Grounding and Ground Testing

GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

What is a ground?
An electrical connection intentionally made between an electrical body or system and a metallic body in the earth.
Source: NBS Technical Paper 108; June, 1918

Low resistance Connection to Earth to Drain Away Energy and Engage Protective Devices

GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

What is a ground?
A conducting connection, between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Source: NFPA 70-1981; National Electrical Code

Ability to Drain Away Energy in Sufficient Manner is also Important. Not Simply Making a Ground Connection

GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

What is a ground?
A ground is a conducting connection by which an electrical circuit or equipment is connected to the earth or some conducting body.
Source: IEEE Standard 81

Ground Standards
There is not one standard ground resistance threshold that is recognized by all agencies. NFPA and IEEE have recommended a ground resistance value of 5.0 ohms or less.

The NEC has stated to "Make sure that system impedance to ground is less than 25 ohms specified in NEC 250.56.
The Telecommunications industry has often used 5.0 ohms or less as their value for grounding and bonding.
Communication requires lower signal level with higher frequency characteristics than 60 Hz Utility requirements

Loose Neutral Effect on other Phases

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What defines a good ground?

A conductor with resistance low enough to dissipate fault currents, lightning strikes, etc. into the earth. Does a good ground ensure good power quality??

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3 Phase System, Zero Sequence

Balanced load, no neutral current required

N=0

Voltage imbalance variation is in amplitude (peak rms).

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60 Hz, balanced with no zero sequence current

Ground Plane
Net Current Flow

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5th Harmonic (300 Hz), no neutral current

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Switch Mode Power Supply Square Wave Generation

Example of 140% TDD

Percents of Fundamental
3rd = 91% 5th = 74% 7th = 56% 9th = 35%

Fundamental RMS Current

0.13A

Fundamental RMS Current Plus RMS of Harmonics

0.23A

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3rd Harmonic Neutral Current is 3 Times Phase Current When Load is Balanced
Neutral Current

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Neutral Phases have become working Phases

For example - a 90% electronic load will require the neutral to carry 1.6 times the respective phase current even when all three phases are balanced

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Neutrals have become working phases;

Not simply connections for emergency situations.

McMinnville
Analogy of Water usage. Large pipe for human service usage. < Quality is Acceptable

Human Consumption Pipe. Quality Necessary

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GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

Consider Ohms Law:

V=RxI
Where:
V is Volts R is the resistance in Ohms I is the current in Amperes

Is Determining a Ground Quality simply sticking a DMM in the Dirt?

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Components of System Ground

How far do we need to run the DMM leads?

1) Electrical properties of Grid up to ground rod

2) Ground Rod Sphere of Electrical Influence 3) Infinite Earth plane

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1)

Facility Ground Plane (copper is assembled)

A facility can spend a large amount of resources to establish a good ground in a substation location -

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Metal to Metal grid is constructed

Low resistance ohm meter used to quantify grid resistance and construction quality

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2) MEASURING GROUND to EARTH RESISTANCE

Bottle Neck of all Grounds R=rL a
Where:
r is the resistivity of the earth in ohm-cm L is the Depth of the conducting path a is the cross-sectional area of the path

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System Resistance
Effective electrical conductivity area is minimal at connection point where ground rod contacts soil. Ground Rod Facility Ground Plane Flow
At some point the area is so great, R adds little

Earth Resistance

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Earth Shells

Move from a very good conductor, to a poor conductor with a small conduction area

R = L A

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Next layer of ground has increased surface area

Earth Resistance Lowers by Increasing Shell Areas

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Where metal meets the dirt (rod interface)

1 Deep; 1 Diameter Ground Rod
Surface Area at Ground Rod Interface (G) is 0.27 SQ FT

G
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Electrons Move from Metal bus work to Dirt (Bottle Neck Begins)

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First Layer of Soil, 1 in Thickness

Area at Ground (1) of soil shell thickness is 0.90 SQ FT
R = 5.13

Add 5.13 to all prior bus work for 1 of soil

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Ground Resistance at 2 of Soil Thickness

Area at Ground Rod (4) 2 of soil shell is 1.66 SQ FT; Ground Rod was 0.27 SQ FT 6 Fold increase in surface area for 2 distance.
3 4

