Contents

1. CERTIFICATE............................................................................2
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................3
3. FOREWORD.....................................................4
4. ABSTRACT AND KEY WORDS.....................................5
5. REFERANCES....60

What is a Robotic Arm?

The first robotic arm was developed in the 1950s by a scientist named
George Devol, Jr., before which robotics were largely the products of
science fiction and the imagination. The development of robotics was slow
for a while, with many of the most useful applications being involved with
space exploration. The use of robots to aid in industrialization werent fully
realized until the 1980s, when robotic arms began to be integrated in
automobile and other manufacturing assembly lines.
While working in a fashion similar to the human arm, robot arms can still
have a much wider range of motion since their design can be purely up to
the imagination of their creator. The joint that connects the segments of a
robotic arm, for example, can rotate as well as moving like a hinge. The end
of the robotic arm designed to actually do the work that it was designed for
is known as the end effectors, and can be designed for practically any task,
for example gripping like a hand, painting, tightening screws and more.
These robots can be fixed in one place, for example along an assembly line,
or they can be mobile so they can be transported to do a variety of tasks in
different places.
Autonomous robotic arms are designed to be programmed and then left
alone to repeat their tasks independent of human control. Conversely, a
robotic arm can also be designed to be operated and controlled by a human
being. A situation where human-controlled robotic arms are essential is in
space exploration, where robotic arms can be used to manipulate a heavy
payload or do other work in space that would be difficult or even impossible
for an astronaut to do.

Conveyor belt
A belt conveyor consists of two or more pulleys, with a continuous loop of
material - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them. One or both of the
pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward.
The powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is
called the idler. There are two main industrial classes of belt conveyors;
Those in general material handling such as those moving boxes along inside
a factory and bulk material handling such as those used to transport
industrial and agricultural materials, such as grain, coal, ores, etc.
generally in outdoor locations. Generally companies providing general
material handling type belt conveyors do not provide the conveyors for bulk
material handling. In addition there are a number of commercial
applications of belt conveyors such as those in grocery stores.
The belt consists of one or more layers of material they can be made out of
rubber. Many belts in general material handling have two layers. An under
layer of material to provide linear strength and shape called a carcass and
an over layer called the cover. The carcass is often a cotton or plastic web
or mesh. The cover is often various rubber or plastic compounds specified
by use of the belt. Covers can be made from more exotic materials for
unusual applications such as silicone for heat or gum rubber when traction
is essential.
Material flowing over the belt may be weighed in transit using a
beltweigher. Belts with regularly spaced partitions, known as elevator belts,
are used for transporting loose materials up steep inclines. Belt Conveyors
are used in self-unloading bulk freighters and in live bottom trucks.
Conveyor technology is also used in conveyor transport such as moving
sidewalks or escalators, as well as on many manufacturing assembly lines.
Stores often have conveyor belts at the check-out counter to move shopping
items. Ski areas also use conveyor belts to transport skiers up the hill. A
wide variety of related conveying machines are available, different as
regards principle of operation, means and direction of conveyance,

including screw conveyors, vibrating conveyors, pneumatic conveyors, the

moving floor system, which uses reciprocating slats to move cargo, and
roller conveyor system, which uses a series of powered rollers to convey
boxes or pallets.

ABOUT PROJECTS
In our project we are constructing a model of automated material handling
robot. This robot counts pass product for robotic arm.
We are using one conveyor built in our project, which is rotate, by one dc
gear motor.
Next we are using two pair of IR sensor for counting objects and second
sensor stop conveyor built when object reach pickup position of robotic
arm.

WORKING

A. MOTOR USED IN ARM CONSTRUCTION

Step-1

WE ARE USING THREE DC GEAR MOTORS FOR OUR ROBOTIC

ARM, WHICH IS CONTROL BY SIMPLE PROGRAM CIRCUIT.
WE USE BUHLER DC GEARHEAD MOTOR FOR GRIPING.

MOTOR DETAIL: COMPACT, SMOOTH-RUNNING BUHLER GEARHEAD

MOTOR. OPERATES FROM 3 - 24 VDC. NO-LOAD RATING: 140 RPM @ 18 VDC /
140 MA. BODY: 1.91" X 1.59" X 1.14." 3MM DIAMETER SHAFT IS 0.4" LONG. 8"
WIRE LEADS. THREE THREADED MOUNTING HOLES ON FACE OF MOTOR.

WE USE 12VDC 10RPM CROUZET MOTOR W/GEARBOX FOR

RIGHT/LEFT AND UP/DOWN MOVEMENT.

Motor detail: Powerful gear motor. 10 RPM @ 12 Vdc / 90 mA (no-load).

Operates on 4-15 Vdc. 3.6" x 2.36" x 2.24" overall dimensions. Crouzet
motor and final drive shaft both extend from same side of plastic gearbox.
5/16" diameter flatted shaft is 0.9" long. 8" pigtail leads.

WE USE CUTOFF SWITCHES FOR SET MOTOR MOVEMENT.

B. OBJECT MONITORING SYSTEM

IDENTIFICATION OF RIGHT PRODUCT.
IN THIS SYSTEM WE ARE SENSING THE HIGHT OF THE PRODUCT
BY USING IR SENSOR CIRCUIT.

CIRCUIT WORKING
IN OUR CIRCUIT WE HAVE THREE PAIR IR SENSER. TWO IS FIX
ON THE STARTING OF CONVEYOR AND ONE IS FIXED IN FRONT
OF REJECTION COUNTER.

HOW SYSTEM WORKS

WHEN TWO LIGHT FALL ON THE OBJECT, REJECTION COUNTER
REJECTS IT, AS SHOWN IN THE CASE-1 DIAGRAM BELOW.

IN CASE 2
OK OBJECT PASS THROUGH REJECTION COUNTER.

CASE 3:
WHEN OUR OJECT IS BELOW THE HEIGHT IT SENSE BY THE
REJECTION COUNTER SENSOR AND REJECT IT AS A UNDER
HEIGHT OBJECT.

C .IR CONVEYOR MOVEMENT CONTROL

SYSTEM

IR Sensor control conveyor: one of conveyor built system control by ir

sensor, when ir sensor interrupts, they send pulse to circuit and circuit switch
off conveyor built dc gear motor.

