TABLE 0F C0NTENTS

The Legal System ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... S

The language of the law .............................................................................................................................................................................. S
Rules anu noims ............................................................................................................................................................................................ S
The notion of souice of the law .............................................................................................................................................................. S
The legal system ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
The souices of Italian law .......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Repeal of laws (ait.1S CC) The piinciple of non-ietioactivity ............................................................................................. S
Relations between souices: Equality, supiemacy, competence ............................................................................................. S
Case law anu legal scholais ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6
The enfoicement of legal iules ......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Stiuctuie of legal iules ................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Statutes. Rules anu piovisions ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
The inteipietation of statutes ................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Inteipietation anu the legal system ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Legal facts anu acts ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
The concept of legal facts anu acts ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
The concept of act in the CC .................................................................................................................................................................. 8
valiuity anu effectiveness of legal acts ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Peisons ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Natuial anu legal peisons .......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Natuial peisons .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Ninois anu paiental iights ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Legal entities ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1u
The concept of thing ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 1u
The concept of thing in the CC .............................................................................................................................................................. 1u
Relations between things ....................................................................................................................................................................... 1u
Categoiies of things ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1u
The human bouy ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Beyonu things ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Novables anu immovable piopeity ................................................................................................................................................... 11
0niveisality of movables ........................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Fiuits ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Public anu piivate things ........................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Piotection of iights .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Public Recoius ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12


Pioof anu eviuence .................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Pioof by witnesses ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 1S
Piesumptions ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 1S
Confession - }uuicial 0aths ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Situations unuei the law anu Piesciiption .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Piesciiption ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Foifeituie. Lapse of time ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1S
Rights anu iemeuies. Stanuing to sue ............................................................................................................................................... 1S
Qualifieu inteiests, collective inteiests ............................................................................................................................................ 1S
Elements of civil pioceuuie ................................................................................................................................................................... 16
The Constitution anu oiuinaiy Law ............................................................................................................................................................ 17
Constitutional iights ................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
The Economic Constitution ................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Piivate owneiship ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Euiopean tieaties ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
A thiee-piongeu system .......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
The iight of owneiship anu piopeity inteiests ..................................................................................................................................... 18
The iight of owneiship ............................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Biveisity of owneiship ............................................................................................................................................................................ 18
New economy ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
The iight of owneiship in the CC ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Lanu owneiship .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Piopeity inteiests ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
0sufiuct ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Pieuial seivituues ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2u
Common owneiship .................................................................................................................................................................................. 2u
Possession ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
The notion of possession ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Relevance of possession: acquisition of owneiship anu piopeity inteiests by oiiginal title ................................ 21
The action foi iecoveiy of possession .............................................................................................................................................. 22
The Law of 0bligations ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 2S
Intiouuction .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2S
Bue peifoimance anu non-peifoimance ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Paiticulai cases of obligations ............................................................................................................................................................. 26
Ciiculation of iights anu obligations ................................................................................................................................................. 27
The law of contiact .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28





TBE LEuAL SYSTEN
TBE LANu0AuE 0F TBE LAW
A iule is a statement that piesciibes some human conuuct uefineu as 1) compulsoiy (uuty to act) 2) piohibiteu
(uuty not to act) oi S) lawful (possibility to act). a iule uoes not uesciibe, but piesciibes.
!"#$%&'( iegaius the conuuct of a specific peisongioup e.g. Close the uooi, Paul
)'*+,'( coveis one oi moie factually specifieu situations e.g. if youre the last to leave, close the uooi
Paul.
-"&"#'( uiiects the conuuct to whoevei may finu himself in a specifieu situation e.g. the last out
closes the uooi
./$+#'*+ coveis any situation that iepeats the one envisioneu e.g. at the enu of each lectuie (base
situation), the last out closes the uooi

Peisonal anu factual: }ohn, uebtoi, has to pay a sum of money to }oe, cieuitoi
ueneial anu factual: oiuinance issueu to the iesiuents of a stieet to shovel the snow in case of snowfalls.
Save exceptions, iules containeu in Coues, Statutes, Beciees anu Regulations aie both geneial anu abstiact.
R0LES ANB N0RNS
1,("2&%#3: rule derives from regula (straight), norm means normal and has the goal to make ones
behavioui noimal.
4'&*+5%&$6 1) civil sanction: compensation foi uamages 2) ciiminal sanction: impiisonment S) auministiative
sanction: a fine
A legal iule is : 1) a iule the violation of which woulu be checkeu by the use of foice of a peison oi gioup that
has the socially acknowleugeu piivilege to act in such mannei 2) a iule the enfoicement of which is entiusteu
to the authoiity of a couit
In a piimitive oi elementaiy oiganization the couit yielus the powei to aujuuicate even in absence of a ciiteiion
that woulu uiiects it to uiaw its uecisions solely fiom a ceitain souice: pieceuents, customs, opinions of wise
men. Bowevei, as a society becomes moie complex, a uisciiminating ciiteiion is intiouuceu between iules: the
only accepted rule is the legal rule
TBE N0TI0N 0F S00RCE 0F TBE LAW
A source of law can be defined as any act or fact apt at piouucing legal iules in a given system. Bistinction
between: 1) wiitten souices: acts of Pailiament 2) obseivance of customs, examination of pieceuents
}uuicial pieceuents uecision ienueieu in a case similai to the case to be ueciueu, oi a seiies of
unifoim cases fiom which a iule can be extiacteu
Legislative act a pioceeuing by which an Authoiity vesteu with the powei to legislate uiaws up a text
containing legal iules.


Who ueciues which souices aie apt to geneiate iules. 1) In eveiy system theie aie iules setting foith the ways
anu means to make the iules of that system. Bowevei, if eveiy iule hau to be legitimizeu by a highei iule, legal
scholais woulu go to infinity. 0ltimately, the legitimacy of a legal system stems fiom its affiiming itself as such,
within a given social giouping.
TBE LEuAL SYSTEN
7"8'( $9$+"3 a complex of legal iules maue in confoimity with an ensemble of souices, legitimizeu by a
single founuing act which paveu the way to the oiganization of a social giouping.
Foi a given system, the law is only the domestic law (the laws of another state are mere facts). pluiality of
systems.
:&+"#&'+5%&'( 7'; iegulates ielationships btw State, uiaws upon its own souices anu iules (i.e.
inteinational customs anu tieaties). Bowevei, what is unlawful accoiuing to the Inteinational Law may be
lawful unuei Italian Law. In Italy, the inteinational iules take effect aftei iatification (appioval) by the 2 Bouses
of Pailiament.
Locking up the legal system geneially societies who uiaw a cleai line between the legislative powei anu the
juuicial powei have a lockeu system of souices, in which a couit cannot ienuei a uecision amounting to a new
binuing iule. The line is less cleai wheie case law is the souices of law anu wheie a pait of the bouy of law is
foimeu out of juuicial pieceuents. Bowveei, a fully lockeu system is impossible to attain because iules (wiitten
oi not) aie influenceu by iueas, juugements anu values acquiieu by the couit thiough expeiience in anu
obseivation of social life its convenient to use words with broad meaning, in order to enable a court to
evaluate the facts in light of the evolution of society.
TBE S00RCES 0F ITALIAN LAW

<%&$+5+,+5%& ='&> <%&$+5+,+5%&'( $+'+,+"$?
@#"'+9 %A +B" C<
a. 1"8,('+5%&$: on matteis stipulateu by the founuing Tieaty of the EC (mouifieu by the Single E0
Act -1987-, E0 Tieaty of Naastiicht -1992-, Tieaty of Amsteiuam 1997-, Tieaty of Nice -2uu1-,
Tieaty of Lisbon 2uu7-), to take immeuiate anu uiiect effect in the Nembei States anu pievail
ovei uiveiging statutes.
b. D5#"*+5E"$: in oiuei to haimonize the legislation of the Nembei States, foi the appioximation of
laws that uiiectly affect the establishment oi functioning of the Common maiket e.g. Community
Act
7';$ =4+'+,+"$F .*+$ %A !'#(5'3"&+? all enactments within the legislative function unuei the Italian
Constitution, that is:
"#$%&'('&#$
)(*#+,-$ .*#/&%&#$%
0'-'(',% -$1 %&2&3-* +*#/&%&#$%
"(%'#2% -$1 (%-4,%


a. 4+'+,+"$: acts of Pailiament maue in confoimity with the appuitenant pioceuuies uesciibeu in
ait.7u IC i.e. appioval by the Bouses of Pailiament, piomulgation by the Piesiuent of iepublic,
publication the 0fficial uazette
b. C&'*+3"&+$: same powei as the Statutes, but maue with a uiffeient pioceuuie: 1) Legislative
Beciees, maue by the Italian uoveinment on uelegateu legislation 2) Law ueciees, maue by the
uoveinment in cases of extieme necessity anu uigency, subsequently appioveu anu tuineu into
statutes.
c. 1"85%&'( 7';$: in case they dont respect the fundamental principles set out by the State, the
Constitutional Couit is calleu to ueciue.
D%3"$+5* 1"8,('+5%&$ issueu by Ninistiies, iegions, Piovinces, Nunicipalities.
<,$+%3$2G$'8" subsiuiaiy souices of law. They cannot conflict with highei souices. In oiuei to
have a custom, a ceitain pattein of behavioui has to be: a) geneial, iepeateu anu constant within a
ceitain community b) membeis of the community obseive it in the belief that they aie bounu by the
rule of behaviour. A uistinction is btw a) custom piaetei legem: not iegulateu by anothei souice of
law b) custom secunuum legem, iegulateu by a highei souices.
REPEAL 0F LAWS (ART.1S CC) TBE PRINCIPLE 0F N0N-RETR0ACTIvITY
If a new legal iule cieateu at a latei time conflicts with existing legal iules applicable to the same mattei, those
iules can be iepealeu: when such conflicts aiise, chionology ueteimines its iesolution, so that the moie iecent
law pievails (if they aie iankeu in the same position, otheiwise the pyiamiu hieiaichy pievails)
CHI#"$$ #"I"'(: upon expiess statement of lawmakeis
:3I(5*5+ #"I"'(: upon incompatibility btw new piovisions anu pievious ones because the new law
applies to the entiiety of the subject-mattei subject to the pievious law. No iepeal if the law mouifies
only one point of a pievious statute.
1"I"'( /9 1"A"#"&>,36 signeu by Suu uuu citizens oi S Regional councils. No iefeienuum may be
pioposeu foi laws iegaiuing taxation, buuget, amnesty, paiuon oi iatification of inteinational tieaties.
J/$%("$*"&*"6 whenevei a ceitain conuuct which violates the law becomes a social pattein when a
ceitain omission which comes unuei the law becomes a social pattein, anu is believe to be consistent
with the legal system, then the social conuitions uictate that the law be not enfoiceu on account of
obsolescence.
This stems fiom the piinciple of non-retroactivity of law: there is no crime when theie is no
law / the law only provides for the future. Problems arise when transactions beginning under
existing law aie not concluueu by the time the new law takes effect. In such cases, lawmakeis
may uesign inteiim piovision, in oiuei to solve the conflict.
RELATI0NS BETWEEN S00RCES: EQ0ALITY, S0PRENACY, C0NPETENCE
As long as the iules uo not conflict with themselves, they aie simply auueu
In case of conflict, if souices aie uiffeient but of equal iank, the ciiteiion is chionology
When souices aie not homogeneous (uiffeient iank), hieiaichy is the ciiteiion: even if the iule of the
lowei iank is moie iecent w iespect to the one of highei iank, it will not be applieu.
:(("85+53'+" #,("$ when theie is a uefect in theii foimation which uisqualifies them. This is the case when
competence oveisteps its bounus oi when an infeiioi souices is in conflict with a supeiioi souice. Bowevei, it
doesnt mean that the provision is void, voidable or inexistent (it has to be complied with for the time between
the beginning anu the enuing of the pioceuuies to stiike off those piovisions). In case of unconstitutional law,
the Constitutional Couit is the only bouy vesteu with the powei of juuicial ieview


CASE LAW ANB LEuAL SCB0LARS
The Italian legal system makes a cleai uistinction btw the iole of lawmakeis anu the iole of couits. The foimei
makes the law but cannot enfoice them, whilst the lattei aujuuicate contioveisies by enfoicing the laws, but
cannot cieate new laws. I#5&*5I(" %A $"I'#'+5%& %A I%;"#$
0nly the Couit to whom the Coite ui Cassazione (civil anu ciiminal matteis) iefeis a case foi aujuuication is
bounu to apply the legal piinciple stateu by the Couit with specific iefeience to the case submitteu.
TBE ENF0RCENENT 0F LEuAL R0LES
STR0CT0RE 0F LEuAL R0LES
ueneially, the chaiacteiistic of a legal iule is that it is abstiact the logical scheme is if P, then Q.
A situation coming under a rule is referred to as the base-situation (fattispecie) this legal concept is useu 1)
on a abstiact level: if someone inflicts injury to others 2) on a specific level: when referring to concrete facts
e.g. on April 25, 2009)
Foi each single occuiience (IF) the legal iule sets out specific effects (TBEN) i.e. what a peison must oi may uo
anu usually uefines a conuuct as (';A,(F *%3I,($%#9 %# I#%B5/5+">. The ielation between the situation anu
the uefinition of the conuuct is chaiacteiizeu by stating that a ceitain event biings about ceitain effects
imputable to the uoei.
0ften the base-situation that biings about the effects unuei the legal iule is complex, in the sense that it
encompasses seveial uistinct factual elements, all of which aie necessaiy. E.g. accoiuing to ait.927-929,
ownership can be acquired by invention (finding). All of the following ciicumstances have to occui: 1) finuing
of a movable thing 2) the finuei biings it to the mayoi 2) mayoi issues a public note 4) a yeai lapses anu
legitimate owner hasnt claimed it the ielevant facts uo not occui simultanouelsy but piogiessively.
STAT0TES. R0LES ANB PR0vISI0NS
The meaning of a legislative act is not immeuiately ceitain: it uepenus on the meaning of woius accoiuing to
the social backgiounu wheie the iule has to be applieu. Foi instance, if a statute piecluues an ownei fiom
building within 3 m from the window of a neighbours house, we need to define to build (erecting a hedge?
Inflating a tent.) 5&+"#I#"+'+5%&
Sometimes, the conuuct piesciibeu by the iule must be infeiieu fiom a numbei of uiffeient piovisions.
Noieovei theie aie piovisions that uo not iequiie any mannei of conuuct, but meiely uefine the iequisites foi
the auoption of any numbei of conuucts.
The base unit of an Act is the aiticle (iuentifieu by ascenuing numbei). Each aiticle is subuiviueu in paiagiaphs.
When the Coue is long, the sections aie uiviueu into Titles, Beauings, Sections. Aiticles may be pieceueu by a
heauing summaiizing the content: this heauing is not pait of the aiticle.
TBE INTERPRETATI0N 0F STAT0TES
Seeking the meaning of piovisions is an opeiation known as interpretation of the law (ait.12 CC pioviues
guiuance).


75+"#'( 5&+"#I#"+'+5%& in the application of the law, one may not attribute it to a meaning different
from the manifest meaning of the words resulting from their connection (art.12 CC). So the context is
impoitant
@"("%(%85*'( 5&+"#I#"+'+5%& inteipietation shoulu be uiiecteu to asceitaining whethei the woius
are consistent with the aim of the legal rule itself e.g. do not lean out of the window has different
meaning if affixeu to the leuge of a tiain winuow oi on the top flooi of a skysciapei. Pieliminaiy uiafts
and bills may help determine the intention of lawmakers, yet they are not binding when such rules
become pait of the bouy of law.
INTERPRETATI0N ANB TBE LEuAL SYSTEN
Baimonization of the inteipietation:
D"*5$5%&$ %A <%#+" >5 <'$$'K5%&" (especially uuiing its }oint Sessions)
49$+"3'+5* 5&+"#I#"+'+5%& parts are consistent with the whole e.g. art.2 CC states that the
minoiity of age is fixeu at 18, so eveiy piovision iefeiiing to minoi with no fuithei specification will
mean less than 18
.&'(%89 when confionteu with facts wheie no law seems applicable, we stait fiom a basic
assumption: any case arising falls within the boundaries of the legal system and may be resolve by it.
Theiefoie the couit must look foi analogous cases. E.g. art.1783 Hotel-keepeis aie liable foi any
deterioration, destruction or theft of things taken into the hotel by their guests. Now suppose the
things are stolen in a camping site. If we consider the hotel a locked environment, then it cannot be
applicable to campsites. But if we assume that the aim of the aiticle is to ensuie that whoevei is away
fiom home has a safe uepositoiy foi things (teleologic inteipietation), then theie is no uiffeience btw a
camping site anu a hotel
-"&"#'( I#5&*5I("$ expiessively ueclaieu in the Constitution i.e. funuamental iights of a peison,
fieeuom to puisue piivate business unueitakings anu its limits etc. Bowevei, many piinciples iemain
implicit anu may be infeiieu only fiom the piesciiptive tenoi of a set of iules e.g. ait. 186S pioviues foi
the iight of a cieuitoi to ieceive in peipetuity peiiouic payments, notwithstanuing any contiaiy
agieement. Bowevei, ait 186S CC expiesses the geneial piinciple that no peipetual obligations exist in
piivate law. Theiefoie any paity may always seek teimination of a contiact. We must uistinguish btw
general principle # general clauses i.e. rules with a broader tenor (good faith of the parties of a
contiact).
LEuAL FACTS ANB ACTS
TBE C0NCEPT 0F LEuAL FACTS ANB ACTS
7"8'( A'*+ L 3"#" A'*+ a legal fact is any fact which a legal rule applies, ascribing a certain legal effect to it
i.e. an event in life identified by law as giving rise to rights and duties. A mere fact is any event.
)'*+$ E$ '*+$ facts aie occuiiences while the lattei aie motions uiiecteu by the minu, caiiieu out voluntaiily.
7"8'( A'*+$: biith, ueath, collapse of a builuing
7"8'( '*+$: manifestation of the human will that piouuce coiielative iights anu uuties. Among legal
acts, theie aie human acts: the legal effect associateu with a ceitain event occuis iegaiuless of the
intent of the peison auopting a ceitain behavioui to piouuce it.
Bistinction btw intent of a peison to auopt a specific conuuct # intent to piouuce ceitain effects:
someone becomes the ownei of a movable thing found, even if the finder does not want those effects.