R = 3.37 additional (2 1 shell)

8.50 Total resistance (5.13 + 3.37 )

2
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Resistance at 5 of Ground Soil Thickness

Area at Ground Rod (G5) 5 of soil shell is 4.74 SQ FT; R = 1.53 additional (5 @ 4 shell);
G5 5 from ground rod edge

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Ground resistance at 5 of Soil

13.28 Total resistance through first 5 of soil
2" 5.13

3"
4" 5" 6"

3.37
1.85 1.54 1.40 13.28

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Shell Resistance per 1 Increments

R Area at Ground Rod (7) 7 of soil shell is 10.3 SQ FT; R = 1.17 additional (7 6 shell); 3.75
1" 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 5.13 3.37 1.85 1.54 1.40 1.28 1.18

SQ FT
0.90 1.66 2.56 3.58 4.74 6.03 7.44

15.75
7 of Thickness

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Total Resistance through first foot of soil

1" 5.13

SQ FT

0.90

2"
3" 4" 5" 6" 7" 8" 9" 10" 11" Total

3.37
1.85 1.54 1.28 1.18 1.09 1.01 0.94 0.87 0.81 19.07
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1.66
2.56 3.58 4.74 6.03
7.44 9.00

10.70
12.50 14.42

Measured Ground Value 33

Resistance Verses Distance

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

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Combination of all three Ground components

35

30

25

20

Example: 300 feet from ground, shell area is 128,800 SQ FT or 9 football fields of area R= 26 ; Resistance contributes to overall ground resistance (1 shell) R = 33.07 + 0.0000266

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10

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

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3) Infinite Earth Ground Potential

Once the electron fights its way through the Ground Rod Sphere of Influence. Infinite Earth potential exists. Once an electron leaves the zone of influence of a ground, there is no effective resistance of that electron to move across the Earth. For testing purposes, need to measure ground rod up to the infinite Earth barrier. The distance after that does not matter, why??.

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Infinite Earth Potential

How can an electron moving 50 - have a net resistance of 50 Ohm, yet have zero resistance from one side of the planet to the other, once in the Earth Potential

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Deep Space Asteroid

Gravitational force is equal to mass, Inverse Distance Squared An object never truly leaves the suns field of influence, but its effects are dampened by distance
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Diminished Field or Free Space

An electron will behave like the asteroid. Once the distance is so far from the sun, other bodies have an equivalent gravitational effect close neighbor asteroids, near planets such as Pluto, even other stars and galaxies. Our electron never leaves the ground sphere of influence, it is just the influence is dampened to the point where other influences are just as prominent (the ground becomes noise).
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TESTING METHODS
Most Popular Testing Methods: Fall of Potential Method (Wenner) - Full - Simplified Slope Method And others

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4-Terminal Earth Test

(2 Terminals of 4 Current)

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4-Terminal Earth Test

Circuit is complete, Current Flows, Voltage is known therefore can read a resistance value RIGHT?
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4-Terminal Earth Test

V= I * (GEuT + C2)

Using Ohms Law; V and I are known. Variables ground sphere of influence (Ground of interest) & Test rod C2 Two variables, one equation C2 Needs to be eliminated somehow
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4 WIRE TEST
Additional 2 wires (Potential Wires)

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Physical Outline of Test Procedure

GEuT

Equipotential Circles

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Should You Accept This Result

A location has been known to have an infinite Earth distance of about 60 Feet. A crew comes back after testing with the following set up & results; Ground value 72 Ohms, Measurement distance of 65 Feet. Do you accept the result?
Temporary Test Rod Ground Under Test

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The Problem of Limited Distance/Space

Ground Electrode Under Test (X) Potential Probe (P)

Current Probe (C)

Do not want to be in Current Probes Zone of Influence

Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

Resistance in Ohms

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Theoretical Background - Fall of Potential

Ground Electrode Under Test (X) Potential Probe (P) Positions Current Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

Want to determine this point

X
Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

C
Current Probe Position
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Ground Electrode Position

Fall of Potential Method - Advantages

Extremely reliable:
- Results can be checked by testing at different probe spacings.

Conforms to IEEE 81; only approved method. Operator has complete control of the test set-up. Can be used to test any size system. Highly accurate:

- 4-wire configuration/no additional loop resistances included. - Significant for low resistance (1-2) grounds. Tester uses a unique source frequency, non 60 Hz, so active power fields will not interfere with testing.

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Fall of Potential Method Disadvantages

Extremely time consuming and labor intensive.
- Temporary probes must be placed. - Cables must be run to make connections.

Space constraints can make it hard to place remote probes. Must disconnect individual ground electrodes to measure them (only return must be ground) Must know of other Grounds in system. Substation Testing requiring low resistance values can run 4000 or greater test lengths.

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Field Tricks
A customer complaint about grounding quality occurs. In order to test the ground, must throw service cutout, terminate power, disconnect utility feed ground from service ground. Alternate Place a new ground rod 6 from service rod. Test the rod only to determine 3 or 4 wire grounding value. When measured, attach new ground to old in service ground. Ground is at least that value (or better). No need to interrupt service.

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Abbreviated 4 Wire 3 Wire Test

V Potential Probe carries current, so it will have its own voltage drop

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MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE (testing methods)

61.8% Rule/Method:

Based on the theory behind the full Fall of Potential method. Take measurement at only one point. Quality check First Down Rule

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MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE (testing methods)

61.8% Rule/Method:
Advantage: Extremely quick and easy. Disadvantage: Assumes that conditions are perfect (adequate probe spacing and soil homogeneity). The ground behavior needs to be known before testing begins. Kansas Test

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MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE (testing methods)

Slope Method:

Based on the theory behind the Fall of Potential method; - for complex grounding systems and/or - situations where lead lengths prohibitive Use three measurements in calculation; can take more; 40%, 50%, 60%

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MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE (testing methods)

Slope Method:
Advantage: Provides an approach for dealing with complex systems. Disadvantage: Makes assumptions about soil resistance in region not tested

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Ground Test Clamp on Method

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Clamp-On/Stakeless Methodology
Based on Ohms Law (R=V/I):
- Apply known voltage to a complete circuit. Measure resulting current - Calculate resistance of the entire circuit.

Apply signal and measure current without direct electrical connection:

- Grounds do not need to be lifted for testing - Power does not need to be disconnected for testing.

Clamp includes transmit coil (applies voltage) and receive coil (measures the current). Measurement Loop is Directional. It will first give continuity, to determine if a ground exits to being with
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Clamp-On/Stakeless Methodology

For accuracy, more return paths, the better results

For 1 return electrode = average of the two. For 6 similar electrodes with a resistance of 10:
- Rloop = 10 + 2 = 12

For 60 similar electrodes with a resistance of 10:

- Rloop = 10 + 0.17 = 10.17

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Governing Equation Parallel Circuits

Rloop = RTest + (1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 + 1/R5)) Note: The resistance of the ground under test will always be higher than the actual ground resistance value. Worst case approach leaves a safety margin of error (if infinite Earth potential is reached)* If Rtest is greater than acceptable, prove value with 4 wire test unit.

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10 Transmission Tower Under Test

20 18

16 14
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100

20 Tower Value 10.5

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Clamp-On Method - Disadvantages

No basis for the test in standards no objective reference for the test results Less effective for very low grounds:
- Extraneous elements in reading become comparatively large.

There is no built-in proof for the method - results must be accepted on faith. The returns must be well clear of the Infinite Earth Potential zone. This is the greatest cause of testing result failure. Must be aware of other grounds tied to the system, that are in close proximity.
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Clamp-On Method - Strategy

Recommendation. On a tower ground, 3 or 4 wire test to determine distance to Infinite Earth Distance (note the resistance verses distance measured value) Assure that tower distance is at least 2X this distance. Note that measured tower ground point values will always be higher than actual. If a tower is out of spec, 3 or 4 wire test to confirm if rework is required.

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Analogy The length of a wire spool is to be tested to determine length

A four wire test is analogous to stretching the wire out, and measuring. Know resistance per foot, measure the resistance.

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The short cut measurement method

Know 1 per Foot. Measurement is 40 ; therefore 40 correct? Only item knows from test results is there is at least 40 of wire, that is my minimum spool wire length. There maybe more.

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Outcomes from the Clamp on Tester

Measure 15 at a meter entrance. Spec calls for 25 . The service is 15 or greater known. Measure 45 at a service. We know the ground is 45 or greater. Remedial action required Measure 250 at a pole mount. Know there is continuity, along with potential rework.

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Applications & Limitations Service Entrance/Meter

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Incorrect Reading

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Applications Pole Grounds

Grounding Conductor

Utility Pole

Butt Plate

Ground Rod

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Applications & Limitations Pad Mount Transformer

Facility with Multiple Ground Points

Ground Rods Underground buried concentric Neutral

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MEASURING SOIL RESISTIVITY

* 3 Meter rod, 33 ; 3 foot rod ~ 109

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Super Ground

PISA style helix with extensions

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Variables in Grounding Quality

Temperature Moisture Ionification (Salt Adders) Ground Rod Diameter Ground Rod Depth Number of Ground Rods

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Ground Resistance of Farming Clay Loom = 100 M 3 Ground Rod

106 Ohms

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Variation of Soil Resistivity with Temperature

40,000

35,000
Variation of Soil Resistivity with Temperature Soil Contained 18.6% Moisture

30,000

25,000

Resistivity of Soil

20,000 15,000

10,000

Liquid Water

5,000

10

20

30

40

50

60
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Temperature - Degrees F

SOIL MOISTURE VERSES CONDUCTIVITY

400,000

Variation of Soil Resistivity with Moisture Content

300,000 Variation of Soil Resistivity with Moisture Content Red Clay Soil

200,000

100,000

Resistivity of Soil

80,000

60,000 40,000 20,000

0 5 10

15

20 25 30 35 40 45

50 55 60 65

80 Per cent Moisture in Soil

MEASURING SOIL RESISTIVITY

Effect of salt content on soil resistivity:

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IMPROVING YOUR GROUNDING SYSTEM

Chemical treatment reduces seasonal variations
130 120 110 100 90 RESISTANCE, OHMS 80

70
60 50 40 30 20 10
5/8 x 8 ROD (SOIL TREATED) 5/8 x 8 ROD (SOIL UNTREATED)

0
MONTHS OF YEAR

5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8

9
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Solution of Proposed Items to this Point

Warm Soil Moist Soil Salted Soil

Great for ground electron conduction, not so great for metallic existence

Ground Rod Diameter Effects Ground Rod Length Effects Number of Ground Rods Effects
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IMPROVING YOUR GROUNDING SYSTEM

100
Doubling Rod diameter, decreases resistance by only 10%

90
10% increase for four times the material usage. Increase diameter used for mechanical strength & rod survivability (time)

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0.50

0.75 1.00

1.25 1.5

1.75

2.00

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IMPROVING YOUR GROUNDING SYSTEM

160

140

120

100 RESISTANCE, ohms 80 60

40

20

3 4 5 6 DEPTH OF ROD, FEET

10

11

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What steps can be taken if there is a problem in the grounding system

Use longer ground rods. Chemically treat the soil

Use multiple ground rods.

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Effects of Multiple Ground Rods

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Effects of Multiple Ground Rods

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What causes a ground system to deteriorate (and become ineffective)?

Corrosion and weather influences exert mechanical strain on ground rods and cause metallic corrosion over time (as a ground rod corrodes, its resistance rises and it loses its effectiveness) - TILLAMOOK soil resistivity can vary considerably with changes in climate and temperature Water Tables

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Last Variable The Macro Environment

Results depend on time of year of test; Worst Case or not

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MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE (testing methods) 61.8% Rule Method Probe Placement:
Determine depth of ground electrode to be tested Distance of C > 4 x Depth of electrode to be tested Place P probe at 61.8% of the distance of C Take the measurement

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Maximum Ground Resistance Targets

Typical values for a power company:
Generating station: 1 maximum Large sub-station: 1 maximum Small sub-station: 5 maximum

Water pipe ground should be less than 3 and frequently less than 1 .

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 An electron really doesnt move to China from Ohio, with zero resistance. It is deposited in a infinite pool of available electrons, while an electron is picked from the pool for service in China. There is a net movement of free space electrons but it is << negligble.

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Anchoring Lazy Spikes Unique Test Frequency (105 to 160 Hz)

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