Dc motor used:

DC GEAR MOTOR: Brand HOSIDEN motors (Japan) R.P.M: 75-100 VOLT: 12-18V. DC

CONVEYOR BULT CIRCUIT

D. OBJECT COUNTER CIRCUIT

ROBOTIC ARM CIRCUIT

COMPONENTS REQUIREMENTS
1. ONE BUHLER DC GEARHEAD MOTOR
2. TWO CROUZET MOTOR

3. ONE HOSIDEN MOTOR

4. PLASTIC ROLLERS
5. LASTIC (USED AS CONVEYOR)
6. CUTOFF SWITCH
7. IC LM 567
8. REGULATOR
9. RELAY
10.OBJECT COUNTER
11.RESISTANCE
12.PROGRAMMING IC
13.CAPACITOR
14.TRANSISTOR
15.DIODE
16.TRANFORMER
17.IR SENSOR
18.WOODEN FRAM
19.IRON GRIPPER

COMPONENTS DETAIL
1. DC motors
One of the first electromagnetic rotary motors was invented by
Michael Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire
dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed
in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current was passed
through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that
the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire.
This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but
brine(salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury.
This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called
homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel.
Another early electric motor design used a reciprocating plunger
inside a switched solenoid; conceptually it could be viewed as an
electromagnetic version of a two stroke internal combustion
engine.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when
Znobe Gramme connected a spinning dynamo to a second
similar unit, driving it as a motor.
The classic DC motor has a rotating armature in the form of an
electromagnet. A rotary switch called a commutator reverses the
direction of the electric current twice every cycle, to flow through
the armature so that the poles of the electromagnet push and pull
against the permanent magnets on the outside of the motor. As the
poles of the armature electromagnet pass the poles of the
permanent magnets, the commutator reverses the polarity of the
armature electromagnet. During that instant of switching polarity,
inertia keeps the classical motor going in the proper direction.
(See the diagrams below.)

A simple DC electric motor. When the coil is powered, a magnetic

field is generated around the armature. The left side of the
armature is pushed away from the left magnet and drawn toward
the right, causing rotation.

The armature continues to rotate.

When the armature becomes horizontally aligned, the commutator

reverses the direction of current through the coil, reversing the
magnetic field. The process then repeats.

2. MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52)
8051 microcontroller has 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two
timers, one serial port, and four ports (each 8-bits wide) all on a single chip.
The 8051 is an 8-bit processor i.e. the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data
at a time. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O
ports in microcontroller makes them ideal for many applications in which
cost and space are critical.
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit
microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only
memory (PEROM). The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic
chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a
highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control
applications.

FEATURES:
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Two 16-bit Timer/Counters

 Six Interrupt Sources

Programmable Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

External
Interrupt
s

On-chip
ROM for
program
code

Timer 0

On-chip
RAM

Timer 1

CPU
Osc

Bus
control

4 I/O Ports

P0 P1 P2 P3
ADDRESS/DATA

Serial
port

TXD

RXD

Counter Inputs

Interrupt
control

ETC.

PIN CONFIGURATION:

P1.0

40

Vcc

P1.1

39

P0.0 (AD0)

P1.2

38

P0.1 (AD1)

P1.3

37

P0.2 (AD2)

P1.4

36

P0.3 (AD3)

P1.5

35

P0.4 (AD4)

P1.6

34

P0.5 (AD5)

P1.7

33

P0.6 (AD6)

RST

32

P0.7 (AD7)

(RXD) P3.0

10

31

EA/VPP

(TXD) P3.1

11

30

ALE/PROG

(INT0) P3.2

12

29

PSEN

(INT1) P3.3

13

28

P2.7 (A15)

(T0) P3.4

14

27

P2.6 (A14)

(T1) P3.5

15

26

P2.5 (A13)

(WR) P3.6

16

25

P2.4 (A12)

(RD) P3.7

17

24

P2.3 (A11)

18

23

19

22

20

21

PIN DESCRIPTION:

XTAL2
XTAL1
GND

P2.2 (A10)
P2.1 (A9)
P2.0 (A8)

PIN DESCRIPSION:
VCC - Supply voltage.
GND - Ground.
Port 0 - Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output
port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins,
the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs.
Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order
address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In
this mode P0 has internal pull-ups.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and
outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are
required during program verification.
Port 1 - Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups.
The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are
written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be
used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low
will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives
the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
Port 2 - Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups.
The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.
Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal
pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use
8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special
Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals
during Flash programming and verification.
Port 3 - Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.
The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are
written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be
used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low

will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the
functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:
RST - Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the
oscillator is running resets the device.
ALE/PROG - Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte
of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the
program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note,
however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data
Memory.
If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location
8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC
instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALEdisable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN - Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program
memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program
memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two
PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.
PORT PIN
ALTERNATE FUNCTIONS
P3.0
RXD (serial input port)
P3.1
TXD (serial output port)
P3.2
INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3
INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4
T0 (timer 0 external input)
P3.5
T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6
WR (external data memory write strobe)
P3.7
RD (external data memory read strobe)
EA/VPP - External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to
enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations
starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is
programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.
This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP)
during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP.
XTAL1 - Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal
clock operating circuit.
XTAL2 - Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISTICS:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting
amplifier, which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a
quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an
external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is
driven.
There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal,
since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two
flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time
specifications must be observed.
Figure 1. Oscillator Connections
XTAL1
C1

XTAL2
C2

GND

Note: C1, C2 = 30 pF +/- 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF +/- 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

THE 8051 REGISTERS:

The most widely used registers of the 8051 are A (accumulator), B, R0, R1,
R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, DPTR (data pointer), and PC (program counter).
All of the above registers are 8-bits, except DPTR and the program counter.
The 8 bots of a register are shown below from the MSB (most significant
bit) D7 to the LSB (least significant bit) D0.

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

D0

PROGRAM COUNTER:
The program counter points to the address of the next instruction to be
executed. As the CPU fetches the opcode from the program ROM, the
program counter is incremented to point to the next instruction. The PC is 16
bits wide i.e. it can access program addresses 0000 to FFFFH, a total of 64K
bytes of code.
PSW (PROGRAM STATUS WORD) REGISTER
The PSW contains status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU and is
also called flag register. The PSW contains the Carry bit, the Auxiliary
Carry bit, the two register bank select bits, the overflow flag bit, a parity bit,
and two user definable status flags.
CY
CY
AC
--RS1
RS0
OV
--P

AC

PSW.7
PSW.6
PSW.5
PSW.4
PSW.3
PSW.2
PSW.1
PSW.0

F0

RS1 RS0 OV

---

Carry flag.
Auxiliary carry flag.
Available to the user for general purpose.
Register Bank selector bit 1.
Register Bank selector bit 0.
Overflow flag.
User definable bit.
Parity flag.

RS1 RS0 Register Bank

Address
0
0
0
00H 07H
0
1
1
08H 0FH
1
0
2
10H 17H
1
1
3
18H 1FH
CY, THE CARRY FLAG

This flag is set whenever there is a carry out from the D7 bit. This flag bit is
affected after an 8-bit addition or subtraction. It can also be set to
1 or 0 directly by an instruction such as SETB C and CLR C where
SETB C stands for set bit carry and CLR C for clear carry.
AC, THE AUXILIARY CARRY FLAG
If there is a carry from D3 to D4 during an ADD or SUB operation, this bit
is set; otherwise, it is cleared. This flag is used by instructions that perform
BCD (binary coded decimal) arithmetic.

P, THE PARITY FLAG

The parity flag reflects the number of 1s in the A (accumulator) register
only. If the A register contains an odd number of 1s, then P=1. Therefore,
P=0 if A has an even number of 1s.
OV, THE OVERFLOW FLAG
This flag is set whenever the result of a signed number operation is too
large, causing the high-order bit to overflow into the sign bit.
RAM MEMORY SPACE ALLOCATION IN THE 8051
There are 128 bytes of RAM in the 8051, which are assigned addresses 00 to
7FH. These 128 bytes are divided into three different groups:
1. A total of 32 bytes from locations 00 to 1H hex are set aside for
register banks and the stack.
2. A total of 16 bytes from locations 20H to 2FH are set aside for bitaddressable read/write memory.
3. A total of 80 bytes from locations 30H to 7FH are used for read and
write storage, or what is normally called a scratch pad. These
80 locations of RAM are widely used for the purpose of storing data
and parameters by 8051 programmers.
7F

Scratch pad RAM

30
2F
Bit-Addressable RAM
20
1F
18

Register Bank 3

17
10

Register Bank 2

0FRegister Bank 1 (stack)

08
07
Register Bank 0
00
REGISTER BANKS IN THE 8051
The 32 bytes of RAM which is set aside for the register banks and stack is
divided into 4 banks of registers in which each bank has 8 registers, R0
R7. RAM locations from 0 to 7 are set aside for bank 0 of R0 R7
where R0 is RAM location 0, R1 is RAM location 1, R2 is location 2, and so
on, until memory location 7 which belongs to R7 of bank 0. The second
bank of registers R0 R7 starts at RAM location 08 and goes to location
0FH. The third bank of R0 R7 starts at memory location 10H and goes to
location 17H; and finally RAM locations 18H to 1FH are set aside for the
fourth bank of R0 R7. The following tables shows how the 32 bytes are
allocated into 4 banks:
Bank 0

Bank 1

Bank 2

Bank 3

R7
R6
R5
R4
R3
R2
R1
R0

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

R7
R6
R5
R4
R3
R2
R1
R0

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

R7
R6
R5
R4
R3
R2
R1
R0

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

R7
R6
R5
R4
R3
R2
R1
R0

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

STACK IN THE 8051

The stack is a section of RAM used by the CPU to store information
temporarily. This information could be data or an address. The CPU needs
this storage area since there are only a limited number of registers. The
register used to access the stack is called the SP (stack pointer) register. The
stack pointer in the 8051 is only 8 bits wide i.e. it can take values of 00 to
FFH. When the 8051 is powered up, the SP
register contains value 07 which implies that RAM location 08 is the first
location being used for the stack by the 8051. The storing of a CPU register
in the stack is called a PUSH, and loading the contents of the stack back into
a CPU register is called a POP. In other words, a register is pushed onto the
stack to save it and popped off the stack to retrieve it.
PUSHING ONTO THE STACK:
In the 8051 the stack pointer (SP) is pointing to the last used location of the
stack. As data is pushed onto the stack, the stack pointer (SP) is incremented
by one and the contents of the register are saved on the stack. To push the
registers onto the stack, RAM addresses are used.

POPPING FROM THE STACK:

Popping the contents of the stack back into a given register is the opposite
process of pushing. With every pop, the top byte of the stack is copied to the
register specified by the instruction and the stack pointer is decremented
once.

ADDRESSING MODES:
The addressing modes in the microcontroller instruction set are as follows:
1. DIRECT ADDRESSING
In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the
instruction. Only internal RAM and SFRs cab be directly accessed.
2. INDIRECT ADDRESSING
In indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register that specifies a
register that contains the address of the operand. Both internal and external
RAM can be indirectly accessed.
The address register for 8-bit addresses can be either the stack pointer or R0
or R1 of the selected register bank. The address register for 16-bit addresses
can be only the 16-bit data pointer register, DPTR.
3. REGISTER INSTRUCTIONS
The register banks, which contain registers R0 through R7, can be accessed
by instructions whose opcodes carry a 3-bit register specification.
Instructions that access the registers this way make efficient use of code,
since this mode eliminates an address byte. When the instruction is
executed, one of the eight registers in the selected bank is accessed. One of
four banks is selected at execution time by the two bank select bits in the
PSW.
4. REGISTER-SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS

Some instructions are specific to a certain register. For example, some

instructions always operate on the Accumulator, so no address byte is
needed to point to it. In these cases, the opcode itself points to the correct
register.
5. IMMEDIATE CONSTANTS
The value of a constant can follow the opcode in program memory. For
example,
MOV A, #100
Loads the Accumulator with the decimal number 100. The same number
could be specified in hex digits as 64H.
6. INDEXED ADDRESSING
Program memory can only be accessed via indexed addressing. This
addressing mode is intended for reading look-up labels in program memory.
A 16-bit base register (either DPTR or the Program Counter) points to the
base of the table, and the accumulator is set up with the table entry number.
The address of the table entry in program memory is formed by adding the
accumulator data to the base pointer.
8051 INSTRUCTION SET
MNEMONIC:
The MNEMONIC column contains the 8051 Instruction Set Mnemonic and
a brief description of the instruction's operation.
OPERATION:
The OPERATION column describes the 8051 Instruction Set in
unambiguous symbology. Following are the definitions of the symbols used
in this column.

<n:m>
+
/
X
~
^
v
v
>
<>
=
->

Bits of a register inclusive. For example, PC<10:0> means bits

0 through 10 inclusive of the PC. Bit 0 is always the
least significant bit.
Binary addition
Binary 2s complement subtraction
Unsigned integer division
Unsigned integer multiplication
Binary complement (1s complement)
Logical And
Inclusive Or
Exclusive Or
Greater than
Not equal to
Equals
Is written into. For example, A + SOper -> A means the
result of the binary addition between A and the Source
Operand is written into A.

A
The 8-bit Accumulator Register.
AC
The Auxiliary Carry Flag in the Program Status Word
CF
The Carry Flag in the Program Status Word
DoperThe Destination Operand used in the instruction.
DPTR

16-bit Data Pointer

Interrupt Active Flag

Flag is cleared.

Internal Flag that holds off interrupts until the

Jump Relative to PC A Jump that can range between -128 bytes and
+127 bytes from the PC value of the next instruction.
Paddr

A 16-bit Program Memory address

PC

The 8051 Program Counter. This 16-bit register

points to the byte in the Program Memory space
that is fetched as part of the instruction stream.

PM (addr)

Byte in Program Memory space pointed to by

addr.

Remainder

Integer remainder of unsigned integer division

Soper

The Source Operand used in the instruction.

SP

8-bit Stack Pointer

STACK

The Last In First Out data structure that is

controlled by the 8-bit Stack Pointer (SP). Sixteen
bit quantities are pushed on the stack low byte
first.

