Table 1: A Brief Timeline of Nuclear Science Through World War II Year 1789 Event or Discovery Martin Klaproth, a German

chemist, discovered uranium and named it after the planet Uranus. Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen discovered x-rays by passing an electric current through an evacuated glass tube. Doctors began using them to see inside the human body. Scientists began studying the effects of x-rays on various substances. In an effort to find x-rays in uranium, Antoine Henri Becquerel accidently discovered a new type of rays called Becquerel rays in a uranium containing ore called pitchblende. The intensity of these rays was proportional to the amount of uranium. These rays later became known as beta rays/particles (electron emission) and alpha rays/particles (helium nuclei emission). Paul Villard discovered gama-rayssimilar to x-rays but more energeticin the uranium containing ore pitchblende. Pierre and Marie Curie gave the name radioactivity to the phenomenon of ray/particle emission. The Curies isolated polonium and radium from pitchblende. Radium was later used in medical treatments. Samuel Prescott showed that radiation destroyed bacteria in food. Earnest Rutherford discovered that beta and alpha decay (particle emission) resulted in the formation of different elements. Frederick Soddy discovered that naturally radioactive elements existed as different isotopes (same number of protonsdifferent number of neutrons in nucleus) with the same chemical properties. George de Hevesy showed that radionuclides (radioisotopes) were invaluable as tracers because small amount could be detected with simple instruments. Ernest Rutherford fired alpha particles from radium into nitrogen causing nuclear rearrangement and the formation of oxygen. James Chadwick discovered the neutron. Cockcroft and Walton caused nuclear transformations by bombarding atoms with high-speed protons. Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot found that some nuclear transformations produced artificial radionuclides. Enrico Fermi discovered that using high-speed neutrons instead of protons could produce a much greater variety of artificial radionuclides, some being heavier and some being lighter.

1895

1896

1896 1896 1898 1898 1902 1911 1911 1919 1932 1934

1935

Year

Event or Discovery Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman in Berlin showed that the new lighter elements were barium and others with about half the mass of uranium. This showed that atomic fission had occurred. Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch explained neutron capture as the cause of nuclear fission and calculated the energy released from fission at 200 million electron volts. Otto Frisch experimentally confirmed the calculated the energy release from fission. This was the first experimental confirmation of Albert Einsteins energy/mass relationship, E = mc2. Hahn and Strassman in Berlin, Joliot in Paris and Leo Szilard and Fermi in New York all confirmed the possibility of a selfsustaining nuclear chain (fission) reaction which could release tremendous amounts of energy according to E = mc2. The major obstacle was that natural uranium ores contained 0.7% U-235 and 99.3% U-238. The U-235 isotope was the much better candidate for producing fission reactions (as proposed by Neils Bohr). The final piece of the fission reaction puzzle was provided by Francis Perrin and Rudolf Peierls who introduced the concept of critical mass which was the minimum amount of uranium needed to produce a self-sustaining fission reaction. Perrin also showed that using a neutron absorbing material to slow the chain reaction down could control the fission reaction. This is what makes nuclear power plants possible. USA President Roosevelt received a letter from Albert Einstein warning of the possibility of a uranium weapon. Neptunium and plutonium were produced using neutron bombardment of U-238 at the Berkeley cyclotron. Germany Atomic fission research began with a nuclear reactor, heavy water production and uranium enrichment. The worlds only heavy water plant seized in Norway. First fission experiment failure. USSR Cyclotrons installed at the Radium Institute and Leningrad FTI.

1938

1939

WWII

1939

1940

Central Asian uranium deposits studied for use in nuclear energy research.

1941

Plutonium identified as a new fissionable element Graphite is rejected as with atomic number 94. a fission reaction Manhattan project moderator. begun.

German invasion of Russia shifts emphasis of nuclear research to weapons development.

WWII

USA Robert Oppenheimer became director of Manhattan project. First uranium isotope enrichment plant under construction in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Enrico Fermi produced the first controlled and sustained fission reaction at the University of Chicago. Planning for construction of breeder reactors for producing plutonium near Hanford, Washington began. Oppenheimer moved bomb development headquarters to Los Alamos, New Mexico First batch of spent fuel obtained from Hanford, Washington. The ALSOS mission acquired secret documents implying slowed Nazi research progress.

Germany

USSR

1942

Emphasis of fission research shifted from military applications to energy production.

Joseph Stalin officially began a nuclear weapons development program.

1943

Fission research continued its decline due to politicization of the educational system and anti-Semitism, which was biased against theoretical physicists.

Soviet nuclear research focused on: achieving chain reactions; investigating methods of uranium enrichment; and designing both enriched uranium and plutonium bombs.

1944

Experiments using graphite and heavy water as a fission reaction moderator were conducted.

January - first plutonium reprocessing began at Hanford. January 20 - first U-235 separated at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. July 16 - first atomic explosion at Trinity site, near Alamogordo, New Mexico. 1945 August 6 - Little Boy, a uranium bomb, was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan. Between 80,000 140,000 people were killed. August 9 - Fat Man, a plutonium bomb, was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. About 74,000 people are killed.

Nazi Germany was defeated in May.

Following Nazi defeat in May, German scientists were recruited to aid in Russian weapon development. After Hiroshima and Nagasaki were bombed, Russian weapons development went into high gear with plutonium breeder reactors becoming operational in the Ural mountains near Chelyabinsk. Also, the first gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment facility in Verkh-Neyvinsk was under construction.