Theore!-. 5f l and l are two lines cut ,y a transversal t in such a way that a #air of alternate interior angles is congruent. then l || l. 0orollary +7 ,0orrespon in" An"les Theore!-. 5f l and l are two lines cut ,y a transversal t in such a way that a #air of corres#onding angles is congruent. then l || l .

0orollary +8. 5f l and l are two lines cut ,y a transversal t in such a way that two non$alternating interior angles on the same side of t are su##lements. then l || l. 0orollary +9 ,E'istence o2 (arallels-. 5f l is a line and P is an e2ternal #oint. then there is a line m such that P lies on m and m || l. Theore! +: ,Saccheri*Le"en re theore!-. 5f ?(3 is any triangle. then the angle sum of ?(3 \ 6B9]. 0orollary /;. The measure of the e2terior angle of a triangle is less than or eHual to the sum of the measures of o##osite interior angles.

0orollary /+ ,0on1erse to E#cli =s Fi2th (ost#late-. Eet l and l ,e two lines cut ,y a transversal t. 5f l and l meet on one side of t. then the sum of the measures of the two interior angles on that side of t is strictly less than 6B9]. >#a rilaterals

<e2inition 3. 5f there are * #oints lying in a #lane such that no + of them are collinear and if the #oints are so situated that no #air of o#en segments determined ,y each #air of

#oints ta'en in order ?. (. 3. D.

etc." have #oints in common then the set.

?(3D Q

. is a Huadrilateral with vertices ?. (. 3. D.

0on1e' >#a rilateral 3onve2 PuadrilateralG 5n Huadrilateral in elementary geometry. we want the diagonals to intersect at a #oint that lies ,etween o##osite vertices such Huadrilaterals are called conve2. Pro#erties of 3onve2 PuadrilateralsG Diagonals intersect at an interior #oint on each diagonal. 5f a Huadrilateral is conve2. then D lies in the interior of ?(3. similarly for the other vertices. 5f ?^ (^ 3 and D are consecutive vertices of a conve2 Huadrilateral. then (?D Q (?3 X 3?D.

Theore! //. 5f ?(3D is a conve2 Huadrilateral. then the angle sum of ?(3D is \ +<9o <e2inition 4. The Huadrilateral ?(3D is a #arallelogram if Theore! /3. :very #arallelogram is a conve2 Huadrilateral. Theore! /4. 5f ?(3 is a triangle and D is a #oint ,etween ? and ( while : is a #oint in ,etween ? and 3. then Theore! /5. The Huadrilateral ?(3D is conve2 if the diagonals common. Le!!a +. The sum of two angles of triangle is less than and have a #oint in (3:D is a conve2 Huadrilateral. || and ||

Rectan"le <e2inition 5. ? Huadrilateral is called rectangle if and only if the magnitude of every angle is 899

Theore! /7. 5f there is a rectangle. then the sum angle of each right triangle is 6B9]. ? ? D

Theore! /8. 5f there is a rectangle. then the angle sum of every triangle is 6B99 . Theore! /9. 5f there is a triangle with the sum of angle is 6B99. then there is a rectangle. 0orollary /+. ,0orollary 2ro! theore! /95f there is a triangle with the sum of angle is 6B99. then the angle sum of every triangle is 6B99 .

STATEME?TS E>U)@ALE?T TO THE EU0L)<EA? (ARALLEL (OSTULATE 6. &irst we have a theorem which cannot ,e #roved in neutral geometryG Theore! /7 ,0on1erse to the Alternate )nterior An"les Theore!-. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then both pairs of alternate interior angles are congruent. This theorem is however eHuivalent to the :uclidean Parallel Postulate. This eHuivalence can ,e #roved in neutral geometry.

D.

/e2t we have E#cli =s Fi2th (ost#lateG 5f l and lI are two lines cut ,y a transversal t in such a way that the sum of the measures of the two interior angles on one side of t is less than 6B9o. then l and lI intersect on that side of t. ;nce again it can ,e shown that :uclid's &ifth Postulate is eHuivalent to the :uclidean Parallel Postulate.

+.

TheoremG :ach of the following statements is eHuivalent to the :uclidean Parallel Postulate. Proclus's ?2iom" 5f l and l are #arallel lines and t l is a line such that t intersects l. then t also intersects l. 5f l and l are #arallel lines and t is a transversal such that t l . then t l. 5f l. m. n and k are lines such that k || l . m k and n l . then either m Q n or m || n. Transitivity of Parallelism" 5f l || m and m || n. then either l Q n or l || n.

*.

/e2t we have that the :uclidean Parallel Postulate is eHuivalent to the An"le S#! (ost#late which states thatG 5f ?(3 is a triangle. then the angle sum of ?(3 denoted ,y ?(3"" eHuals 6B99.

=.

Aallis=s (ost#lateG )iven a ?(3 and a segment D:. then there e2ists a #oint & such that ?(3 D:&. /oteG Triangles ?(3 and D:& are similar if ?(3 D:&. (3? :&D. 3?( &D:. 1e write ?(3 D:& if ?(3 and D:& are similar.

Rectan"le an <e2ect <e2inition 5. &or any triangle ?(3. the defect of ?(3 is defined ,y. ?(3" Q 6B99 $ ?(3". 0imilarly. if ?(3D is a conve2 Huadrilateral. de_ne its defect ,y

?(3D" Q +<99$ ?(3D".

Theore! /8 ,A

iti1ity o2 <e2ect-. . then ?(3" Q

6" 5f ?(3 is a triangle and : is a #oint in the interior of ?(:" X :3?". D" 5f ?(3D is a conve2 Huadrilateral. then ?3D". 0laira#t=s A'io! <e2inition 7.

?(3D" Q ?(3" X

? rectangle is a Huadrilateral each of whose angles is a right angle. /ote that the angle sum of a rectangle is +<99and so its defect is 99. also ,y the ?lternate 5nterior ?ngles Theorem and the fact that a #arallelogram is a conve2 Huadrilateral. it can ,e concluded that a rectangle is a conve2 Huadrilateral. 0laira#t=s A'io!. There e'ists a rectan"le. Theore! /9G 3lairaut's ?2iom is eHuivalent to the :uclidean Parallel Postulate. Saccheri >#a rilateral <e2inition 8. Eet ,e any line segment and D erect #er#endiculars at the end #oints ? and (.

Mar' off #oints 3 and D on these #er#endiculars so that 3 and D lie on the same side

of

and (3 Q ?D. The resulting Huadrilateral is a 0accheri Puadrilateral.

. is the

,ase.

and

the legs and side

the summit and angles at 3 and D are called the

summit angles. Saccheri an La!&ert >#a rilaterals <e2inition 9. ? Eam,ert Huadrilateral is a Huadrilateral in which three of the angles are right angles. Theore! 35 ,(roperties o2 Saccheri 6#a rilaterals-. 5f ?(3D is a 0accheri Huadrilateral with ,ase . then.

the diagonals

and

are congruent.

the summit angles (3D and ?D3 are congruent. the segment joining the mid#oint of to the mid#oint of is #er#endicular to

,oth

and

?(3D is a #arallelogram. ?(3D is a conve2 Huadrilateral. and the summit angles (3D and ?D3 are either right or acute.

Theore! 37 ,(roperties o2 La!&ert 6#a rilaterals-. 5f ?(3D is a Eam,ert Huadrilateral with right angles at right angles at vertices ?. ( and 3. then. ?(3D is a #arallelogram. ?(3D is a conve2 Huadrilateral.

?D3 is either right or acute. and (3 \ ?D.

(roo2 o2 So!e Theore!s Theore! + ,ASA Theore!-. 5f under some corres#ondence. D angles and the included side of a triangle are congruent to the corres#onding angles and included side of another. then the triangles are congruent under the corres#ondence. )ivenG . D 3 . C

?o. State!ents 6. 3ase 5. 5f we 'now that D. 3ase 55. 5f +. *. =. <. 7. B. 8. 69. 66. 6D. 6+. 6*. D?( . then there e2ist D such that then

Reason 0?0 Postulate

Point construction theorem %uler Postulate )iven )iven +.*.= and 0?0 #ostulate < )iven 7.B and transitive #ro#erty 8. ?ngle construction D. 69 ?ngle #oint Definition 66.6D <. 6+

?(D

D lies on 3 lies on 3QD

and and

Theore! 3 ,E'istence o2 (erpen ic#lars-G &or every line l and for every e2ternal #oint P. there e2ists a line m such that P lies on m and ml. P P & PI PI %

m ?o. 6. D. +. State!ents Eet l ,e a line and let P ,e an e2ternal #oint There e2ists P and PI on l There e2ists % not on l ,on o##osite of l from P such that PIPP *. =. <. 7. B. 8. 69. 66. 6D. 6+. P&P P&PI P&P and P&PI are su#lement ml PIPP PIPPI 3hoose PI on Eet m Q 3hoose & on intersection ,etween l and m PIP% such that Point 3ontruction Postulate Point 3onstruction Postulate Point 3onstruction Postulate * + %eflective 0?0 Postulate 69 66 6D Reason Premis %uler #ostulat ?ngle 3ontruction Postulate

Theore! 4 ,E'terior An"le-. The measure of an e2terior angle of a triangle is greater than the measure of either o##osite interior angle. (roo2.

