Modul Xi Sem 1 2009-2010

Physics Modul/xi/sem-1/2009
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Chapter 1 : Linear Motion

Basic Competency :
1.1.1 Analyzation of Linier motion, anguler motion and parabolic motion uses vector

Contents :
a. Position vector
b. Displacement vector
c. Average velocity
d. Vector velocity
e. Magnitude of velocity
f. Direction of velocity
g. Instantaneous velocity
h. Average acceleration
i. Direction of acceleration
j. Instantaneous acceleration

Position vector
Position of point object is state with unit vector r =xi +yj for two dimention, and r =
xi +yj +zk for three dimention
examples :
j

A B

i

Position vector for point A is r
A
=3i +2j ; Position vector for point B is r
B
=2i +3j
+2 k

Displacement

A
Ar

B

A particle moves from point A to point B :

Displacement vector : Ar =r
B
- r
A
=(x
B
x
A
) i +(y
B
y
A
)j

Displacement Magnitude : |Ar| = (x
B
x
A
)
2
+(y
B
y
A
)
2

(y
B
y
A
)
Direction of displacement : tg u =
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(x
B
x
A
)

Ar Ax Ay
Average velocity : v = = i + j
At At At

Vector of velocity : v =v
x
i +v
y
j

Ay
Direction of velocity : tg u =
Ax

Instantaneous Velocity :

x

Ar

At t

Instantaneous velocity for an object that moves in area :

r dr
v =lim
At~0
=
At dt

Vector of velocity:
dr d dx dy
v = = (xi +yj) = i + j = v
x
i +v
y
j
dt dt dt dt

Component of instantaneous velocity :
x(t +At) x(t)
v
x
= lim At~0
At

y(t +At) y(t)
v
y
= lim At~0
At

Magnitude of velocity : |v| = v
x
2
+v
y
2

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v
y
Direction of velocity : tg u =
v
x

Determine the position of an object from the velocity equation :

x =xo + vx dt dan y =yo + vy dt xo and yo is initial position ( at t =0)

Distance and Displacement

t
1
t
2
t
3
t

t
3
Displacement = v(t) dt
t
1

t
2
t
3
Distance = + v(t) dt + v(t) dt
t
1
t
2

+and is based on the position of curva in a graph
(-) If curva is under the time function line and (+) if curva is above the
time function line

Acceleration

Average Acceleration :
Av v
2
v
1
a = =
At t
2
t
1

Average acceleration in area :

v dv
a = lim
At~0
=
At dt

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Acceleration vector :
dv d dv
x
dv
y

a = = (vi +vj) = i + j = a
x
i +a
y
j
dt dt dt dt

Acceleration magnitude: |a| = a
x
2
+a
y
2

a
y
Acceleration direction tg u =
a
x

Determine velocity equation from the acceleration function :

v =v
o
+ a dt v
o
: is initial velocity t =0

Additional Exercises
Topic : linear motion

1. Particle P moves in straight line with position in time is stated with x =3t
2
4t +
36, t in second and x in metre. Determine :
a. Average velocity between t =1s and t =3s
b. Initial velocity
c. velocity in t =2s

2. Position of particle q in time is stated with r =3t
2
i +t
3
j, Determine :
a. Average velocity between t =1 s dan t =3 s
b. Initial velocity
c. Velocity in t =2 s

3. Particle P moves in a straight line and its position from O is stated with x =3t
2
24t +
36. Determine :
a. Initial velocity of P
b. P velocity in t =2s
c. Maximumdistance P fromthe initial position (O)

4. A golf ball is hit fromthe tee near the top of the cliff. Coordinat x and y in time is stated
with equation :
x =(18 m/s) t dan y =(4 m/s) t (4,9 m/s
3
)t
2
.
a. write the position vector equation r in time uses unit vector i and j
with defferential mothode, determine :
b. velocity vector in time
c. acceleration vector
d. velocity in t =3s
e. acceleration in t =3s

5. Particle P moves with its velocity is stated v =(4 +2t
2
) i +(-10 -4t) j, t in second and v
in m/s. Determine velocity vector and position vector after its moves 3 second, assume
P is start frominitial position of O.

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6. A Particle moves with a acceleration a. Determine the velocity vector and position
vector in time t if :
a. a =6t, first P is in initial position and moves with j velocity
b. a =2i +j first P at rest at position 41 +j
c. a =16t
2
i +9t j. First P is in initial position and moves with velocity of i +2j
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Anguler Motion

Competency Standart :
1. Analysis universe phenomena and the its rule in term point clasical mechanical

Basic Competency
1.1 To analysis linear motin, anguler motion and parabolic motion uses vector

Content :
1. Position an object that moves in anguler motion
2. Average anguler velocity
3. Instantenous anguler velocity
4. Average anguler acceleration
5. Instantenous anguler acceleration

Position an object that moves in anguler motion
Position of an object that moves in anguler motion is stated by symbol of , angle that
is covered in time t.

Anguler velocity (
Is an angle that is covered per unit of time

Average anguler velocity
t A
A
=

In graph -t : anguler velocity can be determined uses tangen of angle of slope

u(rad)

A

t A
t (sekon)

t
tg
A
A
= =

and

Instantenous anguler velocity is :
dt
d
=

Determining of position from velocity equations
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}
+ =
t
o
dt
0
.

Angul er Accel erati on (
Average anguler acceleration can be computed by
t A
A
=

Instantenous angular acceleration is stated by
2
2
dt
r d
dt
d
= =

Determining of angular velocity equations from acceleration equation

}
+ =
t
o
dt
0
.

Exercisses
1. Angel position of a point on the wheel is stated as u =(5 +10t +2t
2
) rad, where t
in second . Determine :
a. angle position at t =0 and t =3s
b. average anguler velocity from t =0 until t =3 s

2. A cd plate moves a round an axis z follows the equation
u(t) =4.2 rad (2,9 rad/s)t +(0.31 rad/s
3
)t
3
. Determine :
a. anguler velocity in time
b. anguler acceleration in time
c. initial anguler velocity
d. anguler velocity at t =5s

3. A CD plate is rotation round an axis z with equation of anguler acceleration
o =(0.24 rad/s
3
) t 0.89 rad/s
2

a. If e
o
=3.1 rad/s, determine the equation for e(t)
b. If u
o
=2.7 rad, determine u(t)

4. Rotation of a roller machine is expressed by equation of u(t) =2.50t
2
0.400t,
with t in second and q in radian.
a. Determine anguler velocity vector in time t
b. Calculate the anguler velocity at :
i. t =0
ii. t =1 second and
iii. t =2
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c. When the roller is stop

5. A Bicycle wheel with radius of 0.33 m is rotation with anguler acceleration
o(t) =(1.40 rad/s
2
) (0.20 rad/s
3
) t. a wheel is in a rest at t =0
a. Determine the anguler velocity in time t
b. Calculate positive maximum anguler velocity and positive maximum
angle displacement

Combination Motion
Competency Standart :
2. Analysis universe phenomena and the its rule in termpoint clasical mechanical

Basic Competency
1.1 To analysis linear motin, anguler motion and parabolic motion uses vector

Content :
An object can do two motion in difference direction in the same time. An example is a
boat that perpendicular across the river.