HEX OPCODE:
This column gives the machine language hexadecimal opcode for each 8051
instruction.
BYTE:
This column gives the number of bytes in each 8051 instruction.
CYC:
This column gives the number of cycles of each 8051 instruction. The time
value of a cycle is defined as 12 divided by the oscillator frequency. For
example, if running an 8051 family component at 12 MHz, each cycle takes
1 microsecond.

3. PHOTO-DIODES
If a conventional silicon diode is connected in the reverse-biased circuit of
fig. 1, negligible current will flow through the diode and zero voltage will
develop across R1. If the diode casing is now carefully removed so that the
diode's semiconductor junction is revealed, and the junction is them exposed
to visible light in the same circuit, the diode current will rise, possibly to as

Fig. 1 Reverse-baised diode circuit.

high as 1 mA, producing a significant output across R1. Further
investigation will show that the diode current (and thus the output voltage) is
directly proportional to light intensity, and that the diode is therefore
photosensitive.
In practice, all silicon junctions are photosensitive, and a photodiode can be
regarded as a conventional diode housed in a case that lets external light
reach its photosensitive semiconductor junction. Fig. 2 shows the standard
photodiode symbol. In use, the photodiode is reverse biased and the output

voltage is taken from across a series-connected load resistor. This resistor

may be connected between the diode and ground, as in fig. 1, or between the
diode and the positive supply line, as in fig. 3

Photodiode symbol

Fig. 2 Photodiode symbol

The human eye is sensitive to a range of light radiation, as shown in fig. 4. It
has a peak spectral response to the colour green, which has a wave length of
about 550 nm, but has a relatively low sensitivity to the colour violet (400
nm) at one end of the spectrum and to dark red (700 nm) at the other.
Photodiodes also have spectral response characteristics, and these are
determined by the chemistry used in the semiconductor junction material.
Fig. 4 shows typical response curves of a general-purpose photodiode, and
infrared (IR) photodiode.
Photodiodes have a far lower light-sensitivity than cadmium-sulphide LDRs,
but give a far quicker response to changes in light level. Generally, LDRs
are ideal for use in slow-acting direct-coupled light-level sensing
applications, while photodiodes are ideal for use in fast-acting AC-coupled
signalling applications. Typical photodiode applications include IR remotecontrol circuits, IR beam switches and alarm circuits, and photographic flash
slave circuits, etc.

Fig 3 Photodiode circuit with D1-to-V + load

Fig. 4 Typical spectral response curves of (a) the human eye, (b) a generalpurpose photodiode, and (c) an infra-red photodiode.

PHOTOTRANSISTORS

Fig. 5 shows the standard symbol of a phototransistor, which can be

regarded as a conventional transistor housed in a case that enables its
semiconductor junctions to be exposed to external light. The device is
normally used with its base open circuit, in either of the configurations
shown in fig. 6, and functions as follows.

Fig. 5 Phototransistor symbol.

In fig. 6(a), the base-collector junction of the transistor is effectively reverse
biased and thus acts as a photodiode. The photo-generated currents of the
base-collector junction feed directly into the base of the device, and the
normal current-amplifying transistor action causes the output current to
appear (in greatly amplified form) as collector current, and in fig. 6(a) R 1
causes this current to generate an output voltage as shown.
In practice, the collector and emitter current of the transistor are virtually
identical and, since the base is open circuit, the device is not subjected to
significant negative feedback. Consequently, the alternative fig. 6(b) circuit,
in which R1 is connected to Q1 emitter, gives a virtually identical
performance to that of fig. 6(a).

Fig. 6 Alternative phototransistor configuration.

The sensitivity of a phototransistor is typically one hundred times greater
than that of a photodiode, but is useful maximum operating frequency (a few
hundred kilohertz) is proportionally lower than that of a photodiode by using
only its base and collector terminals and ignoring the emitter, as shown in
fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Phototransistor used as a photodiode

4. CAPACITORS
It is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate charges
and then release it.

To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates

which all are placed near to each other without touching. If a battery is
connected to these plates the positive pole to one and the negative pole to the
other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the plate connected to
the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one
plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, and a
potential or voltage difference will exists between them. These plates will be
acting as capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: - (1) fixed type like
ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-these names refer to the material
they are made of aluminium foil. (2) Variable type like gang condenser in
radio or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is
written over its body and variable type has three leads. Unit of measurement
of a capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very big unit of
capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-farad denoted by pf
(Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's
two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in
the circuit in right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire
circuit in operational.

5. DIODE
The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of Ptype semi conducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and
n-type layers to an external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the
negative terminal to the N-type material (Anode), a large current will flow.
This is called forward current or forward biased.
If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This is
because under this condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons
from the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type material will give
up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the state of electrical
equilibrium since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will
be a small current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased.
Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction
while blocking it in the other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting
AC into DC. In this, current will flow freely during the first half cycle
(forward biased) and practically not at all during the other half cycle (reverse
biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier, which convert ac into
pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio circuits for detection. Zener
diodes are used in the circuit to control the voltage.

Some common diodes are:1. Zener diode.

2. Photo diode.
3. Light Emitting diode.

1.

ZENER DIODE:-

A zener diode is specially designed junction diode, which can operate

continuously without being damaged in the region of reverse break down
voltage. One of the most important applications of zener diode is the design
of constant voltage power supply. The zener diode is joined in reverse bias
to d.c. through a resistance R of suitable value.

2.

PHOTO DIODE:-

A photo diode is a junction diode made from photo- sensitive

semiconductor or material. In such a diode, there is a provision to allow the
light of suitable frequency to fall on the p-n junction. It is reverse biased, but
the voltage applied is less than the break down voltage. As the intensity of
incident light is increased, current goes on increasing till it becomes
maximum. The maximum current is called saturation current.

3.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):-

When a junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the

junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction due to
recombination of electrons and holes. In case of silicon and germanium

diodes, the energy released is in infrared region. In the junction diode made
of gallium arsenate or indium phosphide, the energy is released in visible
region. Such a junction diode is called a light emitting diode or LED.

6. POWER SUPPLY
In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron
flow increases to maximum in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then
increases in the other direction and then decreases to zero again. Direct
current flows in one direction only. Rectifier converts alternating current to
flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is positive with
respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing current to flow. But
when its anode is negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased
and does not allow current to flow. This unidirectional property of the diode
is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged back-to-back might allow
the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only and suppress the
negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged back-to-back might act as full
wave rectifiers as they may allow the electron flow during both positive and
negative half cycles. Four diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge
rectifier. Different types of filter circuits are used to smooth out the
pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The property
of capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them by
storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to oppose
any change in the current flowing through them by storing energy in the
magnetic field of coil may be utilized. To remove pulsation of the direct
current obtained from the rectifier, different types of combination of
capacitor, inductors and resistors may be also be used to increase to action of
filtering.