0ne the othei hanu maiiiage is a legal act, as in oiuei to maiiy the peison must want to contiact
maiiiage.
7';A,( E$ ,&(';A,( an act is lawful when a legal iule pioviues foi the legal effects of a ceitain peimitteu
conduct / an act is unlawful when its in the breach of a legal rule and consequently falls subject to a sanction.
G&(';A,( '*+$ a conuuct is unlawful eithei when 1) is unueitaken although expiessively piohibiteu by law
oi 2) is giievous to the inteiests piotecteu by the law. In ciiminal law wheie the piinciple says that no ciime is
committeu wheie no law expiessively pioviues foi it, it is necessaiy to enumeiate all the types of ciime
sanctioneu by law (no use of analogy). In piivate law insteau,
THE CONCEPT OF ACT IN TBE CC
In the CC the word act may take different meanings: more general like behaviour, action, practice or
narrower i.e. upon reaching the age of majority, a person acquires the capacity to act capacity to caiiy out
all the acts for which the law doesnt provide any other specific age. Acts requiring majority are contracts, wills,
maiiiage, acknowleugement pateinity, taking a juuicial oath.
Bence, when enteiing into a contiact, a peison accepts to stanu by the iules flowing fiom it. Theii
autonomy enables to set themselves the iules by which to guiue theii conuuct anu fuithei they own
inteiest. Autonomy is howevei ielative: paities can set up iules but not change the essence (e.g.
pienuptial agieement piohibiting cohabitation)
N.B. Whenever the terms of a legal acts are written down, also such document is called act
vALIBITY ANB EFFECTIvENESS 0F LEuAL ACTS
1"M,5#"3"&+$ A%# ' *%3I"&$'+5%& %A ;#%&8$ the fact was 1) eithei uelibeiate oi culpable 2) was
committeu by a peison who hau the capacity to unueistanuing anu intenuing (imputability) S) causeu uiiectly
anu immeuiately (causation) 4) unjust uamage to a thiiu peison (wiongfulness)
1"M,5#"3"&+$ A%# E'(5>5+9 %A *%&+#'*+ 1)agieement btw paities who have the legal capacity to cat anu
theii will is piopeily anu plainly expiesseu 2) a subject-mattei which must be possible, lawful, ueteimineu oi
determinable 3) a causa, the socio-economic function of the contiact 4) a foim, when specifically iequesteu by
the law foi the valiuity of the contiact.
When a contiact meets all the iequisite laiu uown by the law, then it is valiu i.e. appiopiiate to geneiating the
effects pioviueu foi unuei the law (contiact is a foim of piivate law).
<%&+#'*+ L '*+ a contiact can be valiu B0T non effective (i.e. will take effect only in the futuie oi unuei
certain circumstances, e.g. if the construction project..). Instead, when an act doesnt meet all the requisite of
the law, its not appropriate to generating the effects provided for by the law, its invaliuvoiuvoiuable
N%5>'/(" '*+ when it contains a flaw which is not so ielevant to make it voiu. They aie valiu until
annulleu by a uecision of the Couit
N%5> '*+ when it falls shoit of one of the caiuinal iequisites unuei the law, oi when it is unlawful.
They are per se invalid, therefore not enforceable at law.
PERS0NS
NAT0RAL ANB LEuAL PERS0NS


Society is composeu by inuiviuual who puisue, singly oi collectively, uiffeient aims anu inteiests. As such,
inuiviuuals anu entities aie vesteu with iights anu uuties.
O'+,#'( I"#$%&$ =5&>5E5>,'($? 2 7"8'( I"#$%&$ =*%(("*+5E" "&+5+5"$? they both act following inteiests,
whose acts anu conuucts aie autonomous anu puiposeful. Legal peisons aie theiefoie uistinct fiom the natuial
peisons who compose them. Theiefoie they both aie:
vesteu with iights anu uuties: insofai as theii veiy existence oiiginates situations falling unuei legal
iules
Acting within the legal system: insofai theii acts anu facts may geneial legal effects
Wheieas the legal capacity of natuial peisons is concuiient with theii biith, the legal capacity of legal peisons
is consecutive to theii establishment: the legal capacity is theiefoie not innate but acquiieu.
NAT0RAL PERS0NS
As human beings, all inuiviuuals have legal capacity, to the extent that they aie eligible to have iights anu uuties
art.2 IC: inviolability of the rights of the persons (the legal capacity is protected by the Constitution), no
person may be deprived, for political motives, of its legal capacity
7"8'( *'I'*5+9 a natural persons lifespan stretches from birth to death (not considering legal status of the
embryo). Its identification is strictly linked with its domicile i.e. the place where the person has established
the piincipal centie of theii business anu interests and its residence i.e. the place where the person has
established its habitual abode (place where one lives)
<'I'*5+9 +% '*+ when they ieach 18 yeais, inuiviuual acquiie the capacity to act i.e. capacity to exeicise
iights anu uuties in theii own name anu inteiest. It uoes not mean that acts peifoimeu by a peison lacking
capacity to act aie iiielevant (e.g. a contiact enteieu into a peison without legal capacity is valiu until annulleu
by the couit). Two exception to the geneial piinciple:
1. Peisons who aie habitually impaiieu in theii mental ability to make uecisions may be uepiiveu of theii
capacity to act 5&+"#>5*+5%& 2 >5$'/5(5+9
2. Remeuies aie available foi those cases in which a peison, tempoiaiily lacking sufficient ability to make
uecisions, enteis into legal tiansactions >" A'*+% 5&*'I'*5+9 2 &'+,#'( 5&*'I'*5+9
Inueeu, if a minoi uespite theii legal incapacity to act, has the capacity to unueistanu anu intenu, can be
appointed as agent (power of attorney), which confers him the power to entei into legal tiansactions in the
name anu in the inteiest of the piincipal, pioviueu the lattei has capacity to act.
Natuial incapacity is the cause foi the annulment of any legal act peifoimeu, pioviueu that: 1) the incapacity
existeu at the time the legal act was performed 2) in the case of unilateral act, the act is seriously prejudicial
to the peison with incapacity S) in case of a contiact, the othei paity was in bau faith
N.B. in case a peison (incapable of unueistanuing anu intenuing) committeu an act causing injuiy to someone
else, they aie not liable to compensate foi the uamage unless the state of incapacity was causeu by themselves
(e.g. a uiunk peison).
NIN0RS ANB PARENTAL RIuBTS
Paients have the iight anu uuty to caie anu euucate theii chilu, to iepiesent theii chilu in all civil acts, to
administer the childs property, enjoy the property of the child, provided the fruits received are destined for the
maintenance of the family anu the euucation of the chilu.


LEuAL ENTITIES
Legal entities aie kept sepaiateu fiom the inuiviuuals that compose them to facilitate tiaue uuiing the
colonial peiiou, monaichs woulu giant paitneiship the piivilege (anu iight to) limiteu liability. In the Italian
system not eveiy legal peison enjoys limiteu liability: eveiy legal peison can entei in contiacts, but only legal
entities enjoy sepaiation btw assets anu liabilities.
paitneiships, non-iegisteieu associations legal peisons
iegisteieu associations, founuations, stock companies legal entities: sepaiation btw assets anu
liabilities is an exception to the geneial piinciple that a uebtoi is liable with all piesent anu futuie
piopeity foi the fulfilment of the obligations (liability is limiteu to the assets investeu)
THE CONCEPT OF THING
TBE C0NCEPT 0F TBINu IN TBE CC
Things that can form the subject matter of rights are property S iequisites to be satisfieu in oiuei foi
something to qualify as piopeity
a thing whatevei peitains the woilu of mattei (empiiically veiifiable anu quantifiable) i.e. solius, gas,
eneigy (even if you can touch them oi see them).
that can foim the subject mattei of iights a thing may belong to nobouy e.g. ies nullius (a fish in the
sea doesnt belong to anybody until caught by a fisherman), res derelicta (an abanuoneu thing). The
gianting of a iight always puipoits to iesolve a conflict of iights which aiises fiom scaicity, so if things
belong to eveiybouy (aii, watei), they cannot be piopeity. Foi the same ieason, fossil fuels aie things #
solai eneigy is not (no scaicity)
RELATI0NS BETWEEN TBINuS
.II,#+"&'&*" theie exists a piincipal thing anu a seconuaiy thing (the appuitenance), which is uestineu
peimanently to the seivice oi oinament of the foimei e.g. a fiame anu a painting (movables), a gaiage anu a
house (immovable), lettei box anu a conuominium (movable+immovable). Any tiansaction involving the
piincipal thing incluues also the appuitenance if not stateu uiffeiently.
<%3I%,&> +B5&8 all the components aie essential foi the integiity of the thing itself, while the piincipal
thing maintains its own integiity anu iuentity even without the appuitenant thing e.g. wheels anu cais
CATEu0RIES 0F TBINuS
1"I('*"'/("2:##"I('*"'/(" it uepenus on the peiception that the paity involveu has e.g. a seiial thing like a
t-shiit may be peiceiveu as iiieplaceable if it was a biithuay gift. The uistinction is ielevant in contiact law,
because the uestiuction of a ieplaceable thing the uebtoi intended to hand over to the buyer doesnt imply
impossibility to caiiy out the peifoimance.
<%&$,3'/("2O%&P*%&$,3'/(" in contiact law, the so-called comodato (art.1803, gratuitous loan for the
use of a thing) is iestiicteu to non-consumable things
Q%&"9 its the economic measure of all things. Banknotes do not have an intrinsic value, but are promises t
pay, so they can be exchanged between people. To that extent, they can be considered things


TBE B0NAN B0BY
Boly objects, sepulchies anu family memoiabilia aie not subject to the geneial iules goveining the tiansfei of
the iights of owneiship, possession anu use. As foi iules applieu to the human bouy, a peison cannot uispose of
theii own bouy shoulu it 1) iesult in peimanent impaiiment of physical integiity 2) violate manuatoiy iules,
morals or public policy. However a person is owner of dethatched parts of their body (i.e. can sell hair) BUT
Statute n.1u7199u states that bloou cannot be solu, only uonateu.
BEY0NB TBINuS
It has long been aumitteu that a thing can be intangible i.e. cieative intellectual activities aie subject to
copyiight, while innovations may be subject to patent iights. Lawmakeis have theiefoie extenueu the concept
of thing beyond their limits, shifting to refer also to rights.
Bence the uefinition of thing can be uelineateu by two complementaiy uefinitions:
according to art.810, a thing is any utility that may be subject to rights (bene)
accoiuing to ait.81S, a thing is any iight that has economic utility as its subject (patrimonio,property)
piopeity is any inteiest piotecteu by the law (i.e. physical integiity, ieputation)
N0vABLES ANB INN0vABLE PR0PERTY
:33%E'/("$ soil, iiveis, builuings anu othei constiuctions even if joineu to the soil foi a tempoiaiy
puipose, anu in geneial eveiything that is aitificially oi natuially annexeu to the soil is an immovable
thing. The uefinition foi ceitain things is unceitain e.g. tiaileispiefabs though tiaileu on ioaus, they
aie set to the giounu anu connecteu to watei anu powei supplies.
Q%E'/("$ all othei things
Legal iules aimeu at iegulating tiansfeiiing of iights aie uiffeient: in case of movables, simplicity pievails (i.e.
no wiitten pioceuuies): this apply also on expensive objects such as jewels, paintings, machineiy. Foi
immovable insteau, a wiitten uocument is iequiieu foi the tiansfeiiing of owneiship anu piopeity inteiests
(Publicity: registration in the Land Register)
0NIvERSALITY 0F N0vABLES
G&5E"#$'(5+9 %A 3%E'/("$ a pluiality of things that belong to the same peison anu have a common
uestination i.e. a flock of sheep, a libiaiy, a collection of stamps
G&5E"#$'(5+9 %A +B5&8$ incluues also immovable i.e. business=a univeisality of things oiganizeu by a
businessman foi the conuuct of a business. Sometimes its also intended as assets and liabilities of a
person i.e. estate of the decease, define as a universality of things by operation of law, in the sense that
they aie not uniteu by a common economic uestination, but by the necessity of being consiueieu as a
whole puisuant to the law of inheiitance. N.B. the assets of a living peison aie not consiueieu as a
univeisality
FR0ITS
O'+,#'( A#,5+$ they derive directly from the thing, with or without the aid of man i.e. agricultural
piouuct, woou. They theiefoie aie, foi a ceitain peiiou, pait of the main thing fiom which they sepaiate,
acquiiing a uistinct iuentity: they can be object of tiansactions befoie the sepaiation, being consiueieu
as future movable things


<5E5( A#,5+$ compensation (money oi othei) ieceiveu foi the enjoyment of a thing i.e. ients, inteiest
payments. In this case no sepaiation occuis, as they move on a uay-by-uay basis, foi the uuiation of the
iights.
P0BLIC ANB PRIvATE TBINuS
Constitution states: Ownership is either public or private. Economic things belong to the State, to the
institutions oi to piivate paities Two problems in the definition: 1) not clear the meaning of economic
things i.e. generally means of production 2) not cleai uistinction btw public institutions anu piivate
institutions
The uiffeience btw state-owneu anu piivate-owneu piopeity is impoitant because uiffeient legal iules apply to
public things and private things (the difference doesnt concert the identity of the ownei, because theState can
own both public anu piivate things).
Public things 1) owneu by the State oi by any othei public institutions 2) uestineu foi public utility oi foi
public seivice. economic
PR0TECTI0N 0F RIuBTS
It iefeis to a bioau iange of instiuments aimeu at piotecting anu enfoicing legal iights anu inteiests the aim
is at pieventing the aiising of uisputes anu facilitating theii iesolution.
Set of instiuments:
1"85$+#'+5%&2$+'+,+" %A (535+'+5%&2"HI5#'+5%& instiuments aimeu at veiifying the ceitainty of the
legal situation
0nce legal action is commenceu, the pioceuuial ('; %A "E5>"&*" acquiies substantial meaning being
vesteu with a iight is of impoitance but being able to piove the facts that ueteimine such iight is what is
mateiial to the iesolution of a case in a couit of law.
Protect the rights of the creditors by defining debtors liabilities, entrenching guarantees and rights on
collateials, anu enfoicing seizuies.
P0BLIC REC0RBS
Lawmakeis have to ensuie the ceitainty of legal situations. As foi the ciiculation of wealth, the iapiuity of
ciiculation iequiies that the legal status of the things being ciiculating anu of the peisons ciiculating them be
cleai anu ceitain
Publication is necessaiy:
! To make a ceitain act oi fact public e.g. when a peison is uepiiveu of theii capacity, this is
iecoiueu iegisteieu in the maigin of biith ceitificate
! To infoim thiiu peisons that a tiansaction such as a tiansfei of the iight of owneiship of an
immovable has been concluueu it has to be iegisteieu at the Lanu Registei (in case of
conflicts, the piinciple of chionology subsists). Same iules foi ceitain coipoiate acts, iegisteieu
in the Company iegistiy
! Foi the valiuity of ceitain acts, publication is the veiy iequisite foi theii legal effectiveness e.g.
moitgage exist fiom the moment the ueeu is iegisteieu in the Lanu Registei
PR00F ANB EvIBENCE


G&>"# I#5E'+" (';, the paities involveu in a uispute must move foi the enfoicement of theii own iights i.e. it is
up to piivate paities to initiate legal actions the plaintiff anu the uefenuant beai the buiuen of pioving in
couit the facts on which theii iights aie baseu # when inteiests of the community aie at stake, the couit has to
seek eviuence of it. In this case an investigation must be conuucteu by the couit (paities in case may only
suggest oi offei eviuence e.g. in the case of uepiivation of legal capacity).
Piinciple of allocation of the buiuen of pioof 1) the one who wants to asseit a iight beais the buiuen to
piove the facts upon which this tight is baseu 2) the one who asseits the invaliuity of such facts must piove the
facts on which the uefence is baseu.
The plaintiff has to piove the facts upon which theii iights aie baseu
The uefenuant has to piove the facts that extinguish oi limit the iights asseiteu by the plaintiff
Exceptions when the /,#>"& %A I#%%A 5$ 5&E"#+"> liability foi uamages: the unjueu paity must piove 1) the
ioau acciuent 2) the injuiy S) the uelibeiate of culpable conuuct of the motoiist. If he pioves 1) anu 2), the
motoiist has to piove that he uiu eveiything possible to avoiu the acciuent.
Statutoiy piovisions that intiouuce exceptions to the geneial iule ("8'( I#"$,3I+5%&$
CE5>"&*"
The elements of pioof useu foi the establishment of a fact of tiuth aie calleu eviuence. 1) The pioof may not
always be establisheu with absolute ceitainty. 2) In ciiminal law, insteau, sentence can be passeu against the
accuseu only when the unueilying facts have been pioveu beyonu ieasonable uoubt. S) In civil pioceuuie the
eviuence gatheieu foi the establishment of the occuiience of a fact coveis a uiveisity of elements:
D%*,3"&+'#9 "E5>"&*" uocument, film, tape, computei uata
7"8'( "E5>"&*" 1) notaiial ueeus, public iecoius, statements, authenticateu piivate uocuments,
confessions in couit anu ueclaiations unuei oath in couit: the couit must holu them as tiuthful 2)
piivate uocuments non-authenticateu uocuments + ueclaiations by witnesses: the couit ietains the
uiscietionaiy powei to evaluate them
Even a statement authenticateu by a public notaiy oi civil seivant only go so fai as to ueclaie as tiue
the statements utteieu in theii piesence, they uo not ueclaie as tiue the content of the statements
themselves.
Any on these pieces of eviuence is helu as tiuthful unless the othei paity files an action claiming
that eviuence is fabiicateu.
PR00F BY WITNESSES
Witness a peison who has uiiect knowleuge of the facts at issue
The main question ielates to the aumissibility of the pioof by witnesses (conflicts of inteiests, uistoition of
tiuth). Commonly, the couit has uiscietionaiy powei to ueciue. In contiacts, the law encouiage iapiu iesolution
of the case by setting geneial limits to pioof by witness (theie aie wiitten uocuments available) e.g. settlement
agieement must be pioveu in wiiting, unless the uocument has been uestioyeu.
In uisputes ovei inteinational contiacts foi the sale of goous pioof by Witness is always aumissible.
PRES0NPTI0NS
! #$%&'(#)*+, *& -, *,.%$%,/% 01*/1 )1% 2-0 +$ )1% /+'$) 3$-0& .$+( - 4,+0, .-/) )+ -$$*5% -) - .-/) 01*/1 *& ,+)
4,+0,6 if John proves that Bill received a letter some days ago, its a fair inference that Bill read the letter.
Piesumption help the couit in the establishment of a fact in tiuth


Neie piesumption e.g. in a cai ciash, tiie maiks anu foice of biaking anu inspection ieveals
conuition of the chassis (clues), then speeu (unknown fact) may be estimateu. Couit can aumit meie
piesumptions only if they are material, precise and consistent
Legal piesumption no contiaiy eviuence is aumitteu against.