Two kind of combination motion :
1. Linear motion with linear motion
2. Linear motion with non linear motion (prjectile motion)

1. Linear motion with linear motion

Position A : x =v
x
. t
A y =v
y
. t
y Distance A : s = x
2
+y
2

v
y
v

o
v
x
x

Total velocity : v = v
x
2
+v
y
2

v
y

Direction velocity (o) is determined by tg o = ----
v
x

2. Linear motion with non linear motion (prjectile motion)
Projectile motion is a 2-dimensional curved motion of a particle subjected to constant
acceleration. An example is a ball thrown obliquely into air.

Velocity along every point on the trajectory changes all the time.
The vertical motion is affect by the gravitational acceleration g directed toward the
centre of the earth. Gravitational acceleration q has no effect on the horizontal motion of
projectile. Hence horizontal component remains constant.

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v
y
v
x v
x
H
v
o
v
oy y

v
ox
R

Component Horizontal :
Horizontal velocity : v
ox
=v
o
cos o
v
x
=v
ox
=v
o
cos o (linear motion)

coordinat x : x =v
x
. t (linear motion)
= v
o
cos o . t

Component Vertical :
Vertical velocity : v
oy
=v
o
sin o
V
y
=v
oy
+gt (non linear motion)
=v
o
sin o - gt
coordinat y : y =v
o
. t + gt
2
(non linear motion)
=v
o
sin o . t gt
2

Position in time t is stated by (x,y) :
x = v
o
cos a . t
y =v
o
sin a . t gt
2

Velocity in time t is stated by v :

v = v
x
2
+v
y
2

Direction of velocity (a) is determined by :
v
y

tg o =---
v
x

Special cases :
1. Maximum height (H)
At maximum height the vertical component of the velocity is zero
v
y
=0, its causes : v
o
sin o - gt =0, so

v
0
sin o
t
H
= ----------
g

t
H
is time that projectile at maximum height

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Maximum height :
y =v
o
sin o . t gt
2

=v
o
sin o . t
H
gt
H
2

2
v
o
sin a v
o
sin a
=v
o
sin o 1/2 g ----------
g g

v
o
2
sin
2
o
y
H
= ------------
2g

The horizontal distance when projectile at maximum height (x
H
) :

x
H
= v
o
cos o . t
H

v
o
cos o . v
o
sin o
x
H
=-------------------------
g

v
o
2
sin 2o
x
H
= ------------
2g

2. Maximum Distance (R)

It can be happen when y =0
Time of maximum distance is twice times of maximum height

t
R
=2t
H

2 v
0
sin o
t
R
= ------------
g

x
R
=v
o
cos o . t

v
o
cos a . 2 v
0
sin o
=------------------------
g

v
o
2
. 2 sin o . cos o
= -----------------------
g

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v
0
2
sin 2 o
x
R
= -------------
g

Exercises :
1. The pilot of an aeroplane flying on a straight course know from his instruments
that his airspeed is 300 mph. He also knows that a 60 mph gale is blowing at an
angle of 60
o
to his course. How can he calculate his velocity relative to the
ground ?

2. A motor boat can moves with a maximum speed of 10 m/s relative to the water.
A river 400 m wide flowing at 5 m/s must be crossed in the shortest possible
time to reach a point on the other bank directly opposite the starting point. In
which direction must the boat be pointed and how long will it take to cross ?

3. A boy leaning over a railway bridge 49 ft hight sees a train approaching with
uniform speed and attempts to drop a stone down the tunnel. He releases the
stone when the engine is 80 ft away from the bridge and sees the stone hit the
ground 3 ft in front of the engine. What is the speed of the train ?

4. A ball is projected horizontally with a velocity v
o
of 8 ft/sec. Find its position
and velocity after sec (sees the figure)

y
v
0
x
0 y
v
x
=v
o

x u
v
y
=-gt v

5. A ball is thrown with an initial velocity v
o
of 10 m/sec directed at an angle q of
53
o
with the ground.
a. Find the x and y component of v
o

b. Find the position of ball and the magnitude and direction of its velocity
when t =2 sec
c. At the highest point of the balls path. What is the balls altitude (h) and
how much time has elapsed ?
d. What is the balls range d ?

6. A catapull projects a stone with an initial velocity of 15 m/s and inclined at an
angle of 60
o
to the horizontal ground. Assume that air resistance is negligible.
a. Calculate the initial vertical and horizontal component of the velocity
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b. State the vetical and horizontal component of the velocity when the stone
is at the maximum height of its trajectory.
c. State the final velocity and horizontal component of the velocity just
before it hits the horizontal ground again.
d. Calculate the stones maximum vertical displacement
e. Find the total time that the stone is air-bone.
f. What is the range of the stone ?
g. What is the angle of projection that will give the stone a maximum range
?
7. As shown in figure below projectile is fired horizontally with a speed of 30 m/s
from the top of a cliff 80 m height.
a. How long will it take the level ground at the base of the cliff ?
b. How far from of the foot of the cliff will it strike ?
c. With what velocity will it strike ?
V
i
=30 m/s 20 m/s
40
o

80 m

50m

8. As shown in fig. b. above a ball is thrown fromthe top of one building toward a
tall building 50 m away. The initial velocity of the ball is 20 m/s with angle of
40
o
above horizontal. How far above or below its original level will the ball
strike the opposite wall ?

9. A workman sitting on the top of the roof of house drops his hammer. The roof is
smooth and slopes at an angle of 30
o
to the horizontal. It is 10 m long and its
lowest point is 10 m from the ground. How far from the house wall is the
hammer when it hits the ground ?

N v
x u
v v
y
mg sin u
mg cos u
u mg y

x

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Chapter 2. Elasticity and Harmonic Motion
Young's Modulus
For the description of the elastic properties of linear objects like wires, rods, columns
which are either stretched or compressed, a convenient parameter is the ratio of the
stress to the strain, a parameter called the Young's modulus of the material. Young's
modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an object as long as the
stress is less than the yield strength of the material.

