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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
THERMOCHEMISTRY:
Part 1. Energy Flow and Chemical Change
Scope
6.1 Define Thermochemistry 6.2 Define Energy, Heat and Work 6.3 Discuss the Principle of Heat Flow 6.4 Define Enthalpy 6.5 Calorimtery: heat capacity and specific heat 6.6 Stoichiometry of Thermal Equations 6.7 Hesss Law 6.8 Standard Heats of Reaction (DHo rxn) 6.9 Bond Energies
What is Thermochemistry?
Thermodynamics the study of the energy transfers accompanying physical and chemical changes
Thermochemistry- part of thermodynamics which deals with heat involved in physical and chemical changes
What is Energy?
Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce heat. Law of conservation of energy
Energy can be converted from one form to another but can be neither created nor destroyed The total energy content of the universe is constant.
Internal Energy Internal energy E of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the particles in the system. The total amount of energy contained in a system
Chemical Energy
Potential energy associated with chemical bonds and intermolecular forces of attraction.
Internal Energy
System part of the universe on which we wish to focus attention. Surroundings include everything else in the universe. Systems + Surroundings = Universe
Types of Systems
Energy Transfers
Heat, q - involves the transfer of energy between two objects
due to a temperature difference.
Work, w
force acting over a distance.
DE = q + w
Energy is a state function; work and heat are not.
Energy Transfers
DE = q + w
Heat - involves the transfer of energy between two objects due to a temperature difference. Work force acting over a distance.
Heat
Heat flows from hotter to colder. Sign reflects the systems point of view. Endothermic Process:
Heat flow is into a system. q is positive
Exothermic Process:
Heat flows out of the system q is negative
Heat
heat
heat
Exothermic, q < 0
Endothermic, q > 0
Concept Check
2. Classify each process as exothermic or endothermic. Explain. The system is underlined in each example.
Your hand gets cold when you touch ice. The ice gets warmer when you touch it. Water boils in a kettle being heated on a stove. Water vapor condenses on a cold pipe. Ice cream melts.
Work
In addition to heat effects chemical reactions may also do work. Gas formed pushes against the atmosphere. The volume changes.
Pressure-volume work.
7-7 Illustrating FIGURE work (expansion) during the chemical reaction 2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)
Work
Work = P A h = PV
P is pressure. A is area. h is the piston moving a distance. V is the change in volume.
1. Work done by system w < 0, DE < 0 2. Work done on a system w > 0, DE > 0
Exercise
Which of the following performs more work?
a) A gas expanding against a pressure of 2 atm from 1.0 L to 4.0 L. b) A gas expanding against a pressure of 3 atm from 1.0 L to 3.0 L. c) They perform the same amount of work.
Summary
Exercise
Calculate the change in internal energy for a system undergoing an endothermic process in which 15.6 kJ of heat flows and where 1.4 kJ of work is done on the system. E = q + w E = 15.6 kJ + 1.4 kJ = 17.0 kJ
Change in Enthalpy, H
Is the heat lost or gained during a chemical or physical change that occurs at constant pressure, qp. H = q at constant pressure State function
Ei
Ef
D E = Ef - Ei DE = qrxn + w
In a system at constant volume:
DE = qrxn + 0 = qrxn = qv
But we live in a constant pressure world! How does qp relate to qv?
Two different paths leading to the same internal energy change in a system
Heats of Reaction
qV = qP + w
We know that w = - PDV and DU = qv, therefore:
DU = qP - PDV
qP = DU + PDV
These are all state functions, so define a new function.
Let enthalpy be
Then
H = U + PV
DH = Hf Hi = DU + DPV
DH = DU + PDV = qP
How do we measure the heat released (or absorbed) by a physical or chemical change?
Calorimetry
Science of measuring heat
Heat Capacity
q T or q = constant x T or
Heat Capacity
The quantity of heat required by an objective to change its temperature by 1 C.
q = constant T
q Heat capacity = T
q = C x DT
Heat Capacity
Specific Heat Capacity, c
The quantity of heat required by to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 C q
mass x T
q = mass x c x DT
Molar Heat Capacity
The quantity of heat required by to change the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1 C q [in units of J/mol-C] Molar heat capacity, C = mole x T
Joule (J)
SI unit for heat
1 cal = 4.184 J
*DT in oC is the same as for K. q = 0.387 J/gK x 125 g x (300oC - 25oC) = 1.33 x 104 J
Calorimeter
Is used to measure the heat released (or absorbed) by a physical or chemical change. Constant- pressure calorimeters Constant- volume calorimeters
Calorimetry
Energy gained/lost by the system (reaction) is equal to the energy lost/gain by the calorimeter. If two reactants at the same temperature are mixed and the resulting solution gets warmer, this means the reaction taking place is exothermic. An endothermic reaction cools the solution.