NEED OF POWER SUPPLY

Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary

requirement for the Test Bench of a home experimenters mini lab. A
battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of solid-state
electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by 230v A.C.
mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of commercial
battery eliminator or power supply unit has become increasingly popular as
power source for household appliances like transreceivers, record player,
cassette players, digital clock etc.

THEORY
USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:
Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in the
form of alternating voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V (rms) at a
frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at 60 Hz. For the operation of
most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage is needed. For
instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its operation. Usually,
this supply is provided by dry cells. But sometime we use a battery
eliminator in place of dry cells. The battery eliminator converts the ac
voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates the need for dry cells. Nowadays,
almost all-electronic equipment includes a circuit that converts ac voltage of
mains supply into dc voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power
Supply. In general, at the input of the power supply, there is a power
transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit called Rectifier. The output of
the rectifier goes to a smoothing filter, and then to a voltage regulator circuit.
The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.

RECTIFICATION
Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage
into a unidirectional one. The component used for rectification is called
Rectifier. A rectifier permits current to flow only during the positive half
cycles of the applied AC voltage by eliminating the negative half cycles or

alternations of the applied AC voltage. Thus pulsating DC is obtained. To

obtain smooth DC power, additional filter circuits are required.
A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of diodes.
But, semiconductor diodes are very popularly used as rectifiers. A
semiconductor diode is a solid-state device consisting of two elements is
being an electron emitter or cathode, the other an electron collector or anode.
Since electrons in a semiconductor diode can flow in one direction onlyfrom emitter to collector- the diode provides the unilateral conduction
necessary for rectification. Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide
and selenium rectifier are also commonly used.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using

two diodes in the circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms (18 V p-p) is
applied to the circuit. Assume further that two equal-valued series-connected
resistors R are placed in parallel with the ac source. The 18 V p-p appears
across the two resistors connected between points AC and CB, and point C
is the electrical midpoint between A and B. Hence 9 V p-p appears across
each resistor. At any moment during a cycle of v in, if point A is positive
relative to C, point B is negative relative to C. When A is negative to C,
point B is positive relative to C. The effective voltage in proper time phase
which each diode "sees" is in Fig. The voltage applied to the anode of each
diode is equal but opposite in polarity at any given instant.
When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D 1 is positive with
respect to its cathode. Hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not. During the
second alternation, B is positive relative to C. The anode of D2 is therefore
positive with respect to its cathode, and D2 conducts while D1 is cut off.
There is conduction then by either D1 or D2 during the entire inputvoltage cycle.
Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor RL, the
output voltage across RL will result from the alternate conduction of D 1 and

D2. The output waveform vout across RL, therefore has no gaps as in the
case of the half-wave rectifier.
The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current. In
the diagram, the two equal resistors R across the input voltage are necessary
to provide a voltage midpoint C for circuit connection and zero reference.
Note that the load resistor RL is connected from the cathodes to this center
reference point C.
An interesting fact about the output waveform v out is that its peak
amplitude is not 9 V as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using the same
power source, but is less than 4 V. The reason, of course, is that the peak
positive voltage of A relative to C is 4 V, not 9 V, and part of the 4 V is
lost across R.
Though the full wave rectifier fills in the conduction gaps, it delivers
less than half the peak output voltage that results from half-wave
rectification.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier. It

requires four diodes instead of two, but avoids the need for a centre-tapped
transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes
D2 and D4 are conducting and diodes D1 and D3 are non-conducting.
Therefore, current flows through the secondary winding, diode D2, load
resistor RL and diode D4. During negative half-cycles of the secondary
voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and the diodes D2 and D4 do not
conduct. The current therefore flows through the secondary winding, diode
D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both cases, the current passes through
the load resistor in the same direction. Therefore, a fluctuating,
unidirectional voltage is developed across the load.

Filtration
The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an output
voltage that always has the same polarity: but however, this output is not
suitable as DC power supply for solid-state circuits. This is due to the
pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This should be removed out before
the output voltage can be supplied to any circuit. This smoothing is done by

incorporating filter networks. The filter network consists of inductors and

capacitors. The inductors or choke coils are generally connected in series
with the rectifier output and the load. The inductors oppose any change in
the magnitude of a current flowing through them by storing up energy in a
magnetic field. An inductor offers very low resistance for DC whereas; it
offers very high resistance to AC. Thus, a series connected choke coil in a
rectifier circuit helps to reduce the pulsations or ripples to a great extent in
the output voltage. The fitter capacitors are usually connected in parallel
with the rectifier output and the load. As, AC can pass through a capacitor
but DC cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output becomes
smoothed. When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores up
energy back into voltage and current. Thus, the fluctuations in the output
voltage are reduced considerable. Filter network circuits may be of two
types in general:

CHOKE INPUT FILTER

If a choke coil or an inductor is used as the first- components in the

filter network, the filter is called choke input filter. The D.C. along with
AC pulsation from the rectifier circuit at first passes through the choke (L).
It opposes the AC pulsations but allows the DC to pass through it freely.
Thus AC pulsations are largely reduced. The further ripples are by passed
through the parallel capacitor C. But, however, a little nipple remains
unaffected, which are considered negligible. This little ripple may be
reduced by incorporating a series a choke input filters.
CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER

If a capacitor is placed before the inductors of a choke-input filter

network, the filter is called capacitor input filter. The D.C. along with AC
ripples from the rectifier circuit starts charging the capacitor C. to about
peak value. The AC ripples are then diminished slightly. Now the capacitor
C, discharges through the inductor or choke coil, which opposes the AC
ripples, except the DC. The second capacitor C by passes the further AC
ripples. A small ripple is still present in the output of DC, which may be
reduced by adding additional filter network in series.

7. Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch.
Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever
and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two
switch positions and they are double throw
(changeover) switches.

Circuit symbol for a relay

Relays
Photographs Rapid Electronics

Relay showing coil and switch contacts

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a
relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection
inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and
mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a
12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate
from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a
transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value
required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without
amplification.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of
switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are
readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the
terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires
directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case
of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil
will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils
produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can
destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must
connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch
contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when
the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one
set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making
the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the

switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil
is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil
is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on
when the relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on

when the relay coil is off.

Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to
ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You
should find this information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit
powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V
supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available. Some relays
operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower
than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay
coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance
4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400
passes a current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum
output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will
require a transistor to amplify the current.

5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to
control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note
that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at
24V DC or 125V AC".
6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single
pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For
further information please see the page on switches.

Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs (chips) must be protected from the brief high voltage
'spike' produced when the relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how
a signal diode (eg 1N4007) is connected across the relay coil to provide this
protection. Note that the diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will
normally not conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is
switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the
coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no
current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage
'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.

Reed Relay
Photograph Rapid Electronics

Reed relays
Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are
normally operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through
the coil to create a magnetic field and close the reed switch.

Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000
for example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example).
They are capable of switching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to
several hundred times per second; but they can only switch low currents
(500mA maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin
DIL socket ('chip holder').
For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For
switching small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better
choice than a relay. However transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages
(such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for
switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but
note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for
the relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed
below:

8. TRANSISTOR
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a
solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators,
there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some
conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a
conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a
variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor
device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one
is the collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be
connected in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will function).
Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal,
while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a
number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications.
There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN & (ii) PNP
NPN Transistors:
When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to
conduct by allowing current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit.
The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes a much

greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit.

phenomenon is called current gain and it is measure in beta.
PNP Transistor:

The

It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative
voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter.

Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a

controlled current flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor
elements used for making it. There are two types of transistors such as
POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact
construction is defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are
in many respects analogous to triode electron tube.
A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a
triode tube, but has the additional advantage of long life, small size,
ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power.
Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while
manufacturing.

The two types are: 1)

PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P type of

germanium to an N-P Junction

2)
NPN TYPE:This is formed by joining a layer of N type germanium
to a P-N Junction.

Both types are shown in figure, with their

symbols for representation. The centre section is
called the base, one of the outside sections-the
emitter and the other outside section-the collector. The direction of the
arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward
bias on the emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction to the
electron flow.

OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or
silicon diodes, placed back to back. The centre of N-type portion is
extremely thin in comparison to P region. The P region of the left is
connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the negative terminal i.e.
PN is biased in the forward direction while P region of right is biased
negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in the
forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased
negatively is called collector. The centre is called base.

The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to

N region as they are repelled by the positive terminal of battery while the
electrons of N region are attracted by the positive terminal. The holes
overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N region. As the
width of base region is extremely thin, two to five percent of holes
recombine with the free electrons of N- region which result in a small base
current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction.
The collector is biased negatively and the negative collector voltage aids in
sweeping the hole into collector region.
As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current
should flow but the following facts are observed:1)

A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased

in a forward direction.

2) The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of
the emitter, and
3)

The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with the

decrease or increase in the emitter current a corresponding
change in the collector current is observed.

The facts can be explained as follows:-

1. As already discussed that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in

recombination with the electron n base region, which result in a
small base current and hence the collector current is slightly less
than the emitter current.
2.
The collector current increases as the holes reaching the collector
junction are attracted by negative potential applied to the collector.
3.
When the emitter current increases, most holes are injected into the
base region, which is attracted by the negative potential of the collector
and hence results in increasing the collector current. In this way emitter
is analogous to the control of plate current by small grid voltage in a
vacuum triode.
Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward biased and collector
is negatively biased, a substantial current flows in both the circuits. Since a
small emitter voltage of about 0.1 to 0.5 volts permits the flow of an

appreciable emitter current the input power is very small. The collector voltage
can be as high as 45 volts.

10. SEGMENT DISPLAYS

The 7 segment display is used as a numerical indicator on many types of test

equipment.
It is an assembly of light emitting diodes which can be powered
individually.
They most commonly emit red light.
They are arranged and labelled as shown in the diagram.
Powering all the segments will display the number 8.
Powering a,b,c d and g will display the number 3.
Numbers 0 to 9 can be displayed.
The d.p represents a decimal point.
The one shown is a common anode display since all anodes are joined
together and go to the positive supply.
The cathodes are connected individually to zero volts.
Resistors must be placed in series with each diode to limit the current
through each diode to a safe value.
Early wrist watches used this type of display but they used so much current
that the display was normally switched off. To see the time you had to push
a button.
Common cathode displays where all the cathodes are joined are also
available.
Liquid crystal displays do a similar job and consume much less power.

11 .LM567
Tone Decoder
Features
20 to 1 frequency range with an external resistor
Logic compatible output with 100 mA current sinking capability
Bandwidth adjustable from 0 to 14%
High rejection of out of band signals and noise
Immunity to false signals
Highly stable center frequency
Center frequency adjustable from 0.01 Hz to 500 kHz
Description
The LM567 and LM567C are general purpose tone decoders designed to
provide a saturated transistor switch to ground when an input signal is
present within the passband. The circuit consists of an I and Q detector
driven by a voltage controlled oscillator which determines the center
frequency of the decoder. External components are used to independently set
center frequency, bandwidth and output delay.
Applications
Touch tone decoding
Precision oscillator
Frequency monitoring and control
Wide band FSK demodulation
Ultrasonic controls
Carrier current remote controls

 Communications paging decoders

12 Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one circuit to
another by magnetic coupling with no moving parts. A transformer
comprises two or more coupled windings, or a single tapped winding and, in
most cases, a magnetic core to concentrate magnetic flux. A changing
current in one winding creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the core,
which induces a voltage in the other windings. Michael Faraday built the
first transformer, although he used it only to demonstrate the principle of
electromagnetic induction and did not foresee the use to which it would
eventually be put.

A historical Stanley transformer.

Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs, who first exhibited a device
called a 'secondary generator' in London in 1881 and then sold the
idea to American company Westinghouse. This may have been the
first practical power transformer. They also exhibited the invention in
Turin in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system.
Their early devices used an open iron core, which was soon

abandoned in favour of a more efficient circular core with a closed

magnetic path.

William Stanley, an engineer for Westinghouse, who built the first

practical device in 1885 after George Westinghouse bought Gaulard
and Gibbs' patents. The core was made from interlocking E-shaped
iron plates. This design was first used commercially in 1886.
Hungarian engineers Kroly Zipernowsky, Ott Blthy and Miksa
Dri at the Ganz company in Budapest in 1885, who created the
efficient "ZBD" model based on the design by Gaulard and Gibbs.
Nikola Tesla in 1891 invented the Tesla coil, which is a high-voltage,
air-core, dual-tuned resonant transformer for generating very high
voltages at high frequency.

Overview
The transformer is one of the simplest of electrical devices, yet transformer
designs and materials continue to be improved. Transformers are essential
for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance
transmission economically practical. This advantage was the principal factor
in the selection of alternating current power transmission in the "War of
Currents" in the late 1880s.
Audio frequency transformers (at the time called repeating coils) were used
by the earliest experimenters in the development of the telephone. While
some electronics applications of the transformer have been made obsolete by
new technologies, transformers are still found in many electronic devices.
Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling
transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge gigawatt units used to
interconnect large portions of national power grids. All operate with the
same basic principles and with many similarities in their parts.
Single phase pole-mounted step-down transformer
Transformers alone cannot do the following:

Convert DC to AC or vice versa

Change the voltage or current of DC

Change the AC supply frequency.

However, transformers are components of the systems that perform all these
functions.
An analogy

The transformer may be considered as a simple two-wheel 'gearbox' for

electrical voltage and current. The primary winding is analogous to the input
shaft and the secondary winding to the output shaft. In this analogy, current
is equivalent to shaft speed, voltage to shaft torque. In a gearbox, mechanical
power (torque multiplied by speed) is constant (neglecting losses) and is
equivalent to electrical power (voltage multiplied by current) which is also
constant.
The gear ratio is equivalent to the transformer step-up or step-down ratio. A
step-up transformer acts analogously to a reduction gear (in which
mechanical power is transferred from a small, rapidly rotating gear to a
large, slowly rotating gear): it trades current (speed) for voltage (torque), by
transferring power from a primary coil to a secondary coil having more
turns. A step-down transformer acts analogously to a multiplier gear (in
which mechanical power is transferred from a large gear to a small gear): it
trades voltage (torque) for current (speed), by transferring power from a
primary coil to a secondary coil having fewer turns.
Coupling by mutual induction

A simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the

primary winding and the secondary winding. Energy is coupled between
the windings by the time-varying magnetic flux that passes through (links)
both primary and secondary windings. When the current in a coil is switched
on or off or changed, a voltage is induced in a neighboring coil. The effect,
called mutual inductance, is an example of electromagnetic induction.

Simplified analysis

A practical step-down transformer showing magnetising flux in the core

If a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary winding of
turns, a
current will flow in it producing a magnetomotive force (MMF). Just as an
electromotive force (EMF) drives current around an electric circuit, so MMF
tries to drive magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. The primary MMF
produces a varying magnetic flux
in the core, and, with an open circuit
secondary winding, induces a back electromotive force (EMF) in opposition
to . In accordance with Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced
across the primary winding is proportional to the rate of change of flux:

and

where

vP and vS are the voltages across the primary winding and secondary
winding,
NP and NS are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and
secondary winding,
dP / dt and dS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with respect to
time of the primary and secondary windings.

Saying that the primary and secondary windings are perfectly coupled is
equivalent to saying that
. Substituting and solving for the
voltages shows that:

where

vp and vs are voltages across primary and secondary,

Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary,
respectively.

Hence in an ideal transformer, the ratio of the primary and secondary

voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns in their windings, or
alternatively, the voltage per turn is the same for both windings. The ratio of
the currents in the primary and secondary circuits is inversely proportional
to the turns ratio. This leads to the most common use of the transformer: to
convert electrical energy at one voltage to energy at a different voltage by
means of windings with different numbers of turns. In a practical
transformer, the higher-voltage winding will have more turns, of smaller
conductor cross-section, than the lower-voltage windings.
The EMF in the secondary winding, if connected to an electrical circuit, will
cause current to flow in the secondary circuit. The MMF produced by
current in the secondary opposes the MMF of the primary and so tends to
cancel the flux in the core. Since the reduced flux reduces the EMF induced
in the primary winding, increased current flows in the primary circuit. The
resulting increase in MMF due to the primary current offsets the effect of the
opposing secondary MMF. In this way, the electrical energy fed into the
primary winding is delivered to the secondary winding. Also because of this,
the flux density will always stay the same as long as the primary voltage is
steady.
For example, suppose a power of 50 watts is supplied to a resistive load
from a transformer with a turns ratio of 25:2.

P = EI (power = electromotive force current)

50 W = 2 V 25 A in the primary circuit if the load is a resistive load.

(See note 1)
Now with transformer change:

50 W = 25 V 2 A in the secondary circuit.

Construction
Cores

Steel cores

Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of unit.

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies have cores made of
many thin laminations of silicon steel. By concentrating the magnetic flux,
more of it is usefully linked by both primary and secondary windings. Since
the steel core is conductive, it, too, has currents induced in it by the
changing magnetic flux. Each layer is insulated from the adjacent layer to
reduce the energy lost to eddy current heating of the core. The thin
laminations are used to reduce the eddy currents, and the insulation is used
to keep the laminations from acting as a solid piece of steel. The thinner the
laminations, the lower the eddy currents, and the lower the losses. Very thin
laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers. The cost
goes up when using thinner laminations mainly over the labor in stacking
them.
A typical laminated core is made from E-shaped and I-shaped pieces,
leading to the name "EI transformer". In the EI transformer, the laminations
are stacked in what is known as an interleaved fashion. Due to this
interleaving a second gap in parallel (in an analogy to electronic circuits) to
the gap between E and I is formed between the E-pieces. The E-pieces are
pressed together to reduce the gap width to that of the insulation. The gap

area is very large, so that the effective gap width is very small (in analogy to
a capacitor). For this to work the flux has to gradually flow from one E to
the other. That means that on one end all flux is only on every second E.
That means saturation occurs at half the flux density. Using a longer E and
wedging it with two small Is will increase the overlap and additionally make
the grains more parallel to the flux (think of a wooden frame for a window).
If an air gap is needed (which is unlikely considering the low remanence
available for steel), all the E's are stacked on one side, and all the I's on the
other creating a gap.
The cut core or C-core is made by winding a silicon steel strip around a
rectangular form. After the required thickness is achieved, it is removed
from the form and the laminations are bonded together. It is then cut in two
forming two C shapes. The faces of the cuts are then ground smooth so they
fit very tight with a very small gap to reduce losses. The core is then
assembled by placing the two C halves together, and holding them closed by
a steel strap. Usually two C-cores are used to shorten the return path for the
magnetic flux resulting in a form similar to the EI. More cores would
necessitate a triangular cross-section. Like toroidal cores they have the
advantage, that the flux is always in the oriented parallel the grains. Due to
the bending of the core some area is lost for a rectangular winging.
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when
power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will
cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remanent magnetism is
reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied alternating current.
Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this
harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long overhead power
transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during
solar storms can cause saturation of the core, and false operation of
transformer protection devices.
Distribution transformers can achieve low off-load losses by using cores
made with low loss high permeability silicon steel and amorphous (noncrystalline) steel, so-called "metal glasses" the high cost of the core
material is offset by the lower losses incurred at light load, over the life of
the transformer. In order to maintain good voltage regulation, distribution
transformers are designed to have very low leakage inductance.

Certain special purpose transformers use long magnetic paths, insert air
gaps, or add magnetic shunts (which bypass a portion of magnetic flux that
would otherwise link the primary and secondary windings) in order to
intentionally add leakage inductance. The additional leakage inductance
limits the secondary winding's short circuit current to a safe, or a controlled,
level. This technique is used to stabilize the output current for loads that
exhibit negative resistance such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and
neon signs, or safely handle loads that may become periodically shortcircuited such as electric arc welders. Gaps are also used to keep a
transformer from saturating, especially audio transformers which have a DC
component added.

Solid cores
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power
supplies) that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of
kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high
bulk electrical resistivity.
At even higher, radio-frequencies (RF), other types of cores made from nonconductive magnetic ceramic materials, called ferrites, are common. Some
RF transformers also have moveable cores (sometimes called slugs) which
allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radiofrequency circuits.