Elastic Properties of Selected Engineering Materials
Material
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Young's Modulus
10
9
N/m
2

Ultimate Strength S
u

10
6
N/m
2

Yield Strength S
y

10
6
N/m
2

Steel
a
7860 200 400 250
Aluminum 2710 70 110 95
Glass 2190 65 50
b
...
Concrete
c
2320 30 40
b
...
Wood
d
525 13 50
b
...
Bone 1900 9
b
170
b
...
Polystyrene 1050 3 48 ...

a Structural steel (ASTM-A36), b In compression, c High strength, d Douglas fir
Data from Table 13-1, Halliday, Resnick, Walker, 5th Ed. Extended
Elasticity
Elasticity is the property of an object or material which causes it to be restored to its
original shape after distortion. It is said to be more elastic if it restores itself more
precisely to its original configuration. A rubber band is easy to stretch, and snaps back
to near its original length when released, but it is not as elastic as a piece of piano wire.
The piano wire is harder to stretch, but would be said to be more elastic than the rubber
band because of the precision of its return to its original length. A real piano string can
be struck hundreds of times without stretching enough to go noticeably out of tune. A
spring is an example of an elastic object - when stretched, it exerts a restoring force
which tends to bring it back to its original length. This restoring force is generally
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proportional to the amount of stretch, as described by Hooke's Law. For wires or
columns, the elasticity is generally described in terms of the amount of deformation
(strain) resulting from a given stress (Young's modulus). Bulk elastic properties of
materials describe the response of the materials to changes in pressure.
Hooke's Law

In 1678, Robert Hooke announced the invention of the spring scale
and the relationship for elastic materials that is now known as
Hooke's Law. When an object is acted upon by a force, it can be
compressed, stretched or bent. If when the force is removed, the
object returns to its original shape, it is said to be elastic. Solids that
do not return to their original configuration once they have been
distorted are categorized as plastics.

Hooke discovered that not only are certain materials (steel bars,
rods, wire, springs, diving boards, and rubber bands) elastic, but the
stretch they experience is directly proportional to the load that they
support.

Elastic media will stretch until the reach their elastic limit, or yield point. After that point, they
exhibit plastic deformation and will never return to their original shape. Ductile materials stretch
thinner and thinner, while brittle materials break without any plastic deformation. Eventually all
will rupture at their breaking point.

To simplify our discussion, we are going to use springs as our example of an elastic medium.
The formulas used to calculate the force required to stretch or compress an elastic medium
with respect to its equilibrium position and its elasticity constant, k, are:

F
i nternal
= - kx force supplied by the spring to restore itself to equilibrium (Hooke's Law)
F
external
= kx force supplied by an external agent on the spring distorting it from equilibrium

This formula is only applicable to force acting on an ideal spring that has not surpassed its
elastic limit. Note that the amount of force required by an external agent to stretch the spring
depends on how far it has been displaced from its equilibrium position. That is, the force is not
constant, it is variable.

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When two or more springs are combined in parallel (side by side) so that any applied force
must stretch both springs simultaneously, the spring constant for the combination will be

k
parall el
= k
1
+ k
2

When two or springs are combined in series (one after another), an applied force may stretch
one more than another. Recall a saying that a chain is only as "strong as its weakest link." The
spring constant for the combination will be

k
seri es
= (1/k
1
+ 1/k
2
)
-1

Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy is Potential energy stored as a result of deformation of an
elastic object, such as the stretching of a spring. It is equal to the work done to stretch
the spring, which depends upon the spring constant k as well as the distance stretched.
According to Hooke's law, the force required to stretch the spring will be directly
proportional to the amount of stretch.
Since the force has the form
F = -kx
then the work done to stretch the
spring a distance x is

You may enter data in any of the boxes. Then click on the active text for the quantity
you wish to calculate. The values will not be forced to be compatible until you click on
a quantity to calculate.

Spring Potential Energy
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Since the change in Potential energy of an object between two positions is equal to the
work that must be done to move the object from one point to the other, the calculation
of potential energy is equivalent to calculating the work. Since the force required to
stretch a spring changes with distance, the calculation of the work involves an integral.

The work can also be visualized
as the area under the force curve:

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Periodic Motion
Periodic motion of some source object is necessary to produce a sustained musical
sound (i.e., one with definite pitch and quality). For example, to produce a standard
musical A (440 Hz), the source object must sustain periodic motion at 440 vibrations
per second with a tolerance of less than 1 Hz -- the normal human ear can detect the
difference between 440 Hz and 441 Hz. The conditions necessary for periodic motion
are
1. elasticity - the capacity to return precisely to the original configuration after
being distorted.
o a. a definite equilibrium configuration
o b. a restoring force to bring the system back to equilibrium
2. A source of energy.
Fortunately, it is not hard to find vibrators which meet these conditions, hence the
richness in variety of musical sound sources.

Terms for describing periodic motion.

A mass on a spring is an example of periodic motion with a single frequency called

Description of Periodic Motion
Motion which repeats itself precisely can be described with the following terms:
- Period: the time required to complete a full cycle, T in seconds/cycle
- Frequency: the number of cycles per second, f in 1/seconds or Hertz (Hz)
- Amplitude: the maximum displacement from equilibrium A
and if the periodic motion is in the form of a traveling wave, one needs also
- Velocity of propagation: v
- Wavelength: repeat distance of wave .
Period, Frequency and Amplitude

In a plot of periodic motion as a function of time, the period can be seen as the repeat
time for the motion. The frequency is the reciprocal of the period.
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Simple harmonic motion Equilibrium condition
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is typified by the motion of a mass on a spring when it is
subject to the linear elastic restoring force given by Hooke's Law. The motion is
sinusoidal in time and demonstrates a single resonant frequency.

Simple Harmonic Motion Equations
The motion equation for simple harmonic motion contains a complete description of the
motion, and other parameters of the motion can be calculated from it.

The velocity and acceleration are given by
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The total energy for an undamped oscillator is the sum of its kinetic
energy and potential energy, which is constant at

Simple Harmonic Motion Calculation
The motion equations for simple harmonic motion provide for calculating any
parameter of the motion if the others are known.

If the period is T =s
then the frequency is f =Hz and the angular frequency =rad/s.
The motion is described by :
Displacement =Amplitude x sin (angular frequency x time)
Y =A sin et

Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is one which can be considered to be a point mass suspended from a
string or rod of negligible mass. It is a resonant system with a single resonant frequency.
For small amplitudes, the period of such a pendulum can be approximated by:
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Pendulum Motion
The motion of a simple pendulum is like simple harmonic motion in that the equation
for the angular displacement is

which is the same form as the motion of a mass on a spring:

The anglular frequency of the motion is then given by
compared to for a mass on a spring
The frequency of the pendulum in Hz is given by and the period of
motion is then

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Velocity and Acceleration
Once you know the position of the oscillator for all times, you can work out the velocity
and acceleration functions.
x(t) =A cos (et +|)

The velocity is the time derivative of the position so:

v(t) =-A e sin (et +|)

The change from cos to sin means that the velocity is 90
o
out of phase with the
displacement-when x =0 the velocity is a maximum and when x is a maximum v =0.
This is seen nicely in the page on the connection between SHM and circular motion.

The acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity so:

a(t) =-A e
2
cos (et +|)

Notice also from the preceding that:
a(t) =-e
2
x The acceleration is exactly out of phase with the displacement. This can
also be seen in the page on the connection between SHM and circular motion
Energy in Mass on Spring
The simple harmonic motion of a mass on a spring is an example of an energy
transformation between potential energy and kinetic energy. In the example below, it is
assumed that 2 joules of work has been done to set the mass in motion.

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Chapter 3 : Universal Gravitation

Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation (part of classical mechanics) states the
following:
Every single point mass attracts every other point mass in the universe by a force
pointing along the line combining the two. The force is proportional to the product of
the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
point masses:

where:
- F is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two point
masses,
- G is the gravitational constant,
- m
1
is the mass of the first point mass,
- m
2
is the mass of the second point mass,
- r is the distance between the two point masses.
Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m
1
and m
2
in kilograms (kg), r in
metres (m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.67 10
11
N m
2
kg
2
. G was
first accurately measured in the Cavendish experiment by the British scientist Henry
Cavendish in 1798, it was also the first test of theory of gravitation between masses in
the laboratory. This was 111 years after the publication of "Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica" and 71 years after Newton's death, so all of Newton's
calculations could not use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative
to another force.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces. Newton's law
is used to calculate the Gravitational force between two masses; similarly Coulomb's
Law is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies.
Coulomb's Law's equation has the product of two charges in place of the product of the
masses which is in Newton's Law of Gravitation. Hence, according to Coulmb's Law,
the electrical force is proportional to the product of the charged bodies divided by the
distance between them.
Acceleration due to gravity
Let a
1
be the acceleration experienced by the first point mass due to the gravitational
force exerted on it by the second point mass. Newton's second law states that F =m
1
a
1
,
meaning that a
1
=F / m
1
. Substituting F from the earlier equation gives:

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and similarly for a
2
.
Assuming SI units, gravitational acceleration (as acceleration in general) is measured in
metres per second squared (m/s
2
or m s
-2
). Non-SI units include galileos, gees (see
later), and feet per second squared.
Laws of astrodynami cs
The fundamental laws of astrodynamics are Newton's law of universal gravitation and
Newton's laws of motion, while the fundamental mathematical tool is his differential
calculus. Kepler's laws of planetary motion may be derived from these laws, when it is
assumed that the orbiting body is subject only to the gravitational force of the central
attractor. When an engine thrust or propulsive force is present, Newton's second law of
motion applies, and Kepler's laws are temporarily invalidated.
The formula for escape velocity is easily derived as follows. The specific energy
(energy per unit mass) of any space vehicle is composed of two components, the
specific potential energy and the specific kinetic energy. The specific potential energy
associated with a planet of mass M is given by

while the specific kinetic energy of an object is given by

Since energy is conserved, the total specific orbital energy

does not depend on the distance, r, from the center of the central body to the space
vehicle in question. Therefore, the object can reach infinite r only if this quantity is
nonnegative, which implies

The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to
send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape
the solar system from the vicinity of the Earth requires around 42 km/s velocity, but
there will be "part credit" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from
Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the
same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.
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Chapter 4 : Momentum and Impuls
The sports announcer says "Going into the all-star break, the Chicago White Sox have
the momentum." The headlines declare "Chicago Bulls Gaining Momentum." The coach
pumps up his team at half-time, saying "You have the momentum; the critical need is
that you use that momentum and bury them in this third quarter."
Momentum is a commonly used term in sports. A team that has the momentum is on
the move and is going to take some effort to stop. A team that has a lot of momentum is
really on the move and is going to be hard to stop. Momentum is a physics term; it
refers to the quantity of motion that an object has. A sports team which is on the move
has the momentum. If an object is in motion (on the move) then it has momentum.
Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." All
objects have mass; so if an object is moving, then it has
momentum - it has its mass in motion. The amount of
momentum which an object has is dependent upon two
variables: how much stuff is moving and how fast the
stuff is moving. Momentum depends upon the variables
mass and velocity. In terms of an equation, the momentum of an object is equal to the
mass of the object times the velocity of the object.
Momentum = mass velocity
In physics, the symbol for the quantity momentum is the lower case "p". Thus, the
above equation can be rewritten as
p = m v
where m is the mass and v is the velocity. The equation illustrates that momentum is
directly proportional to an object's mass and directly proportional to the object's
velocity.
The units for momentum would be mass units times velocity units. The standard metric
unit of momentum is the kgm/s. While the kgm/s is the standard metric unit of
momentum, there are a variety of other units which are acceptable (though not
conventional) units of momentum. Examples include kgmi/hr, kgkm/hr, and gcm/s.
In each of these examples, a mass unit is multiplied by a velocity unit to provide a
momentum unit. This is consistent with the equation for momentum.
Momentum is a vector quantity. As discussed in an earlier unit, a vector quantity is a
quantity which is fully described by both magnitude and direction. To fully describe the
momentum of a 5-kg bowling ball moving westward at 2 m/s, you must include
information about both the magnitude and the
direction of the bowling ball. It is not enough to say
that the ball has 10 kgm/s of momentum; the
momentum of the ball is not fully described until
information about its direction is given. The
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25
direction of the momentum vector is the same as the direction of the velocity of the ball.
In a previous unit, it was said that the direction of the velocity vector is the same as the
direction which an object is moving. If the bowling ball is moving westward, then its
momentum can be fully described by saying that it is 10 kgm/s, westward. As a vector
quantity, the momentum of an object is fully described by both magnitude and direction.
From the definition of momentum, it becomes obvious that an object has a large
momentum if either its mass or its velocity is large. Both variables are of equal
importance in determining the momentum of an object. Consider a Mack truck and a
roller skate moving down the street at the same speed. The considerably greater mass of
the Mack truck gives it a considerably greater momentum. Yet if the Mack truck were at
rest, then the momentum of the least massive roller skate would be the greatest. The
momentum of any object which is at rest is 0. Objects at rest do not have momentum -
they do not have any "mass in motion." Both variables - mass and velocity - are
important in comparing the momentum of two objects.
The momentum equation can help us to think about how a change in one of the two
variables might affect the momentum of an object. Consider a 0.5-kg physics cart
loaded with one 0.5-kg brick and moving with a speed of 2.0 m/s. The total mass of
loaded cart is 1.0 kg and its momentum is 2.0 kgm/s. If the cart was instead loaded
with three 0.5-kg bricks, then the total mass of the loaded cart would be 2.0 kg and its
momentum would be 4.0 kgm/s. A doubling of the mass results in a doubling of the
momentum.
Similarly, if the 2.0-kg cart had a velocity of 8.0 m/s
(instead of 2.0 m/s), then the cart would have a momentum
of 16.0 kgm/s (instead of 4.0 kgm/s). A quadrupling in
velocity results in a quadrupling of the momentum. These
two examples illustrate how the equation p =mv serves as
a "guide to thinking" and not merely a "plug-and-chug recipe for algebraic problem-
solving."
Check Your Understanding
Express your understanding of the concept and mathematics of momentum by
answering the following questions. Click the button to view the answers.
1. Determine the momentum of a ...
a. 60-kg halfback moving eastward at 9 m/s.
b. 1000-kg car moving northward at 20 m/s.
c. 40-kg freshman moving southward at 2 m/s.

2. A car possesses 20 000 units of momentum. What would be the car's new momentum
if ...
a. its velocity were doubled.
b. its velocity were tripled.
c. its mass were doubled (by adding more passengers and a greater load)
d. both its velocity were doubled and its mass were doubled.

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26

3. A halfback (m =60 kg), a tight end (m =90 kg), and a lineman (m =120 kg) are
running down the football field. Consider their ticker tape patterns below.

Compare the velocities of these three players. How many times greater is the velocity of
the halfback and the velocity of the tight end than the velocity of the lineman?

Which player has the greatest momentum? Explain

Momentum and Impulse Connection
As mentioned in the previous part of this lesson,
momentum is a commonly used term in sports. When
a sports announcer says that a team has the
momentum they mean that the team is really on the
move and is going to be hard to stop. The term
momentum is a physics concept. Any object with momentum is going to be hard to stop.
To stop such an object, it is necessary to apply a force against its motion for a given
period of time. The more momentum which an object has, the harder that it is to stop.
Thus, it would require a greater amount of force or a longer amount of time or both to
bring such an object to a halt. As the force acts upon the
object for a given amount of time, the object's velocity is
changed; and hence, the object's momentum is changed.
The concepts in the above paragraph should not seem like
abstract information to you. You have observed this a number
of times if you have watched the sport of football. In football,
the defensive players apply a force for a given amount of time
to stop the momentum of the offensive player who has the
ball. You have also experienced this a multitude of times
while driving. As you bring your car to a halt when
approaching a stop sign or stoplight, the brakes serve to apply a force to the car for a
given amount of time to change the car's momentum. An object with momentum can be
stopped if a force is applied against it for a given amount of time.
A force acting for a given amount of time will change an object's momentum. Put
another way, an unbalanced force always accelerates an object - either speeding it up or
slowing it down. If the force acts opposite the object's motion, it slows the object down.
If a force acts in the same direction as the object's motion, then the force speeds the
object up. Either way, a force will change the velocity of an object. And if the velocity
of the object is changed, then the momentum of the object is changed.
These concepts are merely an outgrowth of Newton's second law as discussed in an
earlier unit. Newton's second law (F
net
=m a) stated that the acceleration of an object is
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27
directly proportional to the net force acting upon the object and inversely proportional
to the mass of the object. When combined with the definition of acceleration (a =
change in velocity / time), the following equalities result.

If both sides of the above equation are multiplied by the quantity t, a new equation
results.

This equation represents one of two primary principles to be used in the analysis of
collisions during this unit. To truly understand the equation, it is important to
understand its meaning in words. In words, it could be said that the force times the time
equals the mass times the change in velocity. In physics, the quantity Force time is
known as impulse. And since the quantity mv is the momentum, the quantity m v
must be the change in momentum. The equation really says that the
Impul se = Change in momentum
One focus of this unit is to understand the physics of collisions. The physics of
collisions are governed by the laws of momentum; and the first law which we discuss in
this unit is expressed in the above equation. The equation is known as the impulse-
momentum change equation. The law can be expressed this way:
In a collision, an object experiences a force for a specific amount of time which results
in a change in momentum. The result of the force acting for the given amount of time is
that the object's mass either speeds up or slows down (or changes direction). The
impulse experienced by the object equals the change in momentum of the object. In
equation form, F t =m v.
In a collision, objects experience an impulse; the impulse causes and is equal to the
change in momentum. Consider a football halfback running down the football field and
encountering a collision with a defensive back. The collision would change the
halfback's speed and thus his momentum. If the motion was represented by a ticker tape
diagram, it might appear as follows:

At approximately the tenth dot on the diagram, the collision occurs and lasts for a
certain amount of time; in terms of dots, the collision lasts for a time equivalent to
approximately nine dots. In the halfback-defensive back collision, the halfback
experiences a force which lasts for a certain amount of time to change his momentum.
Since the collision causes the rightward-moving halfback to slow down, the force on the
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28
halfback must have been directed leftward. If the halfback experienced a force of 800 N
for 0.9 seconds, then we could say that the impulse was 720 Ns. This impulse would
cause a momentum change of 720 kgm/s. In a collision, the impulse experienced by an
object is always equal to the momentum change.
Now consider a collision of a tennis ball with a wall. Depending on the physical
properties of the ball and wall, the speed at which the ball rebounds from the wall upon
colliding with it will vary. The diagrams below depict the changes in velocity of the
same ball. For each representation (vector diagram, velocity-time graph, and ticker tape
pattern), indicate which case (A or B) has the greatest change in velocity, greatest
acceleration, greatest momentum change, and greatest impulse. Support each answer.
Click the button to check your answer.
Vector Diagram

Greatest velocity change?
Greatest acceleration?
Greatest momentum change?
Greatest Impulse?