Coffee-cup Calorimeter
- qsys = qsurr
- qsolid = qH2O - qsolid = qcal + qH2O
qsolid = msolidcsolid DT qcal = Ccal DT qH2O = mH2OcH2O DT
qsoln = masssoln x specific heatsoln x DT qsoln = msoln x csoln x DT DHrxn = qrxn nLR = - qsoln nLR
*[unit: J ]
qsoln = msoln x csoln x DT Finding masssoln Total volume after mixing = 50.0 mL + 25.0 mL = 75.0 mL 75.0 mL x 1.00 g/mL = 75.0 g of water qsoln = mass x specific heat x DT = 75.0 g x 4.184 J/goC x (27.21oC - 25.00oC)
qsoln = 693 J
DHrxn = ?
qrxn DHrxn = n LR
- qsoln = n LR
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) For NaOH 0.500 M x 0.0500 L = 0.0250 mol OH0.500 M x 0.0250 L = 0.0125 mol H+ For HCl HCl is the limiting reactant. 0.0125 mol of H2O will form during the reaction.
Bomb Calorimeter
- q sample = qcalorimeter
qcalorimeter = heat capacity x DT = 8.151 kJ/K x 4.937 K = 40.24 kJ 1 Calorie = 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ 10 Calorie = 41.84 kJ The manufacturers claim is true.
calloy =
- qbenzoic acid =
- (DHrxn x - (3227 kJ/mol x
qcal + qH2O
DT =
- 32.27kJ
DT = - 5.05 C
Thermochemical Equations
balanced chemical equation that includes the heat of reaction (DHrxn) Examples: A + B C + D DHrxn= 100 kJ/mol X + Y XY DHrxn= -120 kJ/mol
A + B + 100 kJ C + D X + Y XY + 120 kJ
Properties of DHrxn
1. Sign will depend on whether the reaction is exothermic (-) or endothermic (+). The forward reaction has the opposite sign of the reverse reaction. 2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) DHrxn = 572 kJ 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) DHrxn = -572 kJ 2. Magnitude DH is proportional to the amount of substance reacting. 1 H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l) DHrxn = -286 kJ
2
286 kJ is thermochemical equivalent to 1 mol of H2(g) 286 kJ is thermochemical equivalent to 1/2 mol of O2(g) 286 kJ is thermochemical equivalent to 1mol of H2O (l)
S8(s) + 8H2(g)
8H2S (g)
DHrxn = -20.2 kJ
a. Is this an exothermic or endothermic reaction? b. What is the DHrxn for the reverse reaction? c. What is the DH when 2.6 mol of S8 reacts? d. What is the DH when 25.0 g of H2 reacts?
SOLUTION: a. Exothermic reaction
b. DHrxn = 20.2 kJ
c. 2.6 mol S8 x d. 25.0 g H2 x
- 20.2 kJ 1 mol S8 - 20.2 kJ 8 mol H2 = - 505 kJ = - 52.52 kJ
2Al(s) + 3 O2(g) DHrxn = 1676 kJ 2 If aluminum is produced this way, how many grams of aluminum can form when 1.000 x 103 kJ of heat is transferred? Al2O3(s)
Solution: 1.000 x 103 kJ x 2 mol Al x 1676 kJ 26.98 g Al 1 mol Al
= 32.20 g Al
Hesss Law
the enthalpy change, DH of an overall process is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its individual steps
DH = +33.18 kJ
If a process occurs in stages or steps (even hypothetically), the enthalpy change for the overall process is the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.
Problem-Solving Strategy
Work backward from the required reaction, using the reactants and products to decide how to manipulate the other given reactions at your disposal.
Reverse any reactions as needed to give the required reactants and products.
Multiply reactions to give the correct numbers of reactants and products.
DH = 46 kJ DH = 484 kJ
2 H2 (g ) O2 ( g ) 2 H2O( g )
DH = 46 kJ DH = 484 kJ
2 H2 (g ) O2 ( g ) 2 H2O( g )
1 2
N2 (g ) H2 (g ) NH3 (g )
2
DH = 46 kJ DH = +484 kJ
2 H2O(g ) 2 H2 ( g ) O2 ( g )
2 N2 (g ) 6 H2 (g ) 4 NH3 ( g ) 6 H2O(g ) 6 H2 (g ) 3 O2 (g )
DH = 184 kJ DH = +1452 kJ
2 N2 (g ) 6 H2O(g ) 3 O2 (g ) 4 NH3 ( g )
H = +1268 kJ
S(s) +
3 O (g) 2 2
1 O (g) 2 2
SOLUTION:
NO(g)
DHB = - 90.3 kJ
DHrxn = -373.3 kJ
CO(g) + NO(g)
2NOCl(g)
NO(g) NOCl(g)
-2 (DH1 )= - 180.6 kJ
-2 (DH2) = - 77.2 kJ
DHrxn = - 257.8 kJ
Homework
1. A coffee-cup calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat of a metallic sample. The calorimeter is filled with 50.0mL of water at 25.0C (density = 0.997 g/mL). A 36.5-gram sample of metallic material is taken from water boiling at 100.0C and placed in the calorimeter. The equilibrium temperature of the water and sample is 32.5C. The calorimeter constant is known to be 1.87 J/C. Calculate the specific heat of the metallic material. The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g-C. 2. Diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon. At 1 atm and 250C, diamond changes to graphite so slowly that the ethalpy change of the process must be obtained indirectly. Determine Hrxn for C(diamond) C(graphite) With equations from the following list: C(diamond) + O2(g) CO2(g) 2CO2(g) 2CO(g) + O2(g) C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g) 2CO(g) C(graphite) + CO2(g) H= -395.4kJ H= 566.0 kJ H= -393.5kJ H= -172.5kJ
For an Element
The form [N2(g), K(s)] in which it exists at 1 atm and 25C. Heat of formation is zero.
number of carbons
Step 1: Each reactants decomposes to its element, the standard enthalpy change is - DHf
Step 2: Each product forms from its elements, the standard enthalpy change is DHf
TiCl4(l) 2H2O(g) Ti(s) + O2(g) 2H2(g) + 2Cl2(g) TiCl4(l) + 2H2O(g) Ti(s) + 2Cl2 (g) 2H2(g) + O2(g) TiO2(s) 4HCl(g) -DHf [TiCl4(l)] -2DHf [2H2O(g)] DHf [TiO2(s)] 4 DHf [HCl(g] DHrxn = ?
Exercise
Calculate Hrxn for the following reaction: 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) Given the following information: Hf (kJ/mol) Na(s) 0 H2O(l) 286 NaOH(aq) 470 H2(g) 0 Hrxn = 368 kJ/mol
DHrxn = 3 DHf [CO2(g)] + 4 DHf [H2O(g] + -DHf [C3H8(g)] + -5DHf [O2(g)] DHrxn = 3 (-393.5 kJ) + 4 (-285.8 kJ) + [- (-103.8 kJ) -5(0 kJ)] DHrxn = - 2219.9 kJ
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
NH3 (g): DH of = -45.9 kJ/mol NO(g): DH of = 90.3 kJ/mol H2O (l): DH of = -241.8 kJ/mol
SOLUTION:
DHorxn = {4[DHof NO(g)] + 6[DHof H2O(g)]} - {4[DHof NH3(g)] + 5[DHof O2(g)]} = (4 mol)(90.3 kJ/mol) + (6 mol)(-241.8 kJ/mol) [(4 mol)(-45.9 kJ/mol) + (5 mol)(0 kJ/mol)]
DHorxn = -906 kJ/mol
Exercises PROBLEM:
Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHorxn Calculate DHorxn for the chlorination of methane to form chloroform:
CH4(g) + 3Cl2(g)
CHCl3(g) + 3HCl(g)
SOLUTION:
Bond Energy, kJ/mol C-H : 413 kJ/mol Cl-Cl: 243 kJ/mol C-Cl: 339 kJ/mol H-Cl: 427 kJ/mol
Cl
H H C H H + 3 Cl Cl
H C Cl Cl
3 H
Cl
bonds broken
bonds formed
Exercises PROBLEM:
Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHorxn Calculate DHorxn for the combustion of ethanol.
CH3CH2OH(g) + 3O2(g) Bond Energy, kJ/mol C-H : 413 kJ/mol C-O: 358 kJ/mol C-C: 347 kJ/mol O-H: 467 kJ/mol C=O: 799 kJ/mol O=O: 498 kJ/mol
2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
Additional Exercises
Consider the combustion of propane: