INTRODUCTION TO MODERN MATHEMATICS

HELENA RASIOWA
University of Warsaw

1973

NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY AMSTERDAM.LONDON AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. NEW YORK

CONTENTS
Foreword CHAPTER I. The algebra of sets The concept of set The union of sets The intersection of sets. The laws of absorption and distributivity . . . The difference of sets. Relationships between the difference of sets and the operations of union and intersection of sets 5. The universe. The complement of a set 6. Axioms of the algebra of sets 7. Fields of sets 8. Propositional functions of one variable 9. Note on axioms of set theory 10. Comments on the need of an axiomatic approach to set theory and on axiomatic theories CHAPTER II. Natural numbers. Proofs by induction 1. An axiomatic approach to natural numbers. The principle of induction 2. Examples of proofs by induction
CHAPTER III. Functions

1. 2. 3. 4.

1 5 7 11 14 18 19 20 22 23

27 32

1. 2. 3. 4.

The concept of function One-to-one functions. Inverse function Composition of functions Groups of transformations

37 41 45 47

CHAPTER IV. Generalized unions and intersections of sets 1. The concept of generalized union and intersection 2. The properties of generalized unions and intersections of sets CHAPTER V. Cartesian products of sets. Relations. Functions as relations 1. 2. 3. 4. Cartesian products Binary relations Propositional functions of two variables Reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, asymmetric, antisymmetric, and transitive relations ' 5. Functions as relations 60 61 64 66 68 50 54

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI. Generalized products, m-ary relations. Functions of several variables. Images and inverse images under a function 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Generalized products /n-ary relations Propositional functions of m variables Functions of several variables Images and inverse images under a function 72 75 76 78 78

CHAPTER VII. Equivalence relations 1. Definition of equivalence relations. Method of identification 2. Application of the method of identification to the construction of integers 3. Application of the method of identification to the construction of rational numbers \ 4. Note on Cantor's theory of real numbers CHAPTER VIII. Powers of sets 1. Equipotent sets. Power of a set 2. Enumerable sets 3. Examples of non-enumerable sets 4. Inequalities for cardinal numbers. The Cantor-Bernstein theorem . . . 5. Sets of the power of the continuum 6. The power set. Cantor's theorem. Consequences of Cantor's theorem . . CHAPTER IX. Ordered sets 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ordering relations Maximal and minimal elements Subsets of ordered sets. The Kuratowski-Zorn lemma Note on lattices Quasi-ordering relations Note on directed sets . . . . : 121 125 129 132 133 135 99 101 106 108 113 116 90 93 95 96

CHAPTER X. Linearly ordered sets 1. 2. 3. 4. Linear orderings Isomorphism of linearly ordered sets Dense linear orderings Continuous linear orderings 138 141 146 147

CHAPTER XL Well-ordered sets 1. 2. 3. 4. Well-ordering relations. Ordinal numbers Comparison of ordinal numbers Sets of ordinal numbers Powers of ordinal numbers. The cardinal number X(m) 152 156 161 163

CONTENTS

xj

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The theorem on transfinite induction. Transfinite sequences The theorem on definition by transfinite induction Zermelo's well-ordering theorem. Note on the axiom of choice A proof of the Kuratowski-Zorn lemma The continuum hypothesis

. . . .

164 167 ] 69 172 174

CHAPTER XII. The propositional calculus and its applications in mathematical proofs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Introductory remarks Propositional connectives The concept of law in the propositional calculus The concept of rules of inference. The rule of detachment Equivalence of propositions and equivalence of propositional functions The rules of detachment for equivalence Square of opposition The rules of hypothetical syllogism Rules of inference involving conjunction and disjunction Simplification, Frege's, Duns Scotus', and Clavius'rules Apagogic proofs '. . Principal propositional tautologies and their applications Axiomatic approach to the propositional calculus 177 178 189 194 197 201 202 205 208 211 213 216 222

CHAPTER XIII. The functional calculus and its applications in mathematical proofs 1. Quantifiers and propositional functions of one variable 2. Quantifiers with restricted ranges 3. Quantifiers and propositional functions of m variables 4. Functional tautologies 5. Introduction and elimination laws for quantifiers 6. Distributivity laws for quantifiers 7. Laws on the relettering and on the alternations of quantifieis 8. Rules of inference 9. Quantifiers versus generalized unions and intersections of sets 10. Examples of applications of the functional calculus in mathematical proofs 11. Note on formalized mathematical theories . CHAPTER XIV. Elementary concepts of abstract algebra 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Abstract algebras Subalgebras. Sets of generators Similar algebras. Homomorphisms. Isomorphisms Congruences. Quotient algebras Products of algebras 287 288 290 297 301 234 237 239 243 249 255 260 263 267 271 277

Xll

CONTENTS
it

6. Algebraic functions 7. Equationally definable classes of algebras 8. Free algebras 9. Construction of free algebras for certain classes of algebras List of important symbols Author index Subject index

303 308 314 319 327 329 331