Velocity-Ti me Graph

Greatest Impulse?
Ticker Tape Diagram

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Greatest Impulse?
Observe that each of the collisions above involve the rebound of a ball off a wall.
Observe that the greater the rebound effect, the greater the acceleration, momentum
change, and impulse. A rebound is a special type of collision involving a direction
change in addition to a speed change. The result of the direction change is a large
velocity change. On occasions in a rebound collision, an object will maintain the same
or nearly the same speed as it had before
the collision. Collisions in which objects
rebound with the same speed (and thus, the
same momentum and kinetic energy) as
they had prior to the collision are known
as elastic collisions. In general, elastic
collisions are characterized by a large
velocity change, a large momentum change, a large impulse, and a large force.
Use the impulse-momentum change principle to fill in the blanks in the following rows
of the table. As you do, keep these three major truths in mind:
- the impulse experienced by an object is the forcetime
- the momentum change of an object is the massvelocity change
- the impulse equals the momentum change

Click the button to view answers.

Force
(N)
time
(s)
Impul se
(N*s)
Mom.
Change
(kg*m/s)
Mass
(kg)
Vel. Change
(m/s)
1. 0.010 10 -4
2. 0.100 -40 10
3. 0.010 -200 50
4. -20 000 -200 -8
5. -200 1.0 50
There are a few observations which can be made in the above table which relate to the
computational nature of the impulse-momentum change theorem. First, observe that the
answers in the table above reveal that the third and fourth columns are always equal;
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30
that is, the impulse is always equal to the momentum change. Observe also that the if
any two of the first three columns are known, then the remaining column can be
computed. This is true because the impulse=force time. Knowing two of these three
quantities allows us to compute the third quantity. And finally, observe that knowing
any two of the last three columns allows us to compute the remaining column. This is
true since momentum change =mass velocity change.
There are also a few observations which can be made which relate to the qualitative
nature of the impulse-momentum theorem. An examination of rows 1 and 2 show that
force and time are inversely proportional; for the same mass
and velocity change, a tenfold increase in the time of impact
corresponds to a tenfold decrease in the force of impact. An
examination of rows 1 and 3 show that mass and force are
directly proportional; for the same time and velocity change,
a fivefold increase in the mass corresponds to a fivefold
increase in the force required to stop that mass. Finally, an examination of rows 3 and 4
illustrate that mass and velocity change are inversely proportional; for the same force
and time, a twofold decrease in the mass corresponds to a twofold increase in the
velocity change.
Express your understanding of the impulse-momentum change theorem by answering
the following questions. Click the button to view the answers.
1. A 0.50-kg cart (#1) is pulled with a 1.0-N force for 1 second; another 0.50 kg cart
(#2) is pulled with a 2.0 N-force for 0.50 seconds. Which cart (#1 or #2) has the greatest
acceleration? Explain.
Which cart (#1 or #2) has the greatest impulse? Explain.
Which cart (#1 or #2) has the greatest change in momentum? Explain.

2. In a physics demonstration, two identical balloons (A and B) are propelled across the
room on horizontal guide wires. The motion diagrams (depicting the relative position of
the balloons at time intervals of 0.05 seconds) for these two balloons are shown below.

Which balloon (A or B) has the greatest acceleration? Explain.
Which balloon (A or B) has the greatest final velocity? Explain.
Which balloon (A or B) has the greatest momentum change? Explain.
Which balloon (A or B) experiences the greatest impulse? Explain.

3. Two cars of equal mass are traveling down Lake Avenue with equal velocities. They
both come to a stop over different lengths of time. The ticker tape patterns for each car
are shown on the diagram below.
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31

At what approximate location on the diagram (in terms of dots) does each car begin to
experience the impulse?
Which car (A or B) experiences the greatest acceleration? Explain.
Which car (A or B) experiences the greatest change in momentum? Explain.
Which car (A or B) experiences the greatest impulse? Explain.

4. The diagram to the right depicts the before- and after-
collision speeds of a car which undergoes a head-on-
collision with a wall. In Case A, the car bounces off the
wall. In Case B, the car crumples up and sticks to the wall.
a. In which case (A or B) is the change in velocity the
greatest? Explain.

b. In which case (A or B) is the change in momentum the
greatest? Explain.

c. In which case (A or B) is the impulse the greatest? Explain.
d. In which case (A or B) is the force which acts upon the car the greatest (assume
contact times are the same in both cases)? Explain.

5. Jennifer, who has a mass of 50.0 kg, is riding at 35.0 m/s in her red sports car when
she must suddenly slam on the brakes to avoid hitting a deer crossing the road. She
strikes the air bag, which brings her body to a stop in 0.500 s. What average force does
the seat belt exert on her?

If Jennifer had not been wearing her seat belt and not had an air bag, then the
windshield would have stopped her head in 0.002 s. What average force would the
windshield have exerted on her?

6. A hockey player applies an average force of 80.0 N to a 0.25 kg hockey puck for a
time of 0.10 seconds. Determine the impulse experienced by the hockey puck.
7. If a 5-kg object experiences a 10-N force for a duration of 0.10-second, then what is
the momentum change of the object?

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Real-World Applications
In a previous part of Lesson 1, it was said that
In a collision, an object experiences a force for a given amount
of time which results in its mass undergoing a change in
velocity (i.e., which results in a momentum change).
There are four physical quantities mentioned in the above
statement - force, time, mass, and velocity change. The force multiplied by the time is
known as the impulse and the mass multiplied by the velocity change is known as the
change in momentum. The impulse experienced by an object is always equal to the
change in its momentum. In terms of equations, this was expressed as

This is known as the impulse-momentum change theorem.
In this part of Lesson 1, we will examine some real-world applications of the impulse-
momentum change theorem. We will examine some physics in action in the real world.
In particular, we will focus upon
- the affect of collision time upon the amount of force an object experiences, and
- the affect of rebounding upon the velocity change and hence the amount of force
an object experiences.
As an effort is made to apply the impulse-momentum change theorem to a variety of
real-world situations, keep in mind that the goal is to use the equation as a guide to
thinking about how an alteration in the value of one variable might affect the value of
another variable.
The Affect of Collision Time upon the Force
First we will examine the importance of the collision time in affecting the amount of
force which an object experiences during a collision. In a previous part of Lesson 1, it
was mentioned that force and time are inversely proportional. An object with 100 units
of momentum must experience 100 units of impulse in order to be brought to a stop.
Any combination of force and time could be used to produce the 100 units of impulse
necessary to stop an object with 100 units of momentum. This is depicted in the table
below.