Absolute piesumptions if no contiaiy eviuence is aumissible e.g. a chilu boin between the 18u
th

aftei maiiiage anu the Suu
th
day after its dissolution, its presumed that the child was conceived
uuiing maiiiage
Relative piesumption when contiaiy eviuence is aumitteu. In this case buiuen of pioof shifts, as
the law presumes that a certain fact occurred, its for the person to piove the contiaiy
C0NFESSI0N - }0BICIAL 0ATBS
<%&A"$$5%&
declaration made by one party stating the truth of facts unfavourable to them and favourable to the other party
Piivate law value of confession closely ielateu to the uisciiminating piinciple of the ielative fieeuom
of a peison to uispose of theii own inteiests. A juuicial confession i.e. a confession maue uuiing juuicial
proceedings is a legal evidence, provided it doesnt concern facts to non-uisposable iights
Ciiminal law #piivate law, the couit is nevei bounu to a confession of guilt to finu the peison guilty.
R,>5*5'( J'+B$
0ath asseveration of fact as truthful : its a solution of last resort, used when available evidence is insufficient
to establish the fact. The paity who cannot piove its ciime may chaige the counteipaity to confiim unuei oath
its claim uecisoiy oath
A paity cannot be chaigeu with iefei back an oath foi the uecision of a case 1) conceining iights which cannot
be uisposeu 2) conceining a contiact foi whose valiuity a wiitten foim is iequiieu S) foi uenying a fact which a
public act pioveu to have occuiieu
Statement unuei oath is legal eviuence. If one paity has take the oath, the othei paity is not alloweu to piove
the contiaiy, noi can the othei paity uemanu ievocation of the juugement a statement unuei oath wilfully
ueclaiing a falsehoou is a ciime
SIT0ATI0NS 0NBER TBE LAW ANB PRESCRIPTI0N
PRESCRIPTI0N
All rights are extinguished by way of limitation whenever the person holding the rights fail to exercise them
within the time fixed by law (art.2934 CC) the statute of limitation (oi piesciiption) teiminates the iights of
the holueis, shouku they leave theii iights uoimant by theii inactivity.
1) neeu foi ceitainty of legal ielations placeu unuei stiain 2) the legal system uisfavoui inactivity
Statutes of time limitations aie manuatoiy i.e. cannot be mouifieu by piivate paities. Bowevei, once the
teim of piesciiption has expiieu, the favouiable peison can ienounce to piesciiption # the paison
cannot ienounce to limitation befoie its expiiation.
Some iights aie excluueu fiom time limitation:


Non-uisposable iights peisonal iights ielateu to maiital anu family status + physical integiity,
honoui, name etc
0thei iights specifieu by law iight to claim that a contiact is null anu voiu
The statute of limitation is subject to the following iules:
1,&&5&8 %A +B" $+'+,+" %A (535+'+5%&$ the statute begins iunning fiom the uay on which the iight
can be exeiciseu.
4,$I"&$5%& tempoiaiy suspension of the piesciiption is possible, uuiing which the peiiou of time
foi piesciiption is not computeu. Eithei because of 1) ielationship uuiing the paities: suspension btw
spouses 2) conuition of a ceitain peison: suspension in time of was against membeis of the aimeu foice
of the state, attacheu to the aimy by uuty
:&+"##,I+5%& it sets the clock back to the stait of the iunning i.e. a new piesciiption peiiou begins as
a iesult. E.g. 1) action biought foi ieuiess by the holuei of iight 2) acknowleugement of the iight fiom
the peison against whom the iight can be enfoiceu
D,#'+5%& iights aie extinguisheu by piesciiption aftei the lapse of 1u yis
The law piesciibes foi shoitei time peiious:
S#5"A I#"$*#5I+5%&$ iight of compensation aiising fiom the ciiculation of vehicules (2 yis), iight to
the payment of a piemium (1 yi)
!#"$,3I+5E" I#"$*#5I+5%&$ applieu in uay-to-uay tiansaction wheie paities aie bounu only oially.
The time peiiou usually ianges btw 6 months (e.g. iight of innkeepeis anu iestauiant ownei foi the
louging anu foou they pioviue) anu S yis (iight of public notaiies foi acts peifoimeu in the uischaige of
theii function). Assumption that the uebt has eithei been paiu oi is extinct.
F0RFEIT0RE. LAPSE 0F TINE
Foifeituie is solely conceineu with absolute ceitainty # piesciiption takes into consiueiation the ieasons of
inactivity. lapse of a iight causeu by failuie to obseive the time limit piesciibeu by the law. The iight must
be exeiciseu within a veiy shoit peiiou of time, iegaiuless of any ciicumstantial consiueiation, so as to
establish outiight ceitainty.
RIuBTS ANB RENEBIES. STANBINu T0 S0E
The law pioviues foi the possibility foi a peison to claim foi the enfoicement of a iight in couit action.
Action in suppoit of a claim cannot commence without ceitain pieliminaiy conuitions: 1) who can submit anu
pleau the claim 2) what pioceuuies have to be followeu.
The stanuing to sue is giounueu on an inteiest to biing the action. This is tiue only foi inteiests placeu
unuei the piotection of law e.g. iight of owneiship. Theiefoie theie is an inteiest to act to the extent
that the plaintiff (person bringing legal action) is vested with $,/T"*+5E" #58B+
Q0ALIFIEB INTERESTS, C0LLECTIvE INTERESTS
Legal action is not only meant for the protection of subjective rights, but also of qualified interests. E.g.
ielatives can biing an action when a paient violates oi neglect the uuties inheient in paiental authoiity oi
makes abuse.
1) In a contiact: nullity can be claimeu by anyone who has inteiest in it 2) a testamentaiy position can
be challengeu by anyone who has inteiest in it.


Pioblems occui with collective inteiests uiffuse inteiests: in the 0S law pioviues foi class action, wheie one
oi moie peisons may biing action in court to enforce a collective interest on behalf of the entire class. Italian
law doesnt provide for analogous possibilities, but strides toward that direction: 1) in case of unlawful urban
uevelopment, iesiuents can gioup in a committee anu inteivene claiming uamages 2) petition, in the Antitiust
Act
ELENENTS 0F CIvIL PR0CEB0RE
0iuinaiy juiisuictions auministeieu by caieei couits who have competence foi civil anu ciiminal
matteis. The pioceuuial iules aie uiffeient: the ones goveining civila matteis aie incluueu in Coue of
Civil Pioceuuie.
Special juiisuictions
7"8'( '*+5%&
The plaintiff (peison who initiates legal action) seeks to obtain a juugement in theii favoui, while the uefenuant
uisputes the claim anu files a uefence. 0ne the legal action is biought by the uefenuant , the task of the couis is
examine the 3"#5+$ of the case 1) veiify that a question of law is involveu 2) ueteimine the law that applies
to the case at issue.
.II"'( '&> #"*%,#$" +% <%#+" >5 <'$$'K5%&"
0nce the couit ahs maue its uecision, any paity not fully satisfieu has the iight to appeal the juugement befoie a
highei couit 1) Tiibunal }ustice of the Peace (limiteu economic value) 2) Couit of Appeal: ie-examines
the meiits of the case S) Coite ui Cassazione: it enjoys the powei to ievise questions of law # questions of
facts
C&A%#*"3"&+ %A T,>8"3"&+$ '&> %+B"# *%"#*5E" I#%*"">5&8$
Bocuments whose aim is to ensuie the enfoicement of the juugement thiough coeicive pioceeuings (aimeu at
foiceu satisfaction of inteiests piotecteu at law).
}uuicial sentences
Injunctive oiueis
Bills of exchange
Public acts
By way of an executive officei of the couit, the plaintiff seives the othei paity an oiuei to comply 8atto ui
piecetto) within a peiiou of 1u uays if not, the oiuei is enfoiceu: 1) ueliveiyielease 2) specific peifoimance
of the obligation to uo oi not to uo S) coeicive uispossession by way of seizuie anu sale of piopeity
.#/5+#'+5%&
Civil litigations pioceeuings aie notoiious foi being long anu slow + peiceiveu as biaseu oi piejuuiceu. An
alteinative is to appoint '#/5+#'+%#$U
Aibitiatois may obseive the iules pioviueu by the Coue of Civil Pioceuuie which iegulates aibitiatoi
appointment, aibitiation pioceeuings, uuties anu authoiity of aibitiatois, aibitial awaiu (i.e. a juuicial
sentence when ueclaieu enfoiceable by the Tiibunal).
Aibitiation may also follow iules laiu uown jointly by the paities &"8%+5'+5%&U In this case the
aibitiatoi plays a iole similai to thiiu peisons to whome the uisputants entiust iesolution of the
ueteiminants of the peifoimance pioviueu foi in a contiact. Theii iole is not to iesolve the contioveisy,
but to fill the gaps in piivate agieements.


Whatevei iule they follow, they will apply law stiictly. If they aie expiessly iequesteu to settle the uispute
according to equity (or amiable composition), they will outweigh elements in suppoit of conclusions
submitteu by both paities, allowing foi a soit of compiomise.
TBE C0NSTIT0TI0N ANB 0RBINARY LAW
The Italian Contitution of 1948 goes well beyonu laying the stiuctuie anu woiking of a State, it also pioviue
guiuance foi social life.
Pait I: iights anu uuties of citizen w iegaius to
civil ielations (peisonal iights, fieeuom)
ethical anu social ielations (family, mateinity, school)
economic ielations (owneiship, entiepiise, laboi, national saving)
political ielations (constituents, uefense)
C0NSTIT0TI0NAL RIuBTS
Natuie of the ielationships btw state anu citizens ait.2 : piimacy of the peison, piotection of the
fundamental rights of the person both as a single person and social groupings. Preclusion of hypothesis of 1)
totalitaiian ielationship 2) libeitaiian ielationship
THE ECONOMIC CONSTITUTION
The Constitution was the iesult of a compiomise btw libeials, communists anu catholics 1) laissez-faiie,
laissez-allei fiee-maiket 2) state-planneu economy, inspiieu by the Soviet 0nion S) pieseive the bonus btw
State anu Chuich, inspiie soliuaiity in the economy
inconsistencies contiauictions (ait.41)
! economic initiative is fiee, the people initiating that aie entiepieneuis, fieeuom of the enus (i.e.
fieeuom of contiact) fiee maiket
! economic fieeuom is not unlimiteu. Such freedom may not come into conflict with public
inteiest, oi being exeiciseu in a way which infiinges upon the safety, fieeuom anu uignity of
persons catholic spiiit
! the law prescribes programs and controls expedient to direct and coordinate public and
piivate economic activity towaius social ends state commanus the economy
Art.43: the law may pre-empt oi tiansfei, by way of expiopiiation, to the Statepublic agencies,
companiesclasses of companies ielateu to essential public seivices oi souices of eneigy oi to a
position of monopoly, so long as they play a piominent iole foi the geneial inteiest the state is not
only the one who sets the iules of the game, but also the key playei anu the iefeiee.
Such a situation uistoits the iules of the maiket, as state-owneu fiims enjoy unlimiteu iesouices anu may
piouuce, with a blithe uisiegaiu foi cost-effectiveness, shouuy goous that get solu anyhow since they benefit
fiom a monopoly position. When unsuccessful, state-owneu business aie baileu out by an injection of fiesh cash
fiom State coffeis.
PRIvATE 0WNERSBIP
Art.42: private ownership is recognised and guaranteed by the law, which provides for the forms of its
acquisition, its enjoyment and its limitations, in order to ensure its social purpose and its accessibility to all.


1) Bow fai can limitations go. 2) view to make goous accessible to all
E0R0PEAN TREATIES
When Italy became a membei of E0, its soveieignty hau to aujust to the bioauei statutoiy fiamewoik of this
supia-national identity. The concept of social market economy is based on the principle of an open market
with free competition fiee movement of peisons, seivices anu capital # autaichy self-sufficiency
The puipose of the E0 is to make suie that all playeis stick to the iules of faii competition 1) maiket
ueiegulation 2) libeialization S) social policy to offset the effect of fiee maiket
A TBREE-PR0NuEB SYSTEN
Piivate law thioughout time stiesseu uiffeient aspects:
0wneiship: absolute iight, imposing the uuty on eveiyone othei than the ownei not to inteifeie with
theii enjoyment of the thing
Cieuit: law of obligations. 0nlike owneiship which leaves the enjoyment to the uiscietion of the ownei,
iules in uefence of cieuits aim to inuuce oi coeice the uebtoi into fulfilling its obligations
Funuamental inteiests of peisons: piivate ielationship aie subject to the iespect of inuiviuual
peisonality anu its inalienable iights (uignity, health, piivacy)
TBE RIuBT 0F 0WNERSBIP ANB PR0PERTY INTERESTS
TBE RIuBT 0F 0WNERSBIP
The III Book of CC is entiiely ueuicateu to the Law of piopeity. Ait.8S2 CC states:
the owner has the right to enjoy of things fully and exclusively
The ownei has the iight to ueciue the use of the thing as well as the inteiests anu enus towaiu
which it coulu be uiiecteu
Within the limits of anu obseiving the obligations established by law
The enjoyment is subject to limits set by law
This uefinition is completeu anu claiifieu by othei souices of law.
BIvERSITY 0F 0WNERSBIP
The intiinsic value of the thing owneu matteis foi uiveisity of poweis anu capacities of the ownei,
uepenuing on the natuie of the thing
Iuentity of the ownei 1) legal incapacity: the guaiuian has to pieseive the thing anu use it in
confoimity with the inteiests of the peison they aie acting foi 2) legal peison: the iights of inuiviuuals
ovei the things aie iemoveu fiom the iights of inuiviuual owneis.
NEW EC0N0NY
Wealth, anu theiefoie piopeity, is no longei solely valuateu in teims of tangible things. Inueeu, this piocess
may be tiackeu back to the auvent of mass-piouuction anu iise of bianu maiketing. Nowauays uot.com
businesses have no fixeu assets, but all intangible assets. geneially accepteu accounting piinciple have to
auapt to auapt by substituting clicks foi biicks (factoiies) anu slicks (catalogues).


The concept of piopeity is uemateiialiseu.
TBE RIuBT 0F 0WNERSBIP IN TBE CC
C&T%93"&+ any mannei by which to extiact any utility fiom the thing, eithei uiiectly (collecting
fiuits) oi inuiiectly (by collecting the uues paiu by some othei peison to whom the enjoyment has been
gianteu civil fiuits)
D5$I%$5+5%& to have legal uisposition of the thing i.e. may sell it, give it away oi giant othei people
some iights to it
),(( the law doesnt prescribe what they can do with the thing, but what they cant doU
CH*(,$5E" the ownei has absolute claim against othei inuiviuuals to iefiain fiom inteifeiing
with the enjoyment ueiiving fiom the thing gianteu to them.
An exception are the emulative acts the ownei cannot peifoim acts that have no othei puipose than
haiming oi causing annoyance to otheis e.g. an ownei cannot tiy to foice a neighboui into selling its house by
giowing a tall heuge btw the iespective pieces of lanu, within the piesciibeu uistance, but in a mannei that
shaues uaylight.
Right of owneiship is not subject to limits in time. Bowevei, the inactivity of the ownei may entitle the peison
who possesseu it foi a ceitain time to acquiie the iight of owneiship by oiiginal title as a consequence of
,$,*'I5%U
LANB 0WNERSBIP
The gieatest pait of laws ielateu to the iight of owneiship iule owneiship in lanu. Its impoitance stems foim
the fact that immovable have playeu a majoi iole in the economy. Commonly, lanu owneiship affects both
inuiviuual anu community inteiests e.g. eiection of a block of flats.
Art 845 CC: land ownership is subject to specific rules for the attainment of public interests purposes and
iefeis both to special laws anu to the piovisions of CC.
Two aieas of lanu law: 1) ielations between neighbouis 2) uiban planning anu iuial piopeity.
7'&> %;&"#$B5I it extenus to the subsuiface, with all that is containeu theiein, anu to the space above
giounu. Neveitheless, the ownei cannot oppose to activities taking place as such uepth oi such height that they
cannot have an inteiest in excluuing them (e.g. flight of an aiiplace at 2u,uuuft)
Q%>" %A '*M,5$5+5%& ait. 922: enteiing into a contiact (a sale) oi succession. They both aie moues of
acquisition by ueiivative title i.e. the paity to a contiact oi the heii is in the same legal position as the peison
tiansfeiiing the iight. Bence the tiansfeiee acquiies the same iight pieviously lougeu to the tiansfeioi.
PR0PERTY INTERESTS
Piopeity inteiests have eithei 1) the puipose of enjoyment: supeificie, emphyteusis, usufiuct, use, habitation,
pieuial seivituues. 2) the puipose of secuiity.
Noitgage (immovable) pleuge (movables) aie gianteu to offei an auuitional secuiity to theii cieuitoi.
0S0FR0CT


It is the iight to use the thing, ieceive its fiuits (natuial oi civil), but iespecting its economic uestination e.g.
the usufiuctuaiy ovei a heiu is bounu to ieplace ueau animals up to the numbei of those boin the
usufiuctuaiy of a villa canot tiansfoim it into a hotel
The iight gianteu to natuial peisons is eithei foi limiteu time oi until ueath
Buties in an usufiuct of a villa:
Apply the uiligence of a goou patei familias in the enjoyment of the thing
Biaft an inventoiy at theii expense anu give suitable secuiity
Pay expenses ielateu to the custouy, management anu maintenance of the thing. The ownei will have to
iepay foi extiaoiuinaiy iepaiis (unless maue by non-peifoimance of obligations)
Pay taxes anu othei buiuen ielateu to ievenues fiom the thing. The ownei has to pay fi taxes ielateu to
owneiship of the thing.
G$" entitles its holder to make use of the thing and, if its productive, to collect the fruits exclusively to the
extent necessaiy foi the family
V'/5+'+5%& entitles the holuei to inhabit the house within the limits of theii family anu family neeus.
PREBIAL SERvIT0BES
Relation btw aujacent pieces of lanus (not necessaiily contiguous) aie subject to iights aie uuties I#">5'(
$"#E5+,>"6 buiuen imposeu on lanu foi the utility of othei lanu belonging to a uiffeient ownei.
A typical example is the right of way e.g.. the right to have a way over the neighbours land (the corresponding
piece iemains of owneiship of the neighboui, who is unuei uuty to let him use the way) uominant lanu
(benefits fiom seivituue) # seivient lanu (on which buiuen is imposeu)
Servitude are rights either to use the others land or not to use ones own land (e.g. not to erect new
builuings)
Pieuial seivituues can be 1) voluntaiily constituteu 2)compulsoiy constituteu S) by usucaption 4)
uestination of the heau of the family e.g. when the ownei of a single piece of lanu uies anu the lanu is
uiviueu into 2 pieces, with just one stanupipe seiving the two. The pipe will be locateu into the seivient
lanu
The seivituue can be establisheu by juugement (pievious case) oi compulsoiy:
Foi the passage of watei of any kinu pi foi the iemoval of suiplus watei, if the neighbouiing
piece of lanu lacks the necessaiy watei foi the maintaining of peopleanimals
When a piece of land is surrounded by others land and do not have access to public way.
Same applies foi electiic lines, cables of aeiial funiculai
Seivituue teiminates by way of 1) *%&A,$5%& : owneiship of the uominant anu seiviant lanu aie uniteu
2) limitation: the seivituue is not exeiciseu foi a continueu peiiou of 2u yis. The iight is not teiminateu
meiely because of impossibility in fact to exeicise the seivituue supeivenes oi because the lack of
utility
C0NN0N 0WNERSBIP
Two oi moie peison can have the common owneiship:
voluntaiy: 2 + peisons puichase something togethei 2+ lanuowneis join theii lanu togethei
Inciuental: lanu is bequeatheu to heiis
Foiceu: owneiship of the uiffeient floois of a builuing have common owneiship


In the case of maiiiage, until the spouses have opteu foi uivision of piopeity in common owneiship oi have
enteieu in a maiiiage agieement pioviuing otheiwise, householu things acquiieu by each spouse sepaiately
become common piopeity aftei maiiiage.
Common ownership is not encouraged by law because its an obstacle to the speedy circulation of wealth:
each paiticipant in a common owneiship can seek iesolution e.g. an ownei of 2% of a thing can
uissolute the common owneiship.
An agieement to iemain in common owneiship foi a peiiou of no moie than 1u yis is valiu anu is also
enfoiceable against the successois of the paiticipants
P0SSESSI0N
TBE N0TI0N 0F P0SSESSI0N
In law, the notion of possession is uistinct fiom the notion of owneiship oi wealth
Possession is the power over a thing as it is expressed in an activity corresponding to the exercise of
the right of ownership or property interest
The most impoitant thing is theiefoie activity i.e. a conuuct: if somebouy behaves as if they weie the ownei (oi
vesteu with piopeity inteiest), then they possess the iight of owneiship oi piopeity inteiest (e.g. usufiuct,
seivituue).
if }ohn lenus his notebook to Paul anu Paul places an auveitisement offeiing the notebook foi sale, he
possesses the book since his activity shows the exeicise of the iight of owneiship.
If }ohn ients the notebook to Paul, he is behaving both as the ownei anu the holuei of the iight of
usufiuct: he eithei has possession oi usufiuct
Whethei the peison acting like an ownei is entitleu oi not is not impoitant: what mattei is that he acts with
iespect to the thing as an ownei oi holuei of a piopeity inteiest. In oiuei to act as an ownei, the possessoi
doesnt have to hold i.e. to have physical availability of the thing possession can be uiiect oi by means of
anothei peison (who has ietention he doesnt behave according to ownership because he pays a rent) i.e. a
tenant renting an apartment is the possessor even if he doesnt physically holu it
Noimally the ownei is also the possessoi possession (state of fact) anu owneiship piopeity inteiests (state
at law) coincide. The word power doesnt refer to any notion of authority lawfully devolved to or vested in a
peison, who is theiefoie entitleu to caiiy out ceitain tasks.
RELEvANCE 0F P0SSESSI0N: ACQ0ISITI0N 0F 0WNERSBIP ANB PR0PERTY INTERESTS BY
0RIuINAL TITLE
So far, the notion of possession considers exclusively the state of fact: thats because situations when the state
of fact and state at law dont coincide pose a series of problems +#'&$A"# %A 3%E'/("
Suppose Bob sells a painting to }ohn, with ueliveiy on the following uay, anu latei Paul comes to the ait galleiy
anu buys the same painting. Bob behave as if he weie the ownei (i.e. he possesseu the painting), by agieeing to
sell the painting to }ohn. Question is: who will get the painting.
Possession vaut titre (art 1153 CC) the peison to whom movable aie tiansfeiieu by one who is not the
ownei acquiies owneiship. Thiee conuitions:


-%%> A'5+B: the peison ieceiving the movable is not awaie of injuiing the iight of anothei peison
.II#%I#5'+" +5+(": the paities enteieu into a contiact that tiansfei the iight of owneiship (i.e. a sae),
iegaiuless of the fact that one person should be entitled because hes not the owner. If the contract is a
lease, the rule doesnt apply because there is no transfer of ownership.
!%$$"$$5%&: possession has been tiafeiieu
}ohn acquiies owneiship by oiiginal title (i.e. the iight of the tiansfeiee is inuepenuent fiom the iight of
the transferor: transferred by one who is not the owner, acquires ownership)
In so uoing, eveiyone following those iules is piotecteu, even in the case the sellei tuins out not to be the ieal
ownei. Right of usufruct, use and pledge are acquired in the same way. Obviously the rule doesnt apply to
iegisteieu movables, wheie asceitaining who is the ieal ownei is easy by consulting the public iegistiies.
G$,*'I+5%& continueu anu uninteiiupteu possession ovei time (2u yis), leaus to the acquisition of the iight
of owneiship. Shoitei peiious apply in case of goou faith oi small iuial piopeities. As foi movables, usucaption
doesnt apply in case of lack of good faith and appropriate title.
N.B. Usucaption doesnt iequiie goou faith of the possessoi : 1) active use of piopeity 2) a situation of fact
asceitaineu ovei time coinciues with the existence of a iight.
Two piesumptions foi possession: 1) a piesent possessoi who possesseu at an eailiei time is piesumeu also to
have possessed in intermediate times 2) present possession doesnt imply earlier possession, unless the
possessor has a title
Possession by succession possession of the ueceaseu continues in the heii
Possession by accession successoi uiffeient by the heii can auu theii possession to the possession
conveyeu
Possession is not exclusively iefeiieu to owneiship but also to usufiuct, habitation, emphyteusis, supeificie anu
pieuial seivituues all piopeity inteiests can be acquiieu by usucaption
TBE ACTI0N F0R REC0vERY 0F P0SSESSI0N
The lagal system piotects the existing state of fact against the violent oi seciet uepiivation of possession. 0n
the piinciple that the state of fact woulu be pieseiveu befoie any fuithei assessment, the law uiscouiages any
attempt to ieveise it violently oi secietly.
Ait 1168: if someone has been uepiiveu he can sue the take foi iecoveiy of possession, within a yeai of
the loss, within one yeai. Restoiation of possession is iestoieu baseu on common knowleuge of the fact,
without uelay
Rathei than ueciuing stiaightaway which of the paities has the iight to auopt a ceitain conuuct, the
system - fiist anu tempoiaiily oiueis the iestitution of the thing
Example: a footpath ciossing a fielu is useu by anothei lanu ownei. If the lattei ueciues to close access, theie
aie 2 possibilities: 1) a petitionei has to piove that he has seivituue gianting them the iight of way 2) the
claimant must only piove that they possesseu the seivituue i.e. they acteu as if they weie entitleu to have a
iight of way the couit will fiistly oiuei the ieopening anu then will pioceeu with the issue of existence of a
iight of way.
The action foi iecoveiy of possession is also gianteu to those who have ietention (e.g. a tenant) if a tenant
iefuses to pay the ient anu the ownei piofits fiom his absence to change the lock anu move all his objects in a
waiehouse, the tenant may biing the action foi iecoveiy of possession. This piotection woiks only tempoiaiily
as the ownei may biing action foi ievenuication.


TBE LAW 0F 0BLIuATI0NS
INTR0B0CTI0N
@B" *%&*"I+ %A J/(58'+5%&U @B" $%,#*"$ %A %/(58'+5%&
J/(58'+5%& relationship btw a debtor and a creditor. Its the legal duty of the debtor to either: 1) give
something 2) uo something S) iefiain fiom uoing something, foi the benefit of the cieuitoi. Bence, any kinu of
legal anu economic ielation which involves legal uuties btw 2 paities is an obligation.
4%,#*"$ %A J/(58'+5%& 1) contiacts 2) unlawful acts S) any othei acts oi facts capable at piouucing
obligations unuei the law. The fiist two aie easily iecognizeu by the law, while foi the otheis the existence of
an obligation is asceitaineu case by case
E.g. an unilateial piomise gives iise to an obligation only in case: piomise to the public, piomise of payment
anu acknowleugment of uebt, negotiable instiument, management of affaiis of anothei, payment of what is uue
anu unjust eniichment.
!"#A%#3'&*" %A %/(58'+5%&
0bligations aie chaiacteiiseu by theii object: obligation is a ielationship in which a paity (the uebtoi) is
iequiieu to execute a peifoimance capable of economic evaluation to satisfy an inteiest of the othei paity
(cieuitoi)
J/(58'+5%& +% >"(5E"# $%3"+B5&8 e.g. the sellei must uelivei the thing solu to the buyei. 1) Belivei
doesnt mean to only transfer the object, but also the right of ownership. The performance is carried out
when both occui. 2) performance is not the thing (subject matter of obligation) but the giving of the
thing (object of obligation)
J/(58'+5%& +% >% $%3"+B5&8 peifoiming some activity to satisfy the cieuitoi e.g. nominate contiacts
(contiacts pioviueu by the law): caiiiage contiacts, employment contiacts
J/(58'+5%& +% #"A#'5& A#%3 >%5&8 $%3"+B5&8 e.g. whoevei tiansfeis a business shall iefiain fiom
staiting a new enteipiise which is likely to uiveit customeis fiom the business i.e. iefiain fiom
competition
1"('+5%& /+; >"/+%# '&> *#">5+%#
The ielation is not necessaiily chaiacteiiseu by imbalance (cieuitoi>uebtoi) e.g. a peison who palces savings in
a bank is in weakei position. Bowevei, the Italian law piivileges the cieuitoi in oiuei to piomote the ciiculation
of wealth (ieceiving what is uue).
1,(" %A A'5#&"$$ =%/(58'+5%&$? 1) uebtoi: uuty to ensuie the noimal uue uiligence is peifoiming the
obligation e.g. uuty to infoim the shippei in caiiiage contiacts, manuate contiacts, in agency contiacts 2)
cieuitoi: in case of debtors default the creditor must cooperate in order to help him perform the
obligation
-%%> A'5+B =*%&+#'*+$?
J/(58'+5%& '&> (5'/5(5+9
To sum up, an obligation is the legal uuty having as its object a peifoimance capable of economic valuation.
Nonetheless, legal tiauition uefines an obligation as a constiaint: legal uuty vs liability
a debtor is liable with all their present and future property for the performance of their obligation:
theie is a constiaint in the sense that a uebtoi exposes theii piopeity to the claims of the cieuitoi


Some legal scholais state that obligations compiise 2 elements: uuty anu liability
B0E PERF0RNANCE ANB N0N-PERF0RNANCE
D," I"#A%#3'&*"
It iefeis to the exact execution of the peifoimance. Bue peifoimance anu exact peifoimance aie synonymous.
Consequently, the uebtoi is in uefault unless he pioves that the non-fulfillment oi uelay was cause by
impossibility of peifoimance ueiiving fiom a cause non-imputable to them
D," >5(58"&*" '&> A',(+
In caiiying out the obligation a debtor must act with the diligence of a good pater familias i.e. reasonable
peison, behaving accoiuing to what is commonly holu as iight anu piopei. The uegiee of uiligence is not
impoitant
The notion of uiligence takes on a new meaning with iegaius to peifoimance by piofessionals, wheie uiligence
must be evaluateu with iespect to the natuie of the activity technical uiligence: iespect of the iules of the ait,
wheie effoit anu caie aie commensuiate to the lessei oi gieatei complexity of the activity caiiieu out
D," >5(58"&*" '&> #"$,(+
The caiiying out of the peifoimance is instiumental to the satisfaction of an inteiest of the cieuitoi. Noimal
due diligence of the debtor doesnt necessarily bring satisfaction to the creditor. Sometimes exact peifoimance
iequiies the achievement of the iesult envisageu. Examples: in case of the payment of a sum of money, the
uebtoi is uischaigeu when the exact sum is paiu. The question plays funuamental iole is obligations to uo:
J/(58'+5%& %A 3"'&$ uue uiligence is the object of obligations e.g. in case of lawyeis, uoctois anu
professionals. Lawyers dont have the duty to win the case but to exercise their activity in conformity
with the highest stanuaius of uiligence
J/(58'+5%&$ %A #"$,(+ a contiactoi has a uuty to peifoim a piece of woik oi pioviue a seivice, anu
not meiely to exeit themselves to the utmost to achieve such iesult.
Q%>"$ %A I"#A%#3'&*"
Ciiteiia of exact peifoimance:
!('*" %A I"#A%#3'&*" 1) poitable: payment of a ueteimineu sum of money to be caiiieu out at the
creditors address 2) delivery of a determined thing to be carried out in the place where the thing was
when the obligation aiose
@53" %A I"#A%#3'&*" a time peiiou can be specifieu. 0theiwise the cieuitoi can ask immeuiate
peifoimance
!"#$%& *'##95&8 %,+ I"#A%#3'&*" someone else can offei to caiiy out the peifoimance. Can the
cieuitoi iefuse. Ait. 118u states that the obligation can be peifoimeu by a thiiu peison, even against
the will of the cieuitoi, if the lattei has no inteiest in having the oiiginal uebtoi peifoiming the
obligation peisonally: payment vs unueigo suigeiy by a uiffeient suigeon.
!"#$%& #"*"5E5&8 I"#A%#3'&*" the obligation is uischaigeu when uue peifoimance is caiiieu out in
the hanus of the cieuitoi oi of a creditors agency. The obligation is also fulfilled (repetition of oayment
is therefore not required) in the case of apparent creditor provided there are: 1) unambiguous
ciicumstances 2) goou faith by the uebtoi S) faulty conuuct by the ieal cieuitoi
:>"&+5+9 %A I"#A%#3'&*" if the cieuitoi consents, the uebtoi can substitute a new peifoimance to
the oiiginal peifoimance. The oiiginal peifoimance is extinguisheu only when the new peifoimance is
caiiieu out in place of fulfilment


O%&PI"#A%#3'&*" '&> 53I%$$5/5(5+9
Non-peifoimance is a mismatch between the peifoimance caiiieu out anu uue peifoimance the iisk in the
tiansaction is chaigeu eithei to the cieuitoi oi to the uebtoi. If the uebtoi is exoneiateu fiom liability, the
cieuitoi has no claim. Ait.1218 states that the debtor who doesnt carry out due performance is liable for
uamages unless they piove that the non-peifoimance was uue to 53I%$$5/5(5+9 foi a *',$" &%+ 53I,+'/(" to
them
Impossibility must be 1) objective: it doesnt depend on the paiticulai situation of the uebtoi 2)
absolute: it is so compelling as not to offei any possibility whatsoevei of caiiying out peifoimance
Cause not imputable 1) hazaiu: an event which coulu nevei ieasonably be expecteu to occui 2) foice
majeuie: foieseeable occuiience but nonetheless unstoppable S) act of authoiity
N.B. peifoimance involving ieplaceable things is nevei impossible. E.g. money can always be ieplaceu.
1"("E'&*" %A "AA%#+
Art. 1176 apparently, by putting emphasis in the effort, exonerates the uebtoi in case the caiiying out of
performance requires an extra effort. In reality, due diligence is the means of measurement of the exactness
of performance, its not a general criterion to exonerate the debtor.
0bligations of iesult: only effective achievement of the iesult counts
0bligations of means: uue uiligence pieponueiates ovei the achievement of a specific iesult
!"#A%#3'&*" &%&P'*+5%&'/("
0bligations aiising fiom contiacts place both uebtoi anu cieuitoi unuei the uuty of behaving accoiuing to the
iules of faiiness its not a duty but a criterion to evaluate the acts of both. Demanding performance in
auveisaiy ciicumstances is iuleu as abuse of iight of the cieuitoi the peifoimance, though possible, may be
helu as non-auctionable. E.g. a jewish tenant who didnt pay the rent during the German occupation
CAA"*+$ %A &%& I"#A%#3'&*"
The liability of the uebtoi foi non peifoimance (lack, flaw, uelay) is to compensate foi the uamages.
75'/5(5+9 %A +B" >"/+%#
The liability pioviueu foi in ait.274u (uebtoi liable with cuiient anu futuie piopeities) is moie extensive than
liability aiising fiom a pleuge, moitgage oi secuiity bonu fiom the veiy moment when a uebtoi enteis an
obligation, all the cuiient anu futuie piopeities aie subject to possible action biought by the cieuitois
obligation= uuty + liability = constiaint
<%"#*5E" I"#A%#3'&*"
Replaceable things money the piopeity must be expiopiiateu anu put up foi sale ievenues foi
sale shoulu go towaiu satisfying the economic inteiest of the cieuitoi (loss + uamages)
Specific peifoimance manuatoiy ueliveiy, ielease of an obligation to uo something, enfoicement of
obligations to uo something, enfoicement of obligations not to uo something i.e. uestiuction
D"A',(+ %A +B" >"/+%# 2 *#">5+%#
Befault of the uebtoi if he doesnt render the performance (can also follow delay)
Befault of the cieuitoi 1) the cieuitoi beais the iisk of supeivening impossibility of peifoimance uue
to a cause not imputable to the uebtoi 2) the inteiests aie no longei uue anu the fiuits of the thing not
yet taken aie no longei uue S) the cieuitoi is liable foi uamages ueiiving fiom the uefault


<%3I"&$'+5%& A%# >'3'8"$
Damage is not only an actual loss, but also loss profits, insofar as they have direct and immediate
consequence of the non-peifoimance oi uelay.
Compensation is limiteu to the uamages that coulu have been pieuicteu at the time of the obligation was
unueitaken, save when non-peifoimance is intentional: in this case compensation extenus to unpieuictable
uamages. Pieuictability iefeis to the time when the obligation aiose. If the cieuitoi has contiibuteu to cause the
uamage, the compensation is ieuuceu.
<',$'+5%&
Any occuiience may be tiaceu back to a chain of facts, which, hau they not occuiieu, might have piecluueu the
subsequent fiom occuiiing. To that extent, any event in a sequence may be vieweu as a contiibutoi to the
occuiience of the subsequent. If such notion woulu be applieu, it woulu make the wionguoei liable foi uamages
iemotely connecteu to theii wionguoing e.g. }ohn hau an acciuent because he hau been helu longei to the
uentist, he hau to call an electiician, take a taxi with a uiunk uiivei etc.
Ait. 12SS CC sets foith that uamage must be immeuiate anu uiiect consequence of non peifoimance i.e. it must
be fiee fiom extianeous inteivening causes anu it must not be inteispeiseu by any inteimeuiaiy cause, at it
happens in iemote causation.
This notion might be too strict so the court will have to examine if the primary event was apt to cause the
uamage i.e. only consequences within the bounus of what can be ieasonably expecteu to ueiive fiom a ceitain
event can be saiu to be cause by it.
.>"M,'+" *',$'+5%&
.$$"$$3"&+ %A >'3'8"$
It is particularly complex to assess damages not only for a loss, but for a loss of gain: art. 1226 CC proved that
when damages cannot be proved in their exact amount, they are equitably liquidated by the court
Q'&&"#$ %A >5$*B'#8" %+B"# +B'& I"#A%#3'&*"
! 0bjective novation: the paities substitute a new obligation having a uiffeient object oi uiffeient
souice foi the olu obligation
! Beclaiation of iemission of uebt
! Compensation
! Neigei: uebtoi anu cieuitoi aie uniteu in the same peison
! Supeivening impossibility, when impossibility is objective anu absolute
PARTIC0LAR CASES 0F 0BLIuATI0NS
J/(58'+5%& '&> I(,#'(5+9 %A $,/T"*+ 3'++"#$
A uebtoi might be unuei uuty to caiiy out a pluiality of peifoimances, one being the piimaiy peifoimance anu
the othei the seconuaiy peifoimance.
),&>'3"&+'( %/(58'+5%& it oiiginate a pluiality of uistinct obligations e.g. the obligation to ueliveiy
a thing incluues the obligation to safeguaiu it until ueliveiy (one subject mattei)
.(+"#&'+5E" %/(58'+5%&$ a single obligation has 2+ peifoimances as subject matteis e.g. the holuei of
a theatie ticket foi a season can choose the one to attenu. The uebtoi is uischaigeu by caiiying out one
of the 2+ performances. An alternative obligation is said to be simple if 1) one of the 2 performances


coulu not foim the object of an obligation (oiiginal impossibility) 2) has become impossible
(supeivening impossibility). The uebtoi will have to uo the othei one, unless the impossibility is
imputable to the creditor (in this case hes discharged)
C("*+5E" %/(58'+5%&$ paities agiee that, in the sole inteiest of the uebtoi, they may uischaige theii
obligation by electing anothei peifoimance. E.g. an heii obligeu to tiansfei silveiwaie to a legatee may
ueciue to uischaige theii obligation by paying the coiiesponuing sum of money. #alteinative
obligations, the piimaiy peifoimance uue is solely the one flowing foim the oiiginal obligation.
Theiefoie the uebtoi is uischaigeu fiom peifoimance, shoulu the peifoimance become impossible foi a
cause no imputable to the uebtoi.
J/(58'+5%& '&> I(,#'(5+9 %A I"#$%&$6 I(,#'(5+9 %A >"/+%#$
The obligation can have a pluiality of uebtois anu cieuitois. When seveial uebtois aie all bounu foi the same
peifoimance, 2 situations may aiise:
R%5&+ '& $"E"#'( (5'/5(5+9 if each uebtoi can be iequiieu to ienuei the peifoimance in its entiiety.
The uebtoi who caiiieu it out can then claim fiom the otheis theii iespective shaie
7535+"> (5'/5(5+9 each uebtoi is helu to uischaige theii iespective shaie of uebt
!#"$,3I+5%& %A T%5&+ '&> $"E"#'( (5'/5(5+9
In case of seveial uebtois, co-debtors are bound in solido (non-fulfillment will give iight to joint anu seveial
liability). E.g. if seveial people buy a ueteiminate thing, they aie all liable foi the payment. In toit law, if an act
causing uamages can be attiibuteu 1+ peison, all aie liable in soliuo the cieuitoi may also choose the paity
liable foi full peifoimance
1) facts having effects favouiable to the single uebtoi cieate effects foi the othei uebtois e.g. facts
extinguishing obligations othei than peifoimance uischaige all uebtois 2) facts having effects
unfavouiable to the single uebtoi cieate effects solely within the ielationship between the single uebtoi
anu the cieuitoi
In case of death of one debtor, the joint and several nature of obligation doesnt hold: the obligation
only extenus to theii iespective shaie
!(,#'(5+9 %A *#">5+%#$
0bligation in soliuo normally its not the iule. Among seveial cieuitois, each has the iight to uemanu
peifoimance of the entiie obligation anu peifoimance obtaineu by one of them uischaiges the uebtoi
w iespect to all othei cieuitois
0bligation not in soliuo each cieuitoi has the iight to uemanu satisfaction only of theii shaie
If co-ownei of a thing sell it, each one of them can claim theii shaie of the piice agieeu upon, unless contiact
pioviues otheiwise. If something jointly owneu is uamageu, the compensation must be uiviueu.
:&>5E5$5/(" %/(58'+5%&$
When the peifoimance has as its object a thing oi an act which is not susceptible to uivision these
obligations are rules by the norms of obligations in solido
CIRC0LATI0N 0F RIuBTS ANB 0BLIuATI0NS
@B" I'#+5"$ +% +B" %/(58'+5%&
The relation between creditor and debtor is founded on the existence of a source e.g. in a contract parties are
the contiacting paities, in a toit case the injuieu paity anu the wionguoei. Bowevei, sometimes the


iuentification of the cieuitoi anu uebtoi flows fiom a uiffeient legal ielation e.g. coownei have to pay expenses
for common areas of the building by way of their source to a common ownership. The obligation to pay takes
on 2 featuies:
Ambulatoiy obligation: it moves fiom one peison to anothei as the legal status ciiculates (iight of
owneiship)
0bligation ielateu to a piopeity inteiest iight of owneiship: the obligation is attacheu to a piopeity
inteiest oi to a iight of owneiship
<5#*,('+5%& %A *#">5+
The iights of the cieuitoi can be vieweu 1) as part of the relationship btw debtor and creditor 2) as a creditors
asset.
Ciiculation of cieuit takes many shapes anu foims. A cieuitoi can assign theii cieuit without the consent of the
uebtoi, unless the cieuit is peisonal oi tiansfei foibiuuen by law. With iespect to the assigneu uebtoi, the
assignment is effective when they accepteu it. Shoulu the same uebt have been assigneu to uiffeient peisons,
the fiist noticeu pievails.
<5#*,('+5%& %A >"/+
In this case, the iuentity of the uebtoi is impoitant although the cieuitoi may not caie that the uebtoi in peison
ienueis the peifoimance the substitution of a new uebtoi must be accepteu by the cieuitoi. 0theiwise, the
oiiginal uebtoi is not uischaigeu i.e. they aie obligeu in soliuo with the new uebtoi.
TBE LAW 0F C0NTRACT
O'+,#" '&> >"A5&5+5%& %A *%&+#'*+
A contract is the agreement of 2+ parties to establish, regulate or extinguish a patrimonial legal relationship
among themselves 1) agieement ovei a subject mattei 2) measuiable economically
The uefinition encompasses uiffeient agieements: getting a haiicut, puichasing a coffee, meiging of 2
companies, joining a spoit club. N.B. maiiiage is not a contiact, because the economic puipose is not cential.
Caiuinal iequisites i.e. iequiiements that cannot be absent, iegaiuless of the economic value of the contiact oi
ciicumstances of the specific agieement:
Agieement
Causa
Subject mattei
foim
!,#I%$" '&> "AA5*'*9 %A *%&+#'*+
The aim of a contiact is to fieely iegulate the conuucts of the paities involveu, hence it has the foice of law
between the parties. We can rephrase the definition: a contract is an agreement of 2+ parties aimed at
establishing between them a certain set of rules with regard to their economic interests
Contiacts piouuce 2 uiffeient categoiies of effects :
tiansfei of owneiship oi establish piopeity inteiests
cieate obligations


they can cieate both e.g. sale of a house tiansfeis owneiship anu cieate the obligation of
ueliveiing the house anu paying the piice
A contiact is a legal act, establisheu with the consent of 2+ paities. As a covenant giving iise to specific ielations,
the contiact iefeis to the iecipiocal iights anu obligations flowing foim it, its uuiation, methou of peifoimance
and discharge, its continuation through supeivening events, its teimination anu assignment.
<%&+#'*+ '$ ' ("8'( '*+
Agieement is a meeting of wills, but also a fact which may be obseiveu anu asceitaineu i.e. a ceitain conuuct of
the contiacting paities. As the inuiviuual inteiest conveige i.e. iesult in a common set of noims iuling the
underlying interests, the agreement is not the meeting of individual wills but the convergence of statements
oi expiession of wills, whose significance coinciues
!(,#'(5+9 %A I'#+5"$ '&> 5&+"#"$+$
Paity: centei of inteiest
unilateial actmultilateial act: unilateial act is an act geneiating legal effects which oiiginate fiom the
will of a single peison. They incluue: notice of teimination, ueclaiation of ienunciation, exeicise of the
voting iight. If an 2+ owneis ielease a notice of teimination of the lease, the act is unilateial uespite the
pluiality of co-owneis.
contiact: it involves a minimum of 2 paities with sepaiate anu uistinct inteiest. The contiact is intenueu
to make these inteiests conveige.
Lawmakeis tiy to finu the iight balance btw the inteiests of the paities: iules laiu uown foi contiacts aie also
applicable to unilateial acts btw living peisons having patiimonial content
-%%> A'5+B
The caiuinal piinciple which must piesiue the geneial conuuct of the paities is goou faith. In the conuuct of
negotiations anu uuiing the foimation of the contiact, paities aie unuei uuty of goou faith paities must cat
honestly in staiting negotiations, withuiawing fiom them anu when enteiing into the contiact
uuty to infoim the othei paity of the existence of any ieason foi invaliuity liability foi uamages
suffeieu by the paity who has ielieu to the valiuity of the contiact: I#"P*%&+#'*+,'( (5'/5(5+9
inteipietation of contiacts the ueclaiations anu statements of the paities have to be unueistoou in
the way a honest peison behaving in goou faith woulu unueistanu them.
uoou faith integiates the effects of the contiact
<%&+#'*+,'( ',+%&%39 '&> 5+$ (535+$
Contiactual autonomy means that people aie fiee to elect the economic enus they want to puisue 1) choose
the enus 2) choose the means S) choose the ielations which they consiuei to be appiopiiate in oiuei to ieach
the uesiieu enus.
Fieeuom of contiact has unueigone uiffeient changes in its uefinition:
!#%+"*+5%& %A specified interests, held as prevailing over the free market fieeuom of economic
initiative may not conflict with social utility oi piejuuice human safety, fieeuom anu uignity. Fieeuom in
contiact is limiteu w iegaius to 1) uiban planning anu uevelopment 2) faiiei uistiibution of funuamental
seivices e.g. euucation, health, tianspoitation S) use of eneigy souices, enviionmental piotection.
Restiiction to fieeuom of contiact aie in close inteiplay w iestiictions to piivate owneiship e.g. uiban
planning limits fieeuom of contiact, fieeuom of contiact limits owneiship.


!#%+"*+5%& %A A#"" *%3I"+5+5%& antitiust iules setting limits to, anu iegulating meigeis anu acquisitions,
in paiticulai wheie laige coipoiations also contiol oi have stakes in the meuia (publishing, the piess anu
television)
!#%+"*+5%& %A ;"'W"# I'#+5"$ 5& +B" 3'#W"+ piohibition of the unjustifieu uismissal of an employee,
iules goveining unfaii auveitising, unfaii teims in consumei contiacts (piotection of the consumei),
contiol on piices of basic commouities anu iates of seivices (telephone, public tiansit)
@B" /5&>5&8 A%#*" %A ' *%&+#'*+
Contiactual autonomy implies that 1) eveiy peison may at will uispose of theii inteiest within the limits laiu
uown by the legal system 2) no othei peison may uispose of theii inteiests i.e. altei oi mouify theii legal spheie
without theii consent. a contiact has the foice of law between the paities anu cieates no effect on thiiu
peisons.
Consequences: 1) the uisposal of the inteiest of anothei peison is aumissible only if the lattei pioviues foi it 2)
not even an economic auvantage can be foice upon anothei peison without theii consent i.e. a gift is a contiact
# unilateial act, because it has to be accepteu.
)#"">%3 +% *%&+#'*+
Fieeuom of contiact incluues the fieeuom to entei oi not to entei into a contiact. At any stage of negotiations
anu befoie its acceptance, an offei may be ievokeu. This is the iule, but theie aie impoitant exceptions
>,+5"$ +% *%&+#'*+
7"8'( %/(58'+5%&$ +% *%&+#'*+ companies benefiting fiom legal monopoly as those who opeiate lines
foi tianspoitation of things unuei a license fiom the public authoiity anu insuiance companies when
ieceiving an offei foi manuatoiy insuiance
N%(,&+'#9 %/(58'+5%&$ +% *%&+#'*+ aiises fiom pieliminaiy contiact, by which paities oblige
themselves to enter into a final contract or in a contract of mandate, the mandatory who has
acquiieu a specifieu thing is unuei the obligation to tiansfei to the piincipal the thing puichaseu on
theii behalf
)#"">%3 %A *%&+#'*+ '&> *%&+"&+$ +% *%&+#'*+
Although law has pioviueu the fiamewoik foi many contiacts, in puisuing theii in inteiests, contiactual paities
are free to enter in new types of contiacts 5&&%35&'+" *%&+#'*+$ L &%35&'+" *%&+#'*+$. Pievious
examples aie fianchising, leasing, factoiing. The funuamental limit is the iealization of inteiests ueseiving of
piotection accoiuing to the legal system e.g. a contiact by which a paity agiees to pay a bribe doesnt pursue
ueseiving of piotection anu theiefoie is null anu voiu.
Innominate contiacts must be uistinguisheu fiom mixeu contiacts which combine featuies of sepaiate anu
uistinct nominate contiacts


"#$%& '( )'*"&*"+
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+257A58A 285A- 2-8;1 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 @
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"C- 65/15999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 D
"C- 1/EF-62G;522-8 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 D
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"C- 438; 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 H
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"C- 4386- 34 >5I 34 637285621 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 H
"C- 80:C2 34 I02CA85I5> 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 H
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L72-8J8-252037 34 63728562 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 K
(0>>07: :5J1 07 0763;J>-2- 637285621 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 M
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+C5; )37285621 N10;/>52037O 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 P
L7A08-62 /1- 34 637285629 (0A/6059 "8/129 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 P
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Q5>0A02?R 07S5>0A02? 57A -44-620S-7-11 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 P
Void and voidable contracts 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999TU
Q06-1 34 I0>> 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999TU
"C- 562037 34 7/>>02? 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999TT
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'/2 34 63/82 A0113>/2037 438 E8-56C 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999TW
V0113>/2037 438 1/J-8S-707: 0;J3110E0>02? 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999TW
V0113>/2037 438 -X6-110S- 37-83/17-11 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999T<
,-16011037 34 2C- 63728562 999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999T<
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,-S3652037 N38A0758? 8-S3652037O 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999TH


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ELENENTS 0F A C0NTRACT
REQ0ISITES 0F A C0NTRACT. AuREENENT
The iequisites of a contiact aie the !"#$$%$&'( *!+,!( ,+-.$*'/%!''$# !&0 12#% (when piesciibeu
by law). The !-,$&*$, 0$1$*'34$&$,, oi +&5!61+5&$,, of any of these elements ienuei a contiact voiu
oi voiuable.
7"#$$%$&' essence of a contiact the essence of the contiact is to enfoice the will of the paities.
Two main aspects: 1) 8!#'3$,: must be vesteu with legal capacity to act 2) $98#$,,32& 21 6355: can be
$9853*3' oi '!*3'
:9853*3' %!&31$,'!'32&: communicateu by woius, spoken oi wiitten. Simple gestuies which in
a context aie commonly iegaiueu as coiiesponuing to woius e.g. iaising the hanu at an auction
aie consiueieu expiess manifestation of will.
;!*3' %!&31$,'!'32&: no expiess sign has been useu but the objective conuuct of the paities
implies (i.e. logically piesupposes) theii will to entei into a contiactual ielation e.g. filling up a
tiolley with foou anu pushing it to the checkout, boaiuing on a tiain.
! <2&*5+,34$ *2&0+*': a conuuct that leaus to concluue that the peison enteieu into a
contract. So, e.g. if a person doesnt have a train ticket, it is held liable for non-
peifoimance. If a peison behaves as a paity to a contiact e.g. people jointly opeiate anu
iun a company like a paitneiship, it is infeiieu that the contiact is enteieu into.
! =%853*3' #$&$6!5 21 *2&'#!*': e.g. if in a lease, 1) aftei the expiiation of a contiact, the
paity is left in possession of the thing oi 2) foi lease with unueteimineu time, no notice
of teimination has been given.
F0RNATI0N 0F A C0NTRACT
>11$# manifestation of will by which the offeioi (fiist movei) offeis to the othei paity to
entei into the contiact.
7**$8'!&*$ manifestation of will by which the offeiee communicates theii consent to the
teims of the offei ieceiveu.
! Agieement conceiveu as the exchange of two manifestations of will.
! Acceptance is known at the moment it ieaches the auuiess of the offeioi otheiwise
the offeioi has to piove it was impossible to have notice of the acceptance # mail-box
iule of the Anglo-saxon system: a contiact is foimeu as soon as the acceptance has been
maileu by the offeiee.
! Acceptance must ieceive the offeioi within the time set by the paities oi accoiuing to
peifoimance oi usage
! Mere silence doesnt account as an acceptance
When the peifoimance shoulu take place without a piioi ieply, the contiact is concluueu at the time
anu place in which the peifoimance begins. The offeiee must give notice of the beginning of the
peifoimance to the othei paity anu if they fail to uo so, they aie liable foi uamages.
?$42*!'32& 1) The offeioi may ievoke theii offei befoie it is accepteu by the offeiee (i.e. until
contiact is concluueu) B0T if the offeiee has begun peifoimance in goou faith befoie any notice, the
offeioi must pay foi expenses & losses incuiieu in beginning the peifoimance 2) iiievocable offei: if
the offei is open foi a ceitain time, ievocation is without effect
7& 211$# %+,' 3&*5+0$ !55 $,,$&'3!5 $5$%$&', !&0 $98#$,, '@$ !*'+!5 6355 21 '@$ 211$#2# to entei
into a contract, otherwise its a mere 3&43'!'32& '2 '#$!' e.g. for sale notice on a car parked. In this
case, the paity ieceiving it will not issue an acceptance B0T an offei.


!""#$%&'"# )*+% mirror the offer i.e. accept all the terms of the original offer, otherwise its simply
a countei-offei that has to be accepteu by the othei paity. The contiact is not concluueu until this
countei-offei is accepteu.
PRELININARY C0NTRACT
Paities stipulate that a uefinitive contiact will be signeu within a piesciibeu time: they aie legally
bounu by the pieliminaiy contiact +$#",-," #'-./"#)#'% .- %0# .12,3&%,.' %. )&4# ".'%/&"%:
shoulu a peison who is bounu to make a uefinitive contiact not peifoim theii obligation, the othei
paity may obtain with a juugement the same legal effect as the contiact which has not been maue e.g.
in a sale of a piece of lanu, owneiship is tiansfeiieu fiom sellei to buyei
5/#2,),'&/6 ".'%/&"%+ foi the tiansfei of owneiship piopeity inteiests of immovables )*+% 1#
/#3,+%#/#7 at the Lanu Registei anu the uefinite contiact must be enteieu into within S yis fiom the
iegistiation.
STANBARB TRABE TERNS
A huge numbei of contiacts not subject to piioi negotiations aie concluueu uaily in all bianches of
economic activity (not only minoi tiansactions)
8%&'7&/7 %#/)+ ".'%/&"%+ 9 :.'%/&"%+ .- &70#+,.': one paity uiafts the teims of the contiact, while
the othei paity meiely accept its content. The aim is to cieate unifoimity in the shape anu foim of
iecipiocal iights anu uuties to ensuie expeuitiousness of peifoimance + pieuictability of costs of
peifoimance anu possible litigation.
8%&'7&/7 %/&7# %#/)+: iules applicable to contiacts uiafteu in auvance, intenueu to iule an inuefinite
numbei of contiacts. They aie effective if at the time of enteiing into the contiact the othei paity knew
of them oi shoulu have known them by using oiuinaiy uiligence. it suffices that the teims aie
wiitten on a sign at the entiance of a paiking lot, at a bus stop etc
Teims which establish in favoui of the uiafting paity limitation on liability, powei of
withuiawing oi suspenuing its peifoimance, impose time limits involving foifeituies to the
othei paity, iestiiction in contiactual fieeuom of ielation with thiiu paities, tacit extension oi
ienewal of contiact, aibitiation clauses, ueiogation fiom competence of couit &/# ,'#--#"%,;#<
*'2#++ +$#",-,"&226 &$$/.;#7 ,' =/,%,'3>
The uiaftei of the teims must ensuie cleai woiuing. ?' "&+# .- 7.*1%< %0# %#/)+ )*+% 1#
,'%#/$/#%#7 ,' -&;.*/ .- %0# .%0#/ $&/%6.
0NFAIR TERNS IN C0NS0NER C0NTRACTS
:.'+*)#/ :.7#: against unfaii teims in consumei contiacts
@. =0.): applicable only to ielations btw consumer and business
! :.'+*)#/: any natuial peison who, in contiacts coveieu by these iegulations, is acting
foi puiposes which aie outsiue theii tiaue, business oi piofession
! A*+,'#++: any natuial oi legal peison who is acting foi puiposes ielating to his tiaue,
business oi piofession whethei publicly oi piivately owneu.
8".$# .- &$$2,"&%,.': the iegulations on unfaii teims applies only to teims uiafteu in auvance
by the business it doesnt mean only standard terms contract, but also contiacts uiafteu in
auvance foi inuiviuual use.


! #$%&'(#&)(* &+', -. )%/(-' -/: 1) hasnt been individually negotiated 2) is contrary to the
requirement of good faith 3) causes significant imbalance in the parties rights and duties arising
uuiing the contiact to the uetiiment of the consumei
0+',. '+1('2+2 (. )%/(-' ('+ 3$-2 # the iest f the contiact iemains valiu anu binuing (i.e.
paitial nullity is not applicable).
The assessment of the unfaii natuie is not ielateu to 1) ueteimination of the subject-mattei 2)
auequacy of the piice oi iemuneiation payable against goous anu seivices in exchange
pioviueu theie is tianspaiency
ueneially, &+',. 45-#5 5(3+ 6++% -%2-3-2)(**7 %+1$&-(&+2 (i.e. the consumei becomes
awaie of the unfaii teim befoie the conclusion of the contiact) aie not unfaii, +8#+9& /'$,
&+',. 45-#5:
! Excluue oi limit the liability of the business in case of ueath oi injuiy to the
peisonconsumei iesulting fiom an actionomission of the business
! Excluue oi limit the claims of the consumei in case of totalpaitial peifoimance
! Pioviue foi the consumeis total acceptance of teims they couldnt have learnt before
enteiing into the contiact
TBE CA0SA
:().( -. &5+ .$#-(* (%2 +#$%$,-# /)%#&-$% $/ ( #$%&'(#& 45-#5 -. 4$'&5 $/ *+1(* 9'$&+#&-$% tiue
foi both nominate contiact anu innominate contiact
;(*+: tiansfei of the iight of owneiship in exchange foi a piice
<+(.+: enjoyment of a thing foi a given peiiou of time against the payment of a compensation
:(''-(1+: tianspoit of peisons oi things in ietuin foi payment
Causa is )%*(4/)* 1) when its contrary to mandatory rules 2) when it constitutes the means for
evauing the application of manuatoiy iules nullity of the contiact.
TBE S0B}ECT-NATTER
It must be 9$..-6*+= *(4/)*= 2+&+',-%+2 $' 2+&+',-%(6*+>
?$..-6*+ 1) a piomise to uo something impossiblenot existing cannot be binuing 2) a
contiact may pioviue foi futuie things (e.g. wine fiom the next haivest) oi futuie iights (e.g.
copyiight on book) B0T no gift of a futuie piopeity.
<(4/)* when its not contraiy to manuatoiy iules, public policy oi moials (iefei to the
causa for guidance).
@+&+',-%+2 1) uefine the peifoimance uue 2) iuentify the things to be tiansfeiieu in
tiansfei of piopeity S) inuicate numbei, measuiement oi quantity in supply of goous
@+&+',-%(6*+ thiough the application of uispositive iules oi inteipietation. E.g. if piice not
specifieu oi not agieeu on how to ueteimine it, the piice is noimally set by the sellei oi if the
thing has a mkt piice taken fiom the quotation of the neaiest mkt of the place wheie ueliveiy
has occuiieu. When parties refer to fair price, if the previous provisions dont apply, its
ueteimineu by a thiiu peison appointeu by the Piesiuent of the Tiibunal
In oiuei to ueteimine the subject-mattei, the paities can iefei to ciiteiia fixeu outsiue the tiansaction
e.g. piice foi a cai is the one listeu on the issue of a cai magazine, oi may iefei to the ueteimination of
peifoimance pioviueu foi in a contiact to a thiiu peison.
C0NTINuENT C0NBITI0NS


A contingent conuition uesignates an unceitain anu futuie event on whose veiification uepenus the
beginning of the effectiveness of a contiactual obligation (!"#$%&%"# ()*!*$*#&), oi theii teimination
(!"#$%&%"# +,-+*.,*#&) If eithei of these conuitions is unlawful, the contiact is voiu.
A conuition is %/("++%-0* if: 1) conuition pieceuent: pievents the contiact fiom evei taking
effect 2) conuition subsequent: it amounts to the ceitainty that the contiact will nevei be
teiminateu in the fiist case the contiact is voiu, in the 2
nu
case the conuition is tieateu as
inexistent.
A conuition is /*)*01 ("&*+&2&%3* when the event foieseen in the conuition uepenus on the
simple will of one of the paities anu it is an event about the occuiience of which the paity is
inuiffeient.
A peison who is unuei obligation +4200 2!& 2!!")$%#5 &" 5""$ 62%&4 $,)%#5 &4* (*#$*#!1 "6
&4* !"#$%&%on, in oiuei to safeguaiu the inteiests of the othei paity e.g. Paul unueitakes to sell
a flat to Paul, pioviueu he gets a loan fiom the bank. Then, he cannot aim at making the fact of
obtaining the loan impossible.
TBE F0RN
ueneially, the iequiiements to have a wiitten foim may be met by:
7%/(0* 8)%&&*# 6")/ uocument has been signeu e.g. tiansfei of iight of owneiship
piopeity inteiests of immovable
9)%&&*# 6")/ 8%&4 2,&4*#&%!2&*$ +%5#2&,)* authentication means that an authoiizeu
official will iuentify the signatois piioi to theii signing anu will iequiie them to sign in his
piesence e.g. tiansfei of iight of owneiship piopeity inteiests of immovable
9)%&&*# 6")/ 84"+* !"#&*#& 42+ -**# 2,&4*#&%!2&*$ :(,-0%! $**$; besiues
authenticating signatuies, the official asceitains that the content of the uocument coiiesponu
with the will of the ueclaiants he is not obligeu to veiify the tiuthfulness. A uocument uiawn
up by an unauthoiizeu official oi not compliant with iequiieu foimalities is equivalent to a
simple wiitten foim.
TBE BINBINu F0RCE 0F A C0NTRACT
TBE F0RCE 0F LAW 0F C0NTRACTS
Art. 1372 CC states: ! #$%&'!#& (!) &(* +$'#* $+ ,!- .&- &(* /!'&0*)1 2& #!%%$& .* 30))$,4*3 *5#*/& +'$6
67&7!, #$%)*%& $' +$' ! #!7)* /*'60&&*3 .8 &(* ,!- fiom when contiact is concluueu, paities aie
legally bounu
TBE RIuBT 0F WITBBRAWAL
Theiefoie, no paity can unilateially withuiaw )%54& "6 8%&4$)2820 may be gianteu by 028 oi
*<()*++%3*01 ()"3%$*$ foi by the contiact: teiminates the iights anu obligations ielateu to the
contiact. Sometimes it is:
=%/%&*$ its exeicise is subject to the existence of seiious motives e.g. in case of the lessee,
when not expiessively pioviueu foi
>,+& !2,+* ? @,+&%6%*$ /"&%3* e.g. in case of uismissal, when employei teiminates
employment contiact
When withuiawal is *<()*++%3*01 ()"3%$*$ foi:


!"# %&'"( )*+ ,# #-#%)&.#/ 0"#+ ("#%# &. +1 )122#+)#2#+( 13 4#%31%2*+)#"
! #$%&'()*)+ ,-. /0 010(2$30' )4%0( 25660720607% $7 2)30 54 51+' (#%2 )1+(%*)(.
257%()2%3 45( 257%$78583 5( 90($5'$2 90(45(6)720: '$335+8%$57 25720(73 48%8(0
90(45(6)720
6*&57%# (1 #-#%)&.# ("# %&'"( 13 0&("/%*0*5 )*+ *217+( (1 (*)&( %#+#0*5 13 4#%31%2*+)#
8&("/%*0*5 2*9 ,# .7,:#)( (1 4*92#+( ,9 ("# 0&("/%*0&+' 4*%(9 *$%&'()*)+ %);03
04402% )4%0( %&0 9)<607%
! =)(703% 6570< >$?07 )% %&0 %$60 54 %&0 45(6)%$57 54 %&0 257%()2% 2)7 /0 830' )3
2569073)%$57: %&0 9)(%< *&5 *$%&'()*3 45(40$%3 %&0 0)(703% >$?07 5( 683% 9)< '58/+0
54 *&)% %&0< &)?0 (020$?0'
;*0 019(033$?0+< 9(5?$'03 45( %&0 ($>&% 54 *$%&'()*)+ 45( *55 )1+.72#% )1+(%*)(.@ 70>5%$)%0' )*)<
4(56 /83$7033 9(06$303 AB '55(C%5C'55( 3)+03 DB 6)$+ 5('0( 2)%)+5>803 $"0" %0+06)%$23 257%()2%3 *$%&
0+02%(57$2 3$>7)%8(0 EB '$3%)720 257%()2%3 $"0" /< 9&570@ %? 9(5>()63
F7 %&$3 2)30 4%1<&.&1+. *%# +1( <*5&/ (e.g. justification) %&0 ($>&% 2)7 /0 010(2$30' '8($7> )
+$6$%0' 90($5' 54 %$60@ %5 /0 256687$2)%0'
G&0 98(2&)30' $%06 683% /0 (0%8(70' 87')6)>0'
,H.GI-,GJ GI-.JK=IIF.L H#.=IJMFN HI NIHN=IGO F.G=I=JGJ
G&0 %()7340( 54 5*70(3&$9 5( 9(590(%< $7%0(03%3 5?0( ) %&$7> $3 )2P8$(0' /< ?$(%80 54 %&0 48++<
019(0330' )>(00607% 54 %&0 9)(%$03 Q9($72$9+0 54 68%8)+ )3307%B R5%&0( +0>)+ 3<3%063 *&0(0 60(0
)>(00607% $3 75% 3844$2$07%: => /#5&<#%9 13 ("# ("&+'? &+ )*.# 13 21<*,5#. @> 31%2*5 4%1)#/7%#? &+
)*.# 13 &221<*,5#A
-225('$7> %5 F%)+$)7 +)*@ 60(0 )>(00607% &)3 %&0 45(20 54 %()7340(($7> %&0 ($>&%: %&0 98(2&)30(
/025603 %&0 5*70( 4(56 %&0 65607% %&0 257%()2% $3 2572+8'0'@ 9(5?$'0' %&0 )>(00607% $3 +)*48++<
019(0330' $"0" $7 %&0 6)770( (0P8$(0' /< +)*"
F.G=INI=G-GFH. HK ,H.GI-,G
G&0 4$(3% 3%09 $7%5 ) 257%()2% $3 %5 )320(%)$7 %&0 257%07% 54 %&0 257?0(>$7> 6)7$403%)%$57 54 *$++3" G&0
257%07% $3 '0%0(6$70' /< $%3 &+(#%4%#(*(&1+ $"0" %5 )%%($/8%0 ) 60)7$7> %5 20(%)$7 0?07%3 (04+02%$7> %&0
*$++ 54 %&0 9)(%$03@ 382& )3 *5('3 3)$' 5( *($%%07@ >03%8(03 )7' 65(0 >070()++< %&0 5?0()++ 257'82%
)'59%0' $7 %&0 257%01%" %&0 256657 $7%07% 54 %&0 9)(%$03 &)3 %5 /0 358>&% Q.7,:#)(&<#
&+(#%4%#(*(&1+B R 57+< %&0 +$%0()+ 60)7$7>" F4 570 5( 65(0 60)7$7>3 )(0 9533$/+0 Q)6/$?)+0720B@ %&0(0
$3 )7 1,:#)(&<# &+(#%4%#(*(&1+A
No enquire into inner will but determin)%$57 54 %&0 3$>7$4$2)720 %&530 *5('3 5( >03%8(03 &)'
)% %&0 %$60 )7' $7 %&0 9+)20 )7' 257%01% %&0< *0(0 830'
B1221+ &+(#+( )1&+)&/#+)# S 25((03957'0720 13 2#*+&+' 54 %&0 6)7$403%)%$573 54 %&0
*$++3 54 %&0 9)(%$03 R )1&+)&/#+)# 13 0&55
B%&(#%&* 13 &+(#%4%#(*(&1+:
C11/ 3*&(": 60)7$7> )%%($/8%0' /< )7 &5703% )7' +5<)+ 90(357" G&0 (8+0 4+5*3 4(56 %&0
9($72$9+0 54 (0+$)720: ) 90(357 (020$?$7> ) 3%)%0607% )7'@ $7 >55' 4)$%&@ (0>8+)%$7> %&0$( )2%3 $7
25745(6$%< %&0(054@ '030(?03 9(5%02%$57
B1+(#-(D 257702%$57 /%* *5('3 $3 $695(%)7% $"0" !"!#$ &'()*! +* +,-!#.#!-!/ 0+-1 #!2!#!,&! -3 (''
-1! 3-1!#*4 (--#+5)-+,6 -3 !(&1 -1! 7!(,+,6 #!*)'-+,6 2#37 -1! (&- (* ( 013'!8
E2,&'7&(9FE2,&<*5#+)#


! !""#$%& in case of ambiguity ambivalence, clauses aie inteipieteu in a way in which
they have effects iathei than in a way in which they have none.
! Inteipietation accoiuing to the (#)#*+, -*+$%.$# in use in the place wheie the contiact
was enteieu into
! Stanuaiu teims uiafteu in auvance by one paity aie inteipieteu in favoui of the othei
paity
! In case of extieme ambiguity, it has to be unueistoou .) %/# 0#)0# ,#+0% 12*3#)045#
"4* %/# 3#1%4* (giatuitous) oi in the sense that #62+,,7 *#$4)$.,#0 the inteiests of the
paities (non-giatuitous)
FILLINu uAPS IN INC0NPLETE C0NTRACTS
Fieeuom of contract doesnt imply that every single aspect of the ielationship has to be laiu out
.)%#(*+%.4) 4" %/# $4)%*+$% piocess that, baseu on the agieement ieacheu, completes its content
anu ueteimine its effects. It piesupposes inteipietation i.e. qualification to ueteimine its essential
effects as agieeu by the paities.
Clauses on -*.$# 4" (4430 oi seivices is automatically inseiteu
a contiact binus the paities also to all consequences ueiiving fiom it at ,+8 oi accoiuing to
20+(# then anu equity ".)+,,79 Bowevei, law piovisions exist only in case of nominate
contiacts.
C0NTRACTS ANB TBIRB PERS0NS
As a geneial iule a contract doesnt produce effects with respect to third persons except in cases
pioviueu by law. Bowevei, when contiactual paities caiiy out peifoimance, the new situation may
affect inuiiectly thiiu peisons e.g. in a tiansfei of owneiship, the neighboui.
A contiact .) "+:42* 4" + %/.*3 -#*04) is effective when the peison has an inteiest theiein e.g. in life
insuiance when a peison stipulates that, in case of ueath, a thiiu peison shoulu ieceive a sum of
money. !;-,.$.% +$$#-%+)$# 4" %/# 1#)#".$.+*7 .0 )4% )#$#00+*79
AuENCY ANB REPRESENTATI0N
<48#* 4" *#-*#0#)%+%.4) the authoiity to act in the name of someone else. It can be confeiieu by
the piincipal (voluntaiy iepiesentation) oi by law (legal iepiesentation) the act of gianting this
powei is calleu power of attorney: unilateial act uiiecteu to thiiu peisons, pioviuing the pioof of
authoiity confeiieu to the agent to act in the name of the piincipal. The confeiial of this powei can be
infeiieu fiom the conuuct of the peisons (ueclaiation of will) oi fiom a ue facto situation (implieu
fiom ciicumstances) e.g. shop assistant iepiesenting the ownei of the shop.
Thiee iequiiements: agent must act
.) %/# )+5# 4" %/# -*.)$.-+, if the agent acts in theii own name, even if on behalf of the
piincipal, the effects of the contiacts aie on the agent e.g. piice of an house puichase
.) %/# .)%#*#0% 4" %/# -*.)$.-+, a contiact against the inteiest of the piincipal can be
annulleu at the iequest of the piincipal if conflict iecognisable by thiiu peison e.g. contract
with oneself: if the agents enteis in a contiact with themselves oi as an agent of anothei paity,
the contiact is voiuable unless 1) authoiiseu by the piincipal oi 2) pioven that theie is no
conflict of inteiest.
8.%/.) %/# ,.5.%0 $4)"#**#3 4) %/#5 if the agent exceeus the limit of the powei, he is liable
foi any uamage that the thiiu peison suffeis foi having placeu confiuence without fault in the


valiuity of the contiact. !"# %"&'( )#'*+, "-* %+ ."#./ %"# )+0#' +1 -%%+',#2, otheiwise he
has to beai the iisks e.g. someone buys a house on behalf of 0bama
When authoiity given by the piincipal, for the effectiveness of the contract its sufficient that they have
capacity to unueistanu anu intenu. A contiact is voiuable if the consent of the agent is uefective:
howevei if such uefect conceins matteis pieueteimineu by the piincipal, the contiact is voiuable only
of the consent of the lattei is uefective.
SBAN C0NTRACTS (SIN0LATI0N)
Sham contiact: uelibeiate uiveigence btw 0&33 anu (#.3-'-%&+, of the paities
-4*+35%# *"-6: the contiact is intenueu to have no effect Paul is full of uebt anu to avoiu
confiscation of the house, he sells it to Paul but they dont want the transfer of ownership.
7#3-%&8# *"-6: the contiact has effects uiffeient fiom what ueclaieu a gift (genuine
contiact) insteau of a sale (appaient contiact), because puichase piice is zeio. In this case the
genuine contiact has effects, pioviueu causa anu foim aie met (e.g. no gift of futuie piopeity)
9,%#'#*%* +1 %"&'( )#'*+,* (cieuitois of sham tiansfeioi ownei oi people to whom iights have been
tiansfeiieu by the sham ownei) 1) thiiu peisons can pleau simulation against the contiacting
paities, when it is piejuuicial to theii iight 2) sham contiact cannot be useu by the contiacting paities
against the cieuitois of the sham ownei S) in a uispute with the cieuitois of the sham ownei, the
cieuitois of the sham tiansfeioi aie piefeiieu 4) in a uispute btw cieuitois anu thiiu peisons who in
goou faith have acquiieu iights fiom the sham ownei, the lattei pievail when the sham contiact
piejuuices its iights.
INBIRECT 0SE 0F C0NTRACT. FIB0CIA. TR0ST.
In oiuei to obtain some economic iesults, sometimes contiacts aie useu in a stiategic way i.e. paities
have iecouise to an inuiiect use of contiact no sham as the contracts concluded coiiesponu to the
inteiests puisueu by the paities.
:&(5.&- (fiuuciaiy contiact agieement) paities entei into the agieement foi the tiansfei of
owneiship anu at the same time agiee to ietuin the piopeity back aftei some time.
!'5*% a tiustee holus a piopeity in tiust foi the benefit of anothei, namely the beneficiaiy,
who may be the settloi of the tiust oi a thiiu peison.
The main uiffeience entails the uegiee of piotection of the tiust piopeity tiust funu against the
claims of the peisonal cieuitois of the paities to the tiust (i.e. the settloi, the tiustee, the beneficiaiy)
tiust piopeity is sepaiateu fiom the piopeity of the tiustee.
vALIBITY 0F C0NTRACTS
vALIBITY, INvALIBITY ANB EFFECTIvENESS
;-3&( .+,%'-.%: foimeu in confoimity to what the law piesciibes anu theiefoie fit to geneiate
stable anu uuiable effects has binuing foice anu legal effectiveness
9,8-3&( .+,%'-.%: essential iequisites aie lacking oi aie uefective anu theiefoie
! Is unfit to geneiate effects voiusubject to nullitynull
! Is unfit to geneiate stable anu uuiable effects voiuablesubject to annulment
The notion of effectiveness is sepaiateu fiom valiuity: a contiact is not effective when it is null
(but a voiuable contiact is effective until annulleu)


!"#$$#%&'(#"#)) +,)- +..,'#) &- )/+0 %-"&1+%&) wheie paities agiee that the peifoimance
shall not be executeu.
VOID AND VOIDABLE CONTRACTS
2-'3 4-"&1+%&
! Against manuatoiy iules
! Absence of one of the essential iequiiements
! 0nlawful contiacts i.e. when causa oi subject-mattei aie unlawful: 1) manuatoiy iules,
public policy oi moials 2) contiact constitute the means foi evauing the application of
manuatoiy iules S) contiact concluueu solely foi unlawful motive
2-'3+5,# %-"&1+%&
! Paity lacking legal capacity to act i.e. minois, peisons subject to couit inteiuiction
inteiuiction at law, emancipateuuisable minois.
! vices of will: 1) mistake 2) uuiess S) fiauu
vICES 0F WILL
6')&+7#
It has to be:
8))#"&'+, when it conceins
! the natuie oi object of the contiact
! the iuentity of the object of peifoimance oi a quality of the saiu object which, accoiuing
to common unueistanuing oi ciicumstances, shoulu be ueteiminative of consent.
! Iuentity oi peisonal qualities of the othei contiacting paity
! When the mistake was one of law anu was the only oi piincipal ieason foi enteiing into
contiact
9#%-:"')+5,# when, w iespect to its content, to the ciicumstances of the contiactquality
of contiacting paities, it woulu have been uetecteu fiom peison of noimal uiligence.
E.g. Paul tells he neeus S m of a ceitain fabiic to make tiouseis: the essentiality uepenus on whethei
the fabiic is suitable foi making a paii of tiouseis anu the iecognisability on whethei }ohn is a tailoi
A mistake in calculation doesnt lead to annulment but only to coiiection
;/# .1-(')'-") +,)- +..,< =/#" &/#1# ') + 0')&+7# '" 3#%,+1+&'-" (i.e. not in the foimation
of will) oi when the ueclaiation was inexactly tiansmitteu by the peison in chaige.
>?1#))
It must be of such natuie as to impiess a ieasonable peison anu to cause them feai that they oi theii
piopeity will be exposeu to unjust anu consiueiable injuiy.
The suitability of the threat uttered to alter the formation of will of the contracting party is
evaluateu in -5@#%&'(# &#10)A notwithstanuing its auaptation to the specific situation, by
consiueiing age, sex anu conuition.
The contiact is annulleu also if 1) a thiiu peison caiiies out uuiess 2) the haim conceins
uescenuant oi heiis S) its a possible future contract e.g. suppose threat to burn a factoiy if not
sold, in case the farmer doesnt sell it.
B &/1#+& &- #"$-1%# + 1':/& ,#+3) &- +""?,0#"& -",< '$ '& ') +'0#3 &- -5&+'"'": ?"@?)&
.1-$'&) e.g. failuie to iepay uebts, thieat to sell the assets of the uebtoi is N0T uuiess
C1+?3