)iven

?(3. e2tend side ?3 to ray ?3 and choose a #oint D on this ray.

i-. ! B0< B ! AB0 ( : 3 &

? ?o. 6. D. +. :2tend the median State!ents 3hoose : ,e the mid#oint of

D Reason :very

segment

have

e2actly one mid#oint Definition of mid#oint Point construction #ostulate

such that : is the

mid#oint of
*. =. <. 7. B. 8.

. 0o.
Vertical angle 0?0 #ostulate

(:?

3:&

?(3

:3& . m?(3 Q m:3&

= The sum of angle <.7 B Definition of aW,"

m:3& X m&3D Q m(3D m?(3 X m&3D Q m(3D m(3D W m?(3

ii. m 0B< B ! EA0 3 ) ? : ( D

&

/o.
6. D. +.

0tatements
3hoose : ,e the mid#oint

%eason
:very segment has e2actly one mid#oint Definition of mid#oint

:2tend the median

such that : is the

Point construction #ostulate

mid#oint of
*. =. <. 7. B. 8. 69. 66. 6D.

. 0o.
Vertical angle %ay construction Vertical angle D.+.* 0?0 Postulate"

3:?

&:(
that through (

Made a ray

:(&

)(D

:?3 :?3

:(& )(D . m:?3 Q m)(D

7 <.B transitive #ro#erties The sum of angle 8.69 66 Definition of aW,"

m3() X m )(D Q m3(D m3() X m:?3 Q m3(D m3(D W m:?3 Theore! +9

&rom given triangle ?(3 and ?. can ,e formed triangle ?6(636 which the sum

angle is eHual to the sum angle of triangle ?(3 and ?6

?.

( :
D
C C

&

6 D

?o.
6. D. +. *. =. <. 7. B.

State!ents
and ? 3hoose a #oint. let #oint : such that (:Q3: :2tend the line ?: such that ?:Q:&

Reason
Premis :very segment has e2actly one mid#oint Point construction #ostulate made Vertical angle 0?0 #ostulate D.=.+" < Premis

?Q?6 X ?D 3 Q 36 X 3D ?:( 3:&

?D

& and 3D
.

;,serve

0um angle of 8. 69.

Q ?6 X ?D X ( X 36

?6 X ?D X ( X 36 Q ?6 X & X 3D X 7.B 36
;,serve . #remis

0um angle of 66. 6D. The sum angle of

Q ?6 X & X 3D X 36 Qthe sum angle of B.8.69 *

?6 \
6+.

? atau ?D \

?
. can ,e formed 66.6D

5t is #roven that from given

triangle ?6(636 which the sum angle is eHual to the

?o.

State!ents
sum angle of triangle ?(3 and ?6 \

Reason ?

Theore! +: ,Saccheri*Le"en re theore!-. 5f ?(3 is any triangle. then the angle sum of ?(3 \ 6B9]. (roo2 . 1e will use indirect #rove ?o. 6. State!ents 0u##ose there is with the sum of the angle Reason 0u##osed

is #ositive num,er D. &rom given the sum of

more than

". which # is a

can ,e formed ?6(636 which angle is eHual to with

Theorem 6B

such that ?6 \ +. Then there is

? Theorem 6B

with the sum of the angle

is eHual with

and

-ence.

?o. *.

State!ents Thus. from given can ,e formed

Reason Theorem 6B

which the sum of the angle is eHual to

such that =. 5t is #ossi,le if we choose a ,ig num,er of n such Made that the value of is a small magnitude. Eet.

<. 7. B.

6 =.< This is contradiction with lemma 6 which sum of Proven two angles of triangle is less than .

Theore! /7. 5f there is a rectangle. then the sum angle of each right triangle is 6B9]. )iven rectangle ?I(I3IDI ? ?I ? ?o. 6. D. +. *. =. The sum of the angle Q the sum of the State!ents is right angle in ( Reason Made DI

There is a rectangle ?I(I3IDI with ?I(IQ?( Theorem 3 ( (I and (I3IQ(3 ( 0egment

3I construction 3

#ostulate 6.D.+ 0?0 Postulate" *

angle <. Eet # is the sum of the angle and H is Made

the sum of the angle 7. 1e will #rove that # is eHual to " Theorem 68 if is

any triangle. then the angle #Q or # T sum of B. 5f # T then H W 3ontradiction with theorem 68 8. #Q then H Q #roven

0. Application o2 A&sol#te Geo!etry +. 0on"r#ency ?n engineer needs to determine the distance across a river without swimming to the other side. The engineer notices a tree on the other side of the n river and suddenly has an idea. o l

Then. he s'etched the gra#h li'e ,elow

(
3urrent ,ridge /ew ,ridge

(y using the conce#t of congruence. the engineer can e2#lain. the minimum distance for constructing the ,ridge. /. Si!ilarity 5n >ava 5sland ;cean. there e2ists a foreign sea across in. The officer can discover the sea vessel #osition as in the #icture. 5f the real distance ,etween 0emarang and (lora 699 'm. what is the distance of that sea vessel to 0emarang.