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Combinations of Force and Time Required to Produce 100 units of Impulse
Force Ti me Impul se
100 1 100
50 2 100
25 4 100
10 10 100
4 25 100
2 50 100
1 100 100
0.1 1000 100
Observe that the greater the time over which the collision occurs, the smaller the force
acting upon the object. Thus, to minimize the affect of the force on an object involved in
a collision, the time must be increased. And to maximize the affect of the force on an
object involved in a collision, the time must be decreased.

There are several real-world applications of this
phenomena. One example is the use of air bags in
automobiles. Air bags are used in automobiles because
they are able to minimize the affect of the force on an
object involved in a collision. Air bags accomplish
this by extending the time required to stop the
momentum of the driver and passenger. When
encountering a car collision, the driver and passenger tend to keep moving in accord
with Newton's first law. Their motion carries them towards a windshield which results
in a large force exerted over a short time in order to stop their momentum. If instead of
hitting the windshield, the driver and passenger hit an air bag, then the time duration of
the impact is increased. When hitting an object with some give such as an air bag, the
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time duration might be increased by a factor of 100. Increasing the time by a factor of
100 will result in a decrease in force by a factor of 100. Now that's physics in action.
The same principle explains why dashboards are padded. If the air bags do not deploy
(or are not installed in a car), then the driver and passengers run the risk of stopping
their momentum by means of a collision with the windshield or the dashboard. If the
driver or passenger should hit the dashboard, then the force and time required to stop
their momentum is exerted by the dashboard. Padded dashboards provide some give in
such a collision and serve to extend the time duration of the impact, thus minimizing the
affect of the force. This same principle of padding a potential impact area can be
observed in gymnasiums (underneath the basketball hoops), in pole-vaulting pits, in
baseball gloves and goalie mitts, on the fist of a boxer, inside the helmet of a football
player, and on gymnastic mats. Now that's physics in action.
Fans of boxing frequently observe this same principle of minimizing the affect of a
force by extending the time of collision. When a boxer recognizes that he will be hit in
the head by his opponent, the boxer often relaxes his neck and allows his head to move
backwards upon impact. In the boxing world, this is known as riding the punch. A
boxer rides the punch in order to extend the time of impact of the glove with their head.
Extending the time results in decreasing the force and thus minimizing the affect of the
force in the collision. Merely increasing the collision time by a factor of ten would
result in a tenfold decrease in the force. Now that's physics in action.
Nylon ropes are used in the sport of rock-climbing for the same reason. Rock climbers
attach themselves to the steep cliffs by means of nylon ropes. If a rock climber should
lose her grip on the rock, she will begin to fall. In such a situation, her momentum will
ultimately be halted by means of the rope, thus preventing a
disastrous fall to the ground below. The ropes are made of nylon
or similar material because of its ability to stretch. If the rope is
capable of stretching upon being pulled taut by the falling
climber's mass, then it will apply a force upon the climber over a
longer time period. Extending the time over which the climber's
momentum is broken results in reducing the force exerted on the
falling climber. For certain, the rock climber can appreciate
minimizing the affect of the force through the use of a longer time
of impact. Now that's physics in action.
In racket and bat sports, hitters are often encouraged to follow-
through when striking a ball. High speed films
of the collisions between bats/rackets and balls
have shown that the act of following through
serves to increase the time over which a
collision occurs. This increase in time must result in a change in
some other variable in the impulse-momentum change theorem.
Surprisingly, the variable which is dependent upon the time in such
a situation is not the force. The force in hitting is dependent upon
how hard the hitter swings the bat or racket, not the time of impact.
Instead, the follow-through increases the time of collision and
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subsequently contributes to an increase in the velocity change
of the ball. By following through, a hitter can hit the ball in
such a way that it leaves the bat or racket with more velocity
(i.e., the ball is moving faster). In tennis, baseball, racket ball,
etc., giving the ball a high velocity often leads to greater
success. Now that's physics in action.
You undoubtedly recall other illustrations of this principle. A common physics
demonstration involves the catching of water balloons of varying speed and varying
mass. A water balloon is thrown high into the air and successfully caught (i.e., caught
without breaking). The key to the success of the demonstration is to contact the balloon
with outstretched arms and carry the balloon for a meter or more before finally stopping
its momentum. The effect of this strategy is to extend the time over which the collision
occurred and so reduce the force. This same strategy is used by lacrosse players when
catching the ball. The ball is "cradled" when caught; i.e., the lacrosse player reaches out
for the ball and carries it inward toward her body as if she were cradling a baby. The
effect of this strategy is to lengthen the time over which the collision occurs and so
reduce the force on the lacrosse ball. Now that's physics in action.
Another common physics demonstration involves throwing an egg into a bed sheet. The
bed sheet is typically held by two trustworthy students and a volunteer is used to toss
the egg at full speed into the bed sheet. The collision between the egg and the bed sheet
lasts over an extended period of time since the bed sheet has some give in it. By
extending the time of the collision, the affect of the force is minimized. In all my years,
the egg has never broken when hitting the bed sheet. On occasion the volunteer has a
wayward toss and is not as accurate as expected. The egg misses the bed sheet and
collides with the wall. In these unexpected cases, the collision between wall and egg
lasts for a short period of time, thus maximizing the affect of the force on the egg. The
egg brakes and leaves the wall and floor in a considerable mess. And that's no yolk!
The Effect of Reboundi ng

Occasionally when objects collide, they bounce off each other as opposed to sticking to
each other and traveling with the same speed after the collision. Bouncing off each
other is known as rebounding. Rebounding involves a change in the direction of an
object; the before- and after-collision direction is different. Rebounding was pictured
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and discussed earlier in Lesson 1. At that time, it was said that rebounding situations are
characterized by a large velocity change and a large momentum change.