Air cores
High-frequency transformers may also use air cores. These eliminate the
loss due to hysteresis in the core material. Such transformers maintain high
coupling efficiency (low stray field loss) by overlapping the primary and
secondary windings.

Toroidal cores

Various transformers. The top right is toroidal. The bottom right is from a 12
VAC wall wart supply.
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which is made
from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, from
powdered iron, or ferrite, depending on operating frequency. The strip
construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The
closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an EI
core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more
expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary
and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire
surface of the core. This minimises the length of wire needed, and also
provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating
electromagnetic interference.
Ferrite toroid cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few
tens of kilohertz to a megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight
of switch-mode power supplies.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated EI types
of similar power level. Other advantages, compared to EI types, include
smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum
(making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field
(about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in
standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and more choice of shapes. This last
point means that, for a given power output, either a wide, flat toroid or a tall,
narrow one with the same electrical properties can be chosen, depending on
the space available. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited size.

A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher cost of

windings. As a consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above
ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of
the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then
inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.
When fitting a toroidal transformer, it is important to avoid making an
unintentional short-circuit through the core. This can happen if the steel
mounting bolt in the middle of the core is allowed to touch metalwork at
both ends, making a loop of conductive material which passes through the
hole in the toroid. Such a loop could result in a dangerously large current
flowing in the bolt.
Windings

The wire of the adjacent turns in a coil, and in the different windings, must
be electrically insulated from each other. The wire used is generally magnet
wire. Magnet wire is a copper wire with a coating of varnish or some other
synthetic coating. Transformers for years have used Formvar wire which is a
varnished type of magnet wire.
The conducting material used for the winding depends upon the application.
Small power and signal transformers are wound with solid copper wire,
insulated usually with enamel, and sometimes additional insulation. Larger
power transformers may be wound with wire, copper, or aluminum
rectangular conductors. Strip conductors are used for very heavy currents.
High frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz
will have windings made of Litz wire to minimize the skin effect losses in
the conductors. Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors
as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of
current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is
insulated from the other, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points
in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies
different relative positions in the complete conductor. This "transposition"
equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces
eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also
more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size. (see reference (1)
below)

For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimise

leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency
response. This can be done by splitting up each coil into sections, and those
sections placed in layers between the sections of the other winding. This is
known as a stacked type or interleaved winding.
Windings on both the primary and secondary of power transformers may
have external connections (called taps) to intermediate points on the winding
to allow adjustment of the voltage ratio. Taps may be connected to an
automatic, on-load tap changer type of switchgear for voltage regulation of
distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution
of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of
impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the
output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull type circuit.
Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar. Tapped
transformers are also used as components of amplifiers, oscillators, and for
feedback linearization of amplifier circuits.
Insulation

The turns of the windings must be insulated from each other to ensure that
the current travels through the entire winding. The potential difference
between adjacent turns is usually small, so that enamel insulation is usually
sufficient for small power transformers. Supplemental sheet or tape
insulation is usually employed between winding layers in larger
transformers.
The transformer may also be immersed in transformer oil that provides
further insulation. Although the oil is primarily used to cool the transformer,
it also helps to reduce the formation of corona discharge within high voltage
transformers. By cooling the windings, the insulation will not break down as
easily due to heat. To ensure that the insulating capability of the transformer
oil does not deteriorate, the transformer casing is completely sealed against
moisture ingress. Thus the oil serves as both a cooling medium to remove
heat from the core and coil, and as part of the insulation system.
Certain power transformers have the windings protected by epoxy resin. By
impregnating the transformer with epoxy under a vacuum, air spaces within
the windings are replaced with epoxy, thereby sealing the windings and
helping to prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or

water. This produces transformers suitable for damp or dirty environments,

but at increased manufacturing cost.
Shielding

Where transformers are intended for minimum electrostatic coupling

between primary and secondary circuits, an electrostatic shield can be placed
between windings to reduce the capacitance between primary and secondary
windings. The shield may be a single layer of metal foil, insulated where it
overlaps to prevent it acting as a shorted turn, or a single layer winding
between primary and secondary. The shield is connected to earth ground.
Transformers may also be enclosed by magnetic shields, electrostatic
shields, or both to prevent outside interference from affecting the operation
of the transformer, or to prevent the transformer from affecting the operation
of nearby devices that may be sensitive to stray fields such as CRTs.
Coolant

Three phase dry-type transformer with cover removed; rated about 200
KVA, 480 V.
Small signal transformers do not generate significant amounts of heat.
Power transformers rated up to a few kilowatts rely on natural convective air
cooling. Specific provision must be made for cooling of high-power
transformers. Transformers handling higher power, or having a high duty
cycle can be fan-cooled.
Some dry transformers are enclosed in pressurized tanks and are cooled by
nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.

The windings of high-power or high-voltage transformers are immersed in

transformer oil a highly-refined mineral oil, that is stable at high
temperatures. Large transformers to be used indoors must use a nonflammable liquid. Formerly, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was used as it
was not a fire hazard in indoor power transformers and it is highly stable.
Due to the stability and toxic effects of PCB byproducts, and its
accumulation in the environment, it is no longer permitted in new
equipment. Old transformers which still contain PCB should be examined on
a weekly basis for leakage. If found to be leaking, it should be changed out,
and professionally decontaminated or scrapped in an environmentally safe
manner. Today, nontoxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated
hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid
offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. Other less-flammable
fluids such as canola oil may be used but all fire resistant fluids have some
drawbacks in performance, cost, or toxicity compared with mineral oil.
The oil cools the transformer, and provides part of the electrical insulation
between internal live parts. It has to be stable at high temperatures so that a
small short or arc will not cause a breakdown or fire. The oil-filled tank may
have radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection. Very
large or high-power transformers (with capacities of millions of watts) may
have cooling fans, oil pumps and even oil to water heat exchangers. Oilfilled transformers undergo prolonged drying processes, using vapor-phase
heat transfer, electrical self-heating, the application of a vacuum, or
combinations of these, to ensure that the transformer is completely free of
water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical
breakdown under load.
Oil-filled power transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays which
are safety devices that sense gas build-up inside the transformer (a side
effect of an electric arc inside the windings), and thus switches off the
transformer.
Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with
superconducting windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the
core steel loss. These are cooled by liquid nitrogen or helium.

Terminals

Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends
of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections.
Larger transformers may have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or highvoltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing
can be a complex structure since it must provide electrical insulation without
letting the transformer leak oil.
Enclosure

Small transformers often have no enclosure. Transformers may have a shield

enclosure, as described above. Larger units may be enclosed to prevent
contact with live parts, and to contain the cooling medium (oil or pressurized
gas).

REFERENCES:
1. WWW.GOOGLE.COM
2. WWW. EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
3. WWW. SCIENCE.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM
4. WWW. WWW.ROBOTS.COM