0olutionG 3onsider the #osition of the sea vessel K". 0emarang 0". and (lora (" on the ma#. Then measure the distance from K to 0. and 0 to ( in the ma# ,y using the ruler. &or instance. we get the distance ,etween 0 and ( is 69 cm and the distance ,etween K and 0 is B cm. Then consider the gra#h of two triangles ,elowG 0ea vessel K

B cm (

0emarang

699 'm

(lora

69 cm

The angle K0( magnitude is

which is also the magnitude of angle in the

reality. (eside the angle 0(K is the right angle in ,oth triangles. The ne2t is we will use the #ro#osition of similarity of triangle . then the 2 is calculated li'e ,elowG

+. )eometry #uzzle This game will train our ,rain to suit the #uzzle with the ,oard. The congruence #ro#osition is used in this 'ind of game. 0o if the #lace on the ,oard is congruence with the sha#e of #uzzle. then they will ,e matched.

*. 5nflation Tiling

The a2ioms of a,solute geometry can ,e used to e2#lore the design s#ace of 5slamic star #atterns. The a##roach ma'es use of a novel family of tiling. called Jinflation tiling.K which is #articularly well suited as guides for creating star #atterns. There is a method for creating a #arameterized set of motifs that can ,e used to fill the many regular #olygons that com#rise these tiling. as well as an algorithm to infer geometry for any irregular #olygons that remain. :rasing the underlying tiling and joining together the inferred motifs #roduces the star #atterns. (y choice. Najm. a set of tools for e2#loring the design s#ace of 5slamic star #atterns. is ,uild u#on the su,set of geometry that ma'es no assum#tion a,out the ,ehavior of #arallel lines. ?s a conseHuence. star #atterns created ,y Najm can ,e designed eHually well to fit the :uclidean #lane. the hy#er,olic #lane. or the surface of a s#here.

(y using certain a##lication. we can design 5slamic star #attern as ,elow. -ere. we just change the #arameters then weIll get different sha#es.

=. Tessellation Tessellation is the #rocess of creating a two$dimensional #lane using the re#etition of a geometric sha#e with no overla#s and no ga#s. )eneralizations to higher dimensions are also #ossi,le. Tessellations freHuently a##eared in the art of M. 3. :scher. who was ins#ired ,y studying the Moorish use of symmetry in the ?lham,ra tiles during a visit in 68DD. Tessellations are seen throughout art history. from ancient architecture to modern art. This 'ind of activity uses the conce#t of neutral geometry which is congruency. This also taught at junior high school. a. %egular Tessellations There are only + regular tessellationsG

Triangles +.+.+.+.+.+

0Huares *.*.*.*

-e2agons <.<.<

&or a regular tessellation. the #attern is identical at each verte2

,.

0emi$regular Tessellations ? semi$regular tessellation is made of two or more regular #olygons. The #attern at each verte2 must ,e the same. There are only B semi$regular tessellationsG

+.+.+.+.<

+.+.+.*.*

+.+.*.+.*

+.*.<.*

+.<.+.<

+.6D.6D

*.<.6D

*.B.B

REFERE?0ES ?dhi'ary. Push#a. D99B. Foun ation of !eometry"III. Kathmandu Fniversity >ournal of 0cience. :ngineering and Technology Vol. 5. /o. V. 0e#tem,er D99B. PP 8=$87 (arsamian. Mar'. D96D. Intro uction to #$iomatic !eometry. ;hio Fniversity. (elyaev. ;leg. D997. Fun amentals of !eometry. Mega. Masriyah and (udiarto. D99B. %istem !eometri. 0ura,ayaG Fnesa Fniversity Press. %oss. 0'yler. 6889. Non"&ucli ean !eometry. Thesis. Fniversity of Maine. 0oemadi. 6888. %istem !eometri. P.M5P? 5K5P 0ura,aya 1alter. P ` >ordan. M. 68B8. 'asic (oncept of !eometry. F0? G ?rdsley -ouse htt#Gaawww.mate$mati$'a'u.comamatemati'awana'eluarga(olyai.html dia'ses #ada tanggal D7 Maret D96* #u'ul 6*G+D 15(

ABSOLUTE GEOMETRY

3reated for satisfying the assignment in )eometry su,ject (y SA)LATUL )LM)YAH SYAMS)ATUS SHOL)0HAH ,+38895;49,+38895;5;-

SURABAYA STATE U?)@ERS)TY MASTER OF MATHEMAT)0S E<U0AT)O? <UAL <EGREE (ROGRAM /;+4