From the impulse-momentum change theorem, we could deduce that a rebounding
situation must also be accompanied by a large impulse. Since the impulse experienced
by an object equals the momentum change of the object, a collision characterized by a
large momentum change must also be characterized by a large impulse.
The importance of rebounding is critical to the outcome of automobile accidents. In an
automobile accident, two cars can either collide and bounce off each other or collide,
crumple up and travel together with the same speed after the collision. But which would
be more damaging to the occupants of the
automobiles - the rebounding of the cars or the
crumpling up of the cars? Contrary to popular
opinion, the crumpling up of cars is the safest type
of automobile collision. As mentioned above, if
cars rebound upon collision, the momentum change
will be larger and so will the impulse. A greater impulse will typically be associated
with a bigger force. Occupants of automobiles would certainly prefer small forces upon
their bodies during collisions. In fact, automobile designers and safety engineers have
found ways to reduce the harm done to occupants of automobiles by designing cars
which crumple upon impact. Automobiles are made with crumple zones. Crumple zones
are sections in cars which are designed to crumple up when the car encounters a
collision. Crumple zones minimize the affect of the force in an automobile collision in
two ways. By crumpling, the car is less likely to rebound upon impact, thus minimizing
the momentum change and the impulse. Finally, the crumpling of the car lengthens the
time over which the car's momentum is changed; by increasing the time of the collision,
the force of the collision is greatly reduced.
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Momentum Conservation Princi ple
One of the most powerful laws in physics is the law of momentum conservation. The
law of momentum conservation can be stated as follows.
For a collision occurring between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the total
momentum of the two objects before the collision is equal to the total momentum of
the two objects after the collision. That is, the momentum lost by object 1 is equal to
the momentum gained by object 2.
The above statement tells us that the total
momentum of a collection of objects (a system) is
conserved - that is, the total amount of momentum
is a constant or unchanging value. This law of
momentum conservation will be the focus of the
remainder of Lesson 2. To understand the basis of
momentum conservation, let's begin with a short
logical proof.
Consider a collision between two objects - object 1 and object 2. For such a collision,
the forces acting between the two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction (Newton's third law). This statement can be expressed in equation form as
follows.

The forces act between the two objects for a given amount of time. In some cases, the
time is long; in other cases the time is short. Regardless of how long the time is, it can
be said that the time that the force acts upon object 1 is equal to the time that the force
acts upon object 2. This is merely logical. Forces result from interactions (or contact)
between two objects. If object 1 contacts object 2 for 0.050 seconds, then object 2
must be contacting object 1 for the same amount of time (0.050 seconds). As an
equation, this can be stated as

Since the forces between the two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction, and since the times for which these forces act are equal in magnitude, it
follows that the impulses experienced by the two objects are also equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. As an equation, this can be stated as
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But the impulse experienced by an object is equal to the change in momentumof that
object (the impulse-momentum change theorem). Thus, since each object experiences
equal and opposite impulses, it follows logically that they must also experience equal
and opposite momentum changes. As an equation, this can be stated as

The above equation is one statement of
the law of momentum conservation. In a
collision, the momentum change of object
1 is equal to and opposite of the
momentum change of object 2. That is,
the momentum lost by object 1 is equal to
the momentum gained by object 2. In
most collisions between two objects, one
object slows down and loses momentum while the other object speeds up and gains
momentum. If object 1 loses 75 units of momentum, then object 2 gains 75 units of
momentum. Yet, the total momentum of the two objects (object 1 plus object 2) is the
same before the collision as it is after the collision. The total momentum of the system
(the collection of two objects) is conserved.
A useful analogy for understanding momentum conservation involves a money
transaction between two people. Let's refer to the two people as Jack and J ill. Suppose
that we were to check the pockets of Jack and J ill before and after the money
transaction in order to determine the amount of money which each possesses. Prior to
the transaction, Jack possesses $100 and J ill possesses $100. The total amount of
money of the two people before the transaction is $200. During the transaction, J ack
pays J ill $50 for the given item being bought. There is a transfer of $50 from J ack's
pocket to Jill's pocket. Jack has lost $50 and J ill has gained $50. The money lost by
Jack is equal to the money gained by J ill. After the transaction, Jack now has $50 in
his pocket and J ill has $150 in her pocket. Yet, the total amount of money of the two
people after the transaction is $200. The total amount of money (Jack's money plus
J ill's money) before the transaction is equal to the total amount of money after the
transaction. It could be said that the total amount of money of the system (the
collection of two people) is conserved. It is the same before as it is after the
transaction.
A useful means of depicting the transfer and the conservation of money between Jack
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and J ill is by means of a table.

The table shows the amount of money possessed by the two individuals before and
after the interaction. It also shows the total amount of money before and after the
interaction. Note that the total amount of money ($200) is the same before and after the
interaction - it is conserved. Finally, the table shows the change in the amount of
money possessed by the two individuals. Note that the change in Jack's money account
(-$50) is equal and opposite to the change in J ill's money account (+$50) .

For any collision occurring in an isolated system, momentum is conserved. The total
amount of momentum of the collection of objects in the system is the same before the
collision as after the collision. A common physics lab involves the dropping of a brick
upon a cart in motion.

The dropped brick is at rest and begins with zero momentum. The loaded cart (a cart
with a brick on it) is in motion with considerable momentum. The actual momentum of
the loaded cart can be determined using the velocity (often determined by a ticker tape
analysis) and the mass. The total amount of momentum is the sum of the dropped
brick's momentum (0 units) and the loaded cart's momentum. After the collision, the
momenta of the two separate objects (dropped brick and loaded cart) can be
determined from their measured mass and their velocity (often found from a ticker tape
analysis). If momentum is conserved during the collision, then the sum of the dropped
brick's and loaded cart's momentum after the collision should be the same as before the
collision. The momentum lost by the loaded cart should equal (or approximately equal)
the momentum gained by the dropped brick. Momentum data for the interaction
between the dropped brick and the loaded cart could be depicted in a table similar to
the money table above.

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Before
Collision
Momentum
After
Collision
Momentum
Change in
Momentum
Dropped Brick
0 units 14 units +14 units
Loaded Cart
45 units 31 units -14 units
Total
45 units 45 units
Note that the loaded cart lost 14 units of momentum and the dropped brick gained 14
units of momentum. Note also that the total momentum of the system (45 units) was
the same before the collision as it was after the collision.
Collisions commonly occur in contact sports (such as football) and racket and bat
sports (such as baseball, golf, tennis, etc.). Consider a collision in football between a
fullback and a linebacker during a goal-line stand. The fullback plunges across the
goal line and collides in midair with the linebacker. The linebacker and fullback hold
each other and travel together after the collision. The fullback possesses a momentum
of 100 kg*m/s, East before the collision and the linebacker possesses a momentum of
120 kg*m/s, West before the collision. The total momentum of the system before the
collision is 20 kg*m/s, West (review the section on adding vectors if necessary).
Therefore, the total momentum of the system after the collision must also be 20
kg*m/s, West. The fullback and the linebacker move together as a single unit after the
collision with a combined momentum of 20 kg*m/s. Momentum is conserved in the
collision. A vector diagramcan be used to represent this principle of momentum
conservation; such a diagram uses