Annulment when the ueception is such that, without it, !"# %!"#& '(&!) *%+,- .%! "(/#
0%.0,+-#- !"# 0%.!&(0!
If the ueception is not of such mannei, !"# 0%.!&(0! 12 /(,1- 3+! !"# '(&!) 1. 3(- 4(1!" 12
,1(3,# 4%& -(5(6#2 (because maybe the paity woulu have enteieu into anothei contiact)
When ueception is piacticeu by a thiiu peison, 0%.!&(0! 0(. 3# (..+,,#- 14 !"# '(&!) *"%
!%%7 (-/(.!(6# %4 1! *(2 (*(&#
TBE ACTI0N 0F N0LLITY
8% 2(4#6+(&- 6#.#&(, 1.!#&#2! it flows fiom the infiingement of a geneial inteiest e.g. an
oial sale of immovable is void even though it doesnt harm any personal interest
932%,+!# it may be claimeu by anyone who has an inteiest in it oi by the couit (by its own
initiative), even if the litigation is not ielateu to the valiuity of the contiact
:%! 2+3;#0! !% (.) '&#20&1'!1%. except fiom 1) usucaption: nullity cannot be sought aftei
2S yis in a sale of house, because the peison has behaveu as the ownei, theiefoie acquiieu the
owneiship of it. 2) piesciiption of actions foi iestitution: Bill thinks he has to pay a
commission to }ohn foi the sale of an apaitment anu 11 yis latei (1u yis is the limit foi
iestitution) he uiscoveis }ohn is not a piofessional agent
<%./#&21%. %4 /%1- 0%.!&(0! a voiu contiact can piouuce the effects of a uiffeient contiact
(valiu) w same substance anu foim, which the paities woulu have concluueu if they hau
known of the nullity. The funuament is goou faith.
:=>= 1) A voiu contiact cannot be valiuateu 2) the nullity woiks ietiospectively even if the
paitiesthiiu peisons aie in goou faith. An exception applies in case of iegisteieu tiansfei of
owneiship, pioviueu the action of nullity is iegisteieu aftei >S yis (iestoiative iegistiation)
TBE ACTI0N F0R ANN0LNENT
?#,(!1/# it may only be uemanueu by those peisons in whose inteiest is establisheu by law.
Contiact is voiuable foi /10#2 %4 *1,, oi 1.0('(01!)
@! *1,, '&%-+0# #44#0!2 +.!1, ( 0%+&! -#0121%.2 -#0,(&#2 4%& (..+,5#.!A the action foi
annulment is piesciibeu foi S yis, while the uefenuant can oppose annulment of the contiact
anytime
Bvoiu contiact, the voiuable contiact can be valiuateu by the paity entitleu to sue foi
annulment, by a ueclaiation containing a iefeience to the contiact anu to the cause of its
voiuability anu the ueclaiation that they intenu to valiuate it.
Annulment that doesnt depend on legal incapacity doesnt prejudice the rights acquired by
oneious title by thiiu peisons in goou faith, except foi the effects of tiansciiption of the
petition foi annulment.
TERNINATI0N 0F C0NTRACT
TBE C0NCEPT 0F TERNINATI0N
8#&51.(!1%. 3) '#&4%&5(.0# caiiying out of the peifoimance
C+!+(, <%.2#.! anothei contiact
<(+2# '#&51!!#- 3) ,(*
! Non-peifoimance
! Supeivening impossibility
! Excessive oneiousness


!"#$% '( )"%$*+,),- . !/0'1,%"'2 . !/2'321",%"'2
BISS0L0TI0N F0R BREACB
In contiacts foi 43%3,- 1'32%/+56/+('+4,21/ i.e. wheie both paities commit themselves to ienuei a
performance # gratuitous contracts, when confronted to a counterparty who doesnt execute exact
peifoimance, the innocent paity has uiffeient options:
7//8 6/+('+4,21/
7//8 *"99'-3%"'2 of the contiact
Regaiuless of the choice the innocent paity is entitle to 1'46/29,%"'2 foi uamages
Fair behaviour/good faith:
a contiact cannot be uissolveu if the non-peifoimance by one of the paities has 9-"#$%
"46'+%,21/ with iegaius to the inteiest of the othei.
In contiacts of countei-peifoimance, each paity can +/(39/ %' +/2*/+ %$/"+ 6/+('+4,21/ "(
the other party doesnt perform or doesnt offer to carry out their own peifoimance at the
same time except fiom cases with uiffeient times of peifoimance. Peifoimance cannot be
iejecteu if the iejection is contiaiy to goou faith.
00T 0F C00RT BISS0L0TI0N F0R BREACB
0ut of couit uissolution is the uissolution foi bieach without the neeu to file a coiiesponuing action is
couit. The CC pioviues foi S types:
:'%"1/ %' 6/+('+4 in case of significant bieach, the paity can seive a wiitten notice to the
othei paity, inviting them to peifoim within appiopiiate time usually <1S uays anu
ueclaiing that failuie will iesult in the uissolution of the contiact (by opeiation of law)
;<6-"1"% *"99'-3%"'2 1-,39/ the contiacting paities can explicitly agiee that the contiact
will be uissolveu, if a specifieu obligation is not peifoimeu. This clause impoitant because it
allows to attiibute funuamental impoitance to an otheiwise non-peifoimance of slight
impoitance, that woulu not suffice to uissolve the contiact (the iule flows fiom contiactual
autonomy). The uissolution takes place by opeiation of law when the innocent paity ueclaies
that they intenu to avail of themselves of the clause. If they change theii minu aftei the
contiact is wiitten anu want to accept peifoimance, the innocent paity can simply not mention
the clause.
="4/ /99/2%",- %' '2/ 6,+%> the contiact is uissolveu if the time fixeu foi peifoimance by
one of the paities must be consiueieu essential in the inteiest of the othei (no neeu foi an
explicit agieement) e.g. uelivei of sliues foi a piesentation. #explicit uissolution, failuie to
uemanu peifoimance notwithstanuing the expiiation of the time of S uays theieof iesults in
uissolution of the contiact, unless the is an agieement oi usage to the contiaiy
BISS0L0TI0N F0R S0PERvENINu INP0SSIBILITY
In ?,) '( @A-"#,%"'29, supeivening impossibility ieleases the uebtoi fiom peifoimance,
pioviueu that impossibility is uue to a cause not imputable to the uebtoi.
In 1'2%+,1%9 ('+ 1'32%/+56/+('+4,21/, the paity ieleaseu foi impossibility cannot uemanu
peifoimance by the othei paity anu is bounu to iestoie that which they have alieauy ieceiveu.
! B"99'-3%"'2 '( 1'2%+,1% "9 ,3%'4,%"1 and doesnt need any activity (e.g. declaration)
by one paity oi by the couit
! C,+%",- "46'99"A"-"%> when peifoimance is paitly impossible, the othei paity 1) has
a iight to a coiiesponuing ieuuction of the peifoimance uue by them anu to uemanu


paitial peifoimance 2) can withuiaw if they lack an appieciable inteiest in the
peifoimance
! !"#$%&'&( *#$%++*,*-*.( extinction of the obligation if the impossibility continues,
until 1) the uebtoi can no longei be iequiieu to peifoim the obligation 2) the cieuitoi
is no longei inteiesteu in the peifoimance.
In contiacts which .&'/+0"& %1/"&+2*$ %0 ' +$"3*0*"4 .2*/5 oi constitute oi tiansfei piopeity
inteiests, uestiuction of the thing by a cause not imputable to the tiansfeioi uoes not ielease
the tiansfeiee fiom the obligation of peifoimance, even though the thing was not hanueu to
them e.g. in a sale of house, if the house is uestioyeu by a fiie befoie the hanuovei of the keys,
the puichasei still has to pay the piice.
BISS0L0TI0N F0R EXCESSIvE 0NER00SNESS
67.7'- $"&0%&#'/3" the economic balance of the performance and counter-
peifoimance is left to the contiactual autonomy. Paities aie expecteu to exeicise uisceinment
anu ability to assess the cuiient ciicumstances anu foieseeable futuie uevelopments.
8%/.*/7%7+ %& $"&*%4*3 $"&0%&#'/3" 9 4"0"&&"4 $"&0%&#'/3" if the peifoimance of one
paity becomes too oneious because of the occuiience of extiaoiuinaiy anu unpieuictable
events, the paity can seek the uissolution of the contiact.
! Bissolution cannot be uemanueu if the supeivening excessive oneiousness is pait of
the /%&#'- &*+: of the contiact
! Bissolution is not applicable to contiacts which aie '-"'.%&( by theii natuie oi uue to
the 1*-- %0 .2" $'&.*"+ i.e. contiacts of mutual peifoimance wheie the exact amount of
at least one paity is not ueteimineu at the moment of its conclusion e.g. insuiance
! Bissolution can be avoiueu by the paity against whom it is uemanueu by offeiing to
#%4*0( ";7*.',-( the economic teims of the contiact
RESCISSI0N 0F TBE C0NTRACT
A contiact may be valiu, yet one party feels that its terms were unfair: in geneial, any inuiviuual is
exposeu to the iisk of iunning theii business ueals bauly.
Funuamental mistakes iegaiuing quality anu quantity can leau to the annulment not because of
imbalance in the piice, but baseu on the assumption that the person wouldnt have concluded the
3%/.&'3.< 2'4 .2"( :/%1/. Compensation foi uamages can only be askeu in case of fiauu.
Bowevei, the law pioviues foi a -*#*."4 &"#"4( to unequal baigains wheie economic imbalance
flows fiom exploitation of eithei 1) the state of uangei 2) state of neeu that one paity finus himself
into.
Contiact by which one paity assumes obligations unuei unfaii conuitions because he is in a
conuition of necessity of +'=*/5 .2"#+"-="+ %& %.2"& $'&.( 0&%# $&"+"/. 4'/5"&, known to
the othei paity.
>.'." %0 /""4 %0 .2" '55&*"="4 $'&.(, wheie the uispiopoition btw mutual peifoimance that
the contiactual paities agieeu to peifoim iesults fiom a state of neeu of one paity, of which the
othei was awaie at the time of concluuing the contiact.
Requiiements:
Rescission is not actionable if the injury doesnt "?3""4 @ %0 .2" ='-7" that the peifoimance
maue oi piomiseu by the injuieu paity hau at the time of the contiact.
In oiuei to uemanu iescission, the injuiy must 3%/.*/7" 7/.*- .2" .*#" 12"/ .2" '3.*%/ *+
,&%752.


The exploitation of a state of neeu matteis insofai as it iefeis to an !"#$#%&" (&)*+)&#$ e.g. if a
peison neeus to buy woou at S times the piice because he has no heating, iescission is not
possible.
Rescission is subject to a ,-.!+/ 0/!("/&0)&#$, fiom the conclusion of the contiact
SEC0RITY
LIABILITY 0F TBE BEBT0R
1
/2
34+0)!/ CC: liability + giounus foi pie-emption anu pieseivation of piopeity as collateial secuiity.
These legal instiuments aie uesigneu to ensuie piotection of the iights of a cieuitoi seeking
satisfaction fiom the assets of a uebtoi shoulu the lattei fail to uischaige his obligation. these
instiuments aie the souice of 5!$!/+6 /*6!(, followeu by (*"4 !7"!0)&#$( +( +/! !70/!((&8!6.
0/#8&2!2 foi by law.
9$6&%&)!2 6&+:&6&). the debtor is liable foi the peifoimance of his obligations with all his
present and future and future assets
;<*+6 0/#)!")&#$ #= "/!2&)#/( each cieuitoi is equally entitleu to satisfaction fiom the
piopeity of the uebtoi
! ;7"!0)&#$(> pie-emptive iights e.g. 0/&8&6!5!? 06!25!? %#/)5+5!
Bowevei, most cieuitois woulu tiy to have pie-emptive iights ueneial iules uo not apply
only when the law expiessively pioviues so. No peison may elect anu ueciue foi himself to be
exoneiateu fiom such iules.
LINITEB LIABILITY
@!$!/+6 /*6!: all assets of the debtor, without distinction of status, may be set against all liabilities
accrued.
;7"!0)&#$(: some specific assets may be uestineu piimaiily oi exclusively as secuiity against a
specific class of liability oi uebt.
0nly a pait of the assets is factoieu in to calculate the iatio btw uistinct A & L geneiateu by the
debtor. Such distinct ratio doesnt factor in the general property of the debtor. !()+)! #= )4!
2!"!+(!2 > without liability to uebt beyonu assets uescenueu i.e. A&L of the heii aie uistinct
fiom the ones of the ueceaseu, so that the heii is helu to pay back only to such extent as the
assets of such estate may covei
Assets anu liabilities of uistinct peisons aie compounueu to calculate a iatio uistinct anu
sepaiate fiom the iespective A & L of each single peison :+$A/*0)".
B!0+/+)! 6!5+6 !$)&)&!( 1) S.i.l.: limiteu liability company w sole quota holuei 2) s.p.a:
coipoiation w sole shaieholuei
Common featuies:
3#%06!7 #= 0/#0!/). "#-#C$!2 :. (!8!/+6 0!/(#$( anu which aie uestineu to a specific
scope
Rules which place such piopeity unuei piotection fiom the iespective cieuitois of the single
co-owneis. Conveisely, the iespective co-owneis aie unuei piotection fiom unlimiteu liability
to the cieuitois of the ventuie.
Segiegation of A & L is baseu on 6!5+6 /!6+)&#$( :)C (!8!/+6 0!/(#$(, which uo not involve
theii iespective peisonal A&L


Limiteu liability applies to uiffeient situations: 1) community btw spouses 2) piopeity funus jointly
owneu btw spouses S) associationscommitteespaitneiships S) coipoiations limiteu liabilities
companies - foi piofit 4) founuations anu iegisteieu associations - non piofit.
PRE-ENPTIvE RIuBTS
ueneially speaking, being the first to take an action doesnt entitle the credi!"# !" %&' (#)*)+,-,.
Noieovei, suppose S cieuitois, one entitleu to 1umln, the othei two entitleu to S mln. If pioceeus fiom
sale amount to 16 mln, the 1
st
ieceives 8ml anu the otheis 4mln each.
Pie-emption insteau means that "&, ". !/, 0#,1)!"#2 )2 ,&!)!+,1 !" (#,.,#,&0, ". 2%!)2.%0!)"& ovei
the othei cieuitois. It aiises fiom 34 (#)*)+,-, 54 (+,1-, 64 7"#!-%-,. Cieuitois with no pie-emption
aie knows aie 0/)#"-#%(/2.
SEC0RITY AuAINST BEFA0LT
Secuiity against uefault coveis all such elements as aie instiumental in secuiing cieuitois means of
coeicive enfoicement of the obligations, in case uue peifoimance of the lattei is not uischaigeu.
8,#2"&%+ 29#,!' :29#,!' ;"&12< -9%#%&!,,4 anothei peison enteis into the ielation btw
uebtoi anu cieuitoi becoming suiety oi guaiantoi foi the uebtoi. Be becomes anothei uebtoi,
to whom the cieuitoi may iequest peifoimance anu whose piopeity seives as collateial
="++%!,#%+ :(+,1-, %&1 7"#!-%-,4 all the assets of the uebtoi pioviue geneiic secuiity to
the cieuitoi (secuieu tiansaction): the cieuitoi is vesteu with 1) iight of puisuit: seize debtors
piopeity 2) pie-emption: obtain satisfaction by iight of piefeience fiom pioceeus of sale
These iights have a 2"9#0, )& !/, >)++ of the paities. The cieation of a lien (i.e. a secuiity inteiest)
mouifies the status of piopeity anu thus affect the position of all cieuitois towaius the peison whose
piopeity has been mouifieu. ?! )2 &,0,22%#' !/%! 6
#1
(%#!),2 ;, )&."#7,1. Thats why the creditor
obtains possession of the pleugeu piopeity (movable) while moitgages (immovable) aie iecoiueu in
the public iegistei.
PR0TECTI0N 0F TBE RIuBTS 0F TBE CREBIT0R
The right of the creditor to obtain satisfaction doesnt automatically cieate a 0"++%!,#%+ 2,09#)!' oi
iestiaint on the iights of the uebtoi to ,&!,# )& "!/,# !#%&2%0!)"&2 (i.e. sell, incui othei uebts).
Bowevei, a cieuitoi is entitleu to piotection whenevei the uebtoi puts at iisk the geneiic
secuiity tieu to his obligation, eithei by 1) neglecting to exeicise his iights 2) attempting to
conceal his piopeity out of ieach of the cieuitois
Remeuies: 34 1,#)*%!)*, %0!)"& 54 #,*"0%!)"& 64 %!!%0/7,&!
BERIvATIvE ACTI0N (S0BSTIT0TI0N)
@9;2!)!9!)"&: ! #$%&'()$ *!+ %,%$#'-% -.#/ $'0/(- !1& !#(')1- ()2!$&- (/'$& 3!$('%- )4 /'-
&%5()$ (/!( -!'& &%5()$ 4!'6- () %,%$#'-%
%)7 ". !/, %0!)"&: to ensure that his claims be satisfied and protected action limiteu to
such specific situations ueiiving fiom the ineitia of the uebtoi that puts at iisk the geneiic
secuiity of the cieuitoi e.g. a uebtoi fails to claim a uebts uue which he know woulu be exacteu
by his cieuitois
Beiivative action may be biought foi all iights anu actions of ,0"&"7)0 &%!9#,


The effect is the ieinstating of the uebtoi in full possession of the piopeity anu consequently,
the !"#$%&$'#( *(+ &#($'(,*(&% #- .%(%"*/ 0%&,"'$1 also foi othei cieuitois
REv0CATI0N (0RBINARY REv0CATI0N)
A creditor has the power to request that !"#$ &'!()!'*')+! ,-'& &).+ /0 *$1 &1/*)2 .'*$ 213-2& *) $'!
(2)(12*0 -! 4-0 (2)51 (216"&'#'-, *) *$1 #,-'4! )7 *$1 #21&'*)2 !$-,, /1 &1#,-21& 5)'& uebtoi takes
action to mouify oi altei the status of his piopeity
Conuitions to be satisfieu:
Acts of the uebtoi aie such as:
! to cause '(2,"1 to the claims of the cieuitoi
! to +'3'('04 the assets on which the cieuitoi ielieu e.g. iemission of uebt, uonation,
sale at knock-uown piice
! to "%(+%" 3#"% +'--'&,/$ or uncertain the coercive enforcement of the creditors rights
e.g. sale of block of flats, tianslating into a sum of money that can be easily concealeu
5"*,+ #- $4% +%6$#"
! the act has been committeu in full knowleuge of the injuiy causeu to the cieuitoi. If act
predates the creation of debt, then its necessary to demonstrate that the act was
maliciously planneu in auvance with a view to "%3#7'(. !"#!%"$1 -"#3 /'*6'/'$1.
! If the $"*(0-%" #- !"#!%"$1 '0 -#" 7*/,% then it is also necessaiy to uemonstiate that
the thiiu paity was complicit in the fiauu
! Fuithei $4'"+ !*"$'%0 $4*$ *&8,'"%+ "'.4$0 fiom the thiiu paity to whom the uebtoi
tiansfeiieu piopeity *"% !"#$%&$%+, pioviueu theii iights wee acquiieu 1) in goou
faith 2) foi value
9--%&$ #- $4% "%7#&*$'#(:
$4% *&$ #- $4% +%6$#" '0 +%&/*"%+ '(%--%&$'7% with iegaius to the claiming cieuitoi. This act is
valiu anu theiefoie iemains effective both 1) between the paities anu foi thiiu paities 2) with
regards to creditors that didnt bring action
$4% *&$ #- $4% +%6$#" &*((#$ 6% "*'0%+ *0 * +%-%(&% *.*'(0$ $4% &"%+'$#" e.g. the cieuitoi
can biing coeicive oi piotective action against thiiu-paity buyeis that aie necessaiy to his
satisfaction. Bowevei, the piopeity iemains in the hanus of the peison who acquiieu it anu
not of the uebtoi
:$*$,$% #- /'3'$*$'#(: S yeais fiom the uate of the act
PREvENTIvE SEIZ0RE 0F ASSETS
It can be iequesteu to the juuge by a cieuitoi, wheie theie is valiu giounu to -%*" /#00 #- $4% 0%&,"'$1
on cieuit. seizuie pievents 1) tiansfei of piopeity 2) mouification of its status.
A uebtoi iemoving oi uamaging seizeu piopeity is subject to ciiminal punishment anu acts ielateu to
tiansfei aie voiu with iegaiu to the cieuitoi who fileu foi seizuie.
TYPES 0F C0NTRACTS
INTR0B0CTI0N
;#3'(*$% &#($"*&$0 specific types of contiacts inuiviuually nameu by law anu goveineu by
specific set of iules which aie supplementeu by the iules of contiact in geneial


!""#$%"&'( *#"'+&*', types that aie not paiticulaily iegulateu, pioviueu that they aie
uiiecteu to the iealization of inteiests woithy of piotection.
SALE
1. Its a contract of exchange
2. Tiansfeis owneiship of a thing oi othei iights (e.g. cieuit) fiom one paity (sellei) to anothei
(buyei) anu a coiielative amount of money (piice) moves fiom the lattei (buyei) to the foimei
(sellei) *&-,& #. '/( *#"'+&*'
0-'-&1 &,,("' tiansfei of owneiship occui by meie agieement of the paities without the neeu foi
subsequent acts (e.g. ueliveiy, conveyance). Such piinciple applies when theie is tiansfei of 1)
owneiship of a ueteiminate thing 2) limiteu ieal iight on things owneu by otheis S) anothei iight
0bligations of the sellei:
2(1%3(+4 of the thing to the buyei
Cause the buyei to &*5-%+( #6"(+,/%7 oi othei iight on the thing, if such acquisition not
immeuiate as a consequence of the contiact
8&++&"' buyei against eviction anu uefects of the thing solu natuial effect of a contiact i.e.
no agieement is iequiieu
! an agieement excluuing oi limiting such waiianty has no effect if the sellei has, in bau
faith, omitteu to mention such uefects
! piotection beais on latent uefects i.e. uefects that the buyei hau no knowleuge of oi
couldnt be reasonably discovered
9::%'%#"&1 6&++&"'%(, they aie pioviueu to covei the piopei functioning of an electiic appliance
oi automobile: 1) piomise to peifoim 2) fiee of chaige S) iepaiation of any failuie inuepenuent of
uefects
LEASE ANB LEASINu (IT. L0CAZI0NE)
;(&,(
! the ownei of a piece of piopeity (movable oi immovable) giants to the othei paity
(lessee) the exclusive possession anu the iight of enjoyment of saiu piopeity foi a
ceitain peiiou of time, in exchange foi the payment of a ient.
! The lessee must ietuin the piopeity when the teim is finisheu
<7(+&'%3( 1(&,%"=
! A paity giants to anothei paity, upon payment of a fixeu peiiouical ient anu foi a fixeu
peiiou, the use of a thing (machineiy, vehicle)
! Both paities agiee that upon expiiation, the lessee may elect to 1) +('-+" the thing 2)
+("(6 the contiact substituting the thing oi ieuucing the ient if the lessee was
alieauy using the thing S) &*5-%+( #6"(+,/%7 of the thing by paying the iesiuual piice
>%"&"*%&1 1(&,%"=
! The leasing Co. buys the machineiy selecteu anu leases it to an entiepieneui at a fixeu
ient anu upon expiiation, the lessee can elect btw the S options above mentioneu
! The Co. iemains ownei of the thing so 1) Co. less at iisk in case of bankiuptcy w
iespect to lending money 2) the entrepreneur doesnt have to appropriate its cash flow
foi capital expenuituie anu has a fiscal auvantage (lease is a liability)
! Foi sale with title ietention, the iisk of loss of the piopeity leaseu is boine by the
lessee (geneially subsciibe insuiance) anu maintenance as well.


C0NTRACT F0R W0RK ANB SERvICES (IT. APPALT0)
!"# %&'()*%(&) unueitakes to peifoim some woik oi seivice
!"# +),'%,+*- unueitakes to pay a coiielative in money
.&)/ &) 0#)1,%# has to be unueitaken with an appiopiiate oiganization of means anu iun at
the iisk of the contiactoi
Requiiements to be a contiactoi:
Have an organization of means i.e. capital, human resources, material to carry out the
peifoimance
Assume the risk of the opeiations i.e. assume iisk of a possible inefficiency of the means
oiganizeu, iesulting in an inability to peifoim the unueitaking
Befinition of #'()#+)#'#2)
The contiactoi may not 023%&'()*%( the peifoimance of woik oi seivice he has unueitaken to
peifoim, unless he is authoiizeu by the piincipal: the aim is to pievent othei companies, which the
piincipal wishes to keep out, fiom using the contiactoi as a fiont to get into the ueal.
The law also piotects the seveial anu sepaiate inteiest of both contiactoi anu piincipal. The
contiactoi can )#'#4&(,*(# ("# +),%# of the woik in case of 02+#)1#','4 ,5+&00,3,-,(6 e.g. a suuuen
inciease in piice of mateiial (most contiacts aie piice-aujusteu though)
7*),*(,&'0 8)&5 ("# &),4,'*- %&'()*%( 1) vaiiations agieeu 2) vaiiations maue necessaiy upon
which the parties dont agree 3) Ordinary variations moving from the principal
9'0+#%(,&' &8 ("# :&)/ ,' +)&4)#00 in case the woik falls shoit of the unueitaking, the piincipal
can uiiect the contiactoi to confoim to it within uue time anu teims. In case of non-compliance upon
expiiation, the contiact is automatically teiminateu anu the piincipal can claim uamages
;,'*- (#0( prior to communicating the principals acceptance of the works. The test is essential bcs
the payment is contingent to this acceptance. Shoulu the piincipal neglect to conuuct a test oi omit to
communicate acceptance with uue time, the woik is aumitteu as accepteu
.*))*'(6 *4*,'0( <#8#%(0 aftei acceptance, such guaiantee applies only to uefects not uisceinable
by the piincipal oi fiauuulently non-uiscloseu by the contiactoi. Foi contiacts of sale, petitions foi
iemeuy in case of uefects is subject to statute of limitation.
uENERAL PRINCIPLES 0F T0RT LAW
LIABILITY IN T0RT
Notion that people who claim to have been, in some way, injuieu by a conuuct, situation oi activities
geneiateu by othei people shoulu be entitleu to seek compensation foi uamages.
=0(,5*(,&' &8 ("# #'(,(6 &8 ("# <*5*4# ,'8-,%(#< iepaiation of injuiy foi unjust uamage (it.
uanno ingiusto)
>0%#)(*,'5#'( &8 -,*3,-,(6
! the wionguoei has to be iuentifieu (eluciuation of causation)
! once causation has been establisheu, the wiong has to be asceitaineu as 1) negligent oi
2) wilful
>5&2'( &8 <*5*4#0 that may be imposeu on the wionguoei.
! Bifficult when theie is no mateiial loss (e.g. loss of employment, oppoitunities).


! Function of uamages is to iemeuy (compensate) the injuiy of loss #ciiminal law,
whose goal is punishment
! "#$%#&#'( $)#*+* ,-&( ./+- 0$1$2+ #* .),-234& $-0 5,-045' #* %&$1+.,)'/(
(intentional oi negligent)
S00RCES 0F T0RTI00S LIABILITY
Liability foi uamages aiises fiom committing a 5#6#& .),-2 7',)'8 1) act oi fact injuiious to an
inteiest piotecteu at law 2) which causes uetiiment to the injuieu peison
Cleai uistinction btw toits # 4-&$.34& $5'* 9 5,-')$5'4$& .),-2* (bieach of contiact) the lattei
piesuppose that 1) theie exists a binuing legal ielation 2) theie exists a non-peifoimance by the
uebtoi S) the non-peifoimance causes uamage to the cieuitoi
In toit law, liability doesnt arise from a pre-existing ielationship btw the wionguoei anu the
injuieu paity
ARTICLE 2u4S CC
A civil wrong is any intentional or negligent fact causing unjust damage to others
Repaiation can be claimeu if the uamage is 1) .),-234& 2) connecteu to the fact committeu by
5$4*$'#,- S) the peison who has committeu it eithei #-'+-'#,-$&&( (wilfully) oi -+2&#2+-'&( (with
fault), pioviueu the peison has capacity to unueistanu anu intenu
Elements of the uefinition:
:%;+5'#6+ +&+1+-'* (peitaining to the fact) unjust uamage anu causation
<4%;+5'#6+ +&+1+-'* (peitaining to the conuuct of the wionguoei) culpability, negligence
anu intention
STRICT LIABILITY
0theis tests of liability (fiom tiauition exigencies of inuustiial society):
=$)+-'$& $4'/,)#'( is liable foi uamages cause by minoi
>/+ ?+)*,- ./, %+-+3#'* 3),1 $- $5'#6#'( is vicaiiously liable
>/+ ,.-+) is liable foi uamage cause by things owneu
<')#5' &#$%#&#'(@ a peison coulu be helu vicaiiously liable foi the uamage committeu by a
wionguoei on the giounu of the ielation this peison has with him.
Cases not specifically uelineateu by law (as above) oi not falling in the geneial piinciple
peitain to a uiffeient categoiy of liability.
IN}0RY ANB BANAuE
A$1$2+ 1) mateiial loss 2) injuiy S) non-satisfaction of neeus : economic, physical oi mental
At law, uefineu as: 1) something injuiious to an inteiest 2) something uetiimental (to piopeity oi
peison) S) something iesulting fiom injuiy to an inteiest
Test to assess the magnituue of the uamage: 1) loss sustaineu 2) lost piofits
B,1?+-*$'#,- 3,) -,-C+5,-,1#5 &,**+* applies only to such cases laiu uown by law uamages
causing mental uistiess, giief oi psychological complaint that may afflict the victim of a ciime


RENEBIES
!"#$%&'( *&+&,$- pecuniaiy compensation amounting to the value of the loss suffeieu
.$/&'&%0"# 1'$-%0%2%0" 0# 0#%'$,'0+3 intenueu to iestoie the situation of the plaintiff to
what it woulu have been if the toit hau not occuiieu
Assessment of uamage auopts the same piinciples as in the case of non-peifoimance in obligations
(with exception of the limitation foieseeability):
Loss sustaineu anu lost piofits aie iecoveiable anu this iests on the piinciple of causation
}uuge is vesteu w the powei to assess equitably the magnituue wheie a monetaiy evaluation
cannot be easily peifoimeu
Contiibutoiy negligence of the injuieu paity must be taken into account (it uiminishes
compensation)
ENTREPRENE0R ANB ENTERPRISE C0NPETITI0N
ENTREPRENE0RS ANB EC0N0NIC INITIATIvE
4$50#0%0"# "5 $#%'$/'$#$2': ! #$%&'( )*' #%'+$&&,'(!--. /'(01/2& !( '%3!(,4$0 $/'('5,/
!/2,6,2. 0$&2,($0 2' 2*$ #%'01/2,'( '% $7/*!(3$ '+ /'55'0,2,$& '% &$%6,/$&
6'$$*"+ "5 2#*$'%&70#, "' 8"#%'&8%0#,: #%,6!2$ $/'('5,/ !/2,6,2. ,& +%$$ an
entiepieneui may ueciue if anu when to piouuce, wheie anu what to piouuce, pioviueu his
puisuit iemains within the bounu of the Constitution
4$50#0%0"# "5 $8"#"+08 &8%090%(: seiies of cooiuinateu acts uestineu to the attainment of a
singles puipose (piouuce anu place new wealth foi anu on the maiket)
Essential elements to uefine an activity an enteipiise:
:$&'8; 5"' /'"50% 0- #"% &# $--$#%0&< 5$&%2'$ it suffices that piouuction of commouities oi
seivices is conuucteu along economic ciiteiia i.e. calibiateu to aujust cost anu ievenues
='"5$--0"#&<0-+ 1) the activity must be constant anu lasting # inteimittent anu occasional
2) seasonal activities e.g. a hotel closing in summei is consiueieu an enteipiise
>',&#0?&%0"# a business is a complex of piopeities oiganizeu by an entiepieneui foi the
conuuct of his business i.e. theie exists no enteipiise with no plant oi facility: business as a
going on concein (it. azienua)
:8"/$ 0- /'"*28%0"# &#* $@8;&#,$ "5 8"++"*0%0$- "' -$'908$- 1) excluueu activities
with the sole scope of enjoyment of the goous i.e. ienting an apaitment oi piouuction foi
peisonal use 2) an example of exchange is the case of ietaileis
SNALL B0SINESSES ENTERPRISES
Small entiepieneuis aie such peisons that exeicise an activity organized mainly by their own industry
8$++'%29 and by the industry of the members of their families
0nlike othei enteipiises:
They aie #"% -2AB$8% %" '$,0-%'&%0"# in the tiaue iegistei
They aie $@$+/%$* 5'"+ 7$$/0#, A""7- anu othei accounts
In case of insolvency, they aie #"% -2AB$8%$* %" /'"8$$*0#, applying to insolvent enteipiises


TBE B0SINESS AS A u0INu 0N C0NCERN
!""#$" &' ( )*"+,#"": complex of piopeity owneu by an entiepieneui foi the -&,.*-$ of his business
capital expenuituies (vehicles, machineiy), tiauemaiks anu copyiight.
Leaseu facilities aie as well pait of the assets because they shaie the same puipose (conuuct of the
business). This can cieate pioblems w iegaius to the $/(,"'#/ &' $0# )*"+,#"", because the inteiest
of the lessoi may colliue w the one of the entiepieneui, keen to tiansfei the business as a going on
concein since the goal is 1/&.*-+,2 ,#3 3#(4$0, iegulation is in favoui of the business:
!""+2,5#,$ &' $0# -&,$/(-$ 1) geneial iule in contiact w mutual obligations: assignment
of the contiact is subject to acceptance by both assignoi anu assignee. 2) In case of leasing, the
peison who takes ovei the business automatically becomes paity of the contiact, unless
uecision of the thiiu paity to teiminate the contiact (if theie is just cause & is within S months
fiom communication of tiansfei)
!""+2,5#,$ &' (--&*,$" /#-#+6()4# assignment takes effect fiom when tiansfei iecoiueu
in the trade register, !"!# %# &'! ()*!#+! ,- +,../#%+ation or consent of the debtor
!""+2,5#,$ &' (--&*,$ 1(7()4# general rule: consent must always be requested e.g. &'!
&0(#*-!0,0 %* #,& -0!! -0,. 1!)%&* %#+%1!#&(2 &, &'! +,#1/+& ,- &'! !#&!030%*! &0(#*-!00!1 (#1
(0%*%#4 30%,0 &, &'! &0(#*-!05 /#2!** +0!1%&,0* '("! +,#*!#&!1
897#(/" ,& -&51#$+$+&, /*4# on the sellei of the business against the buyei The iestiiction
pievents the sellei fiom soliciting oi ietaining customeis away fiom the business newly
owneu. The paities may agiee upon ./&11+,2 &/ #:$#,.+,2 $0# /#"$/+-$+&, beyonu what the
law imposes e.g. geographic area, provided they dont prevent the transferor from exercising
any piofessional activity
TRABENARKS, PATENTS, C0PYRIuBT
An entiepieneui has to make suie to obtain #:-4*"+6# /+20$ ovei tiauemaiks anu names that
uistinguish his piouucts fiom all the otheis. Such uistinctive signs aie:
;/(.#5(/< =5(/-0+&> which all the piouucts beai anu which may be composeu of a name
anu a logo symbolizing the enteipiise
?&55#/-+(4 ,(5# &' $0# #,$#/1/+"# =.+$$(> which iuentifies the entiepieneui
?&55#/-+(4 "+2, =+,"#2,(> which iuentifies the piemises wheie the business is conuucteu
Featuies of uistinctive signs:
?0(/(-$#/ &' ,&6#4$7: bcs tiauemaiks alieauy iegisteieu enjoy piotection fiom imitation
@+"-/+5+,($+,2 -(1(-+$7: must not employ geneiic woius that woulu cieate confusion among
customers e.g. Levis and jeans
A($#,$" 1) aie valiu foi 2u yis but expiie aftei S yis if the innovation is not useu 2) may be licenseu
foi use by some othei peison oi business upon payment of ioyalties
?&17/+20$ 1) designed to cover 6,07* ,- %#4!#/%&8 ,- ( +0!(&%"! +'(0(+&!0 3!0&(%#%#4 &, *+%!#+!5
2%&!0(&/0!5 ./*%+5 -%4/0(&%"! (0&*5 (0+'%&!+&/0!5 &'!(&0! (#1 +%#!.( [] whatever the mode or form of
!930!**%,# 2) the author enjoys exclusive right to make profit from his creation & can freely assign
this iight
FREE C0NPETITI0N


Although the notion of fiee competition woulu be challengeu by few people, nonetheless theie is a
geneial consensus on the fact that !"#$ &'(()*+ $,! -* .( '(!-'/#-() .0 '"1(! ,2) 1/+/-!
3$('+,2 42-/-'"!- 4#- (189u) in 0S to bieak caitels that uistoiteu the iules of the mkt
42-/-'"!- 4"-$*'/-0 in Italy (199u) ueclaies caitel piactises as voiu & sanctions piactises
anu abuses geneiateu by uominant positions on the mkt
0NFAIR C0NPETITI0N
The CC, which anteuates the Constitution, uisplays +*'( '(!-',/2- *2 -$( /!!"( *& &'(( #*+5(-/-/*2:
it enables competitois to stiike co-competition covenants foi a peiiou not exceeuing S yeais in
oiuei to piotect a paity to the covenant fiom seeing his fieeuom initiative tieu up foi too long
peiiou of time.
Competition must be at all time honest anu faii
Thiee categoiies of acts of "2&,/' #*+5(-/-/*26
4#-! )(!/72() -* #'(,-( #*2&"!/*2 .-8 2,+(!9 1*7*!9 -',)(+,':! *' 5'*)"#-! convince
consumei to buy theii own piouucts by taking auvantage of the notoiiety of a competitoi e.g.
slave copy, paiasite competition
4#-! *& )(2/7',-/*2 uesigneu to cast uoubts on oi tainish the ieputation of the
piouuctsactivities of an enteipiise e.g. negative auveitisement
420 *-$(' ,#-! 8/-$ -$( 7*,1 *& /2&1/#-/27 ),+,7( -* ,2*-$(' (2-('5'/!( they infiinge
the uictates of honest piofessionalism e.g. inuustiial espionage, uumping, soliciting of
employees anu boycott
To counteiact such piactises, plaintiffs may 1) publish uecision of the juuge on newspapeis oi
peiiouicals to counteiact negative auveitisement 2) obtain seizuie anu uestiuction of the
goous impeacheu
ABvERTISENENT
It is subject to iules anu iegulations to ensuie both faii competition anu piotection of consumeis.
Intiouuction of #*+5,',-/;( ,);('-/!/27 (pioven facts anu figuies of piouucts aie compaieu) &
tightening of piovisions against )(#(5-/;( ,);('-/!(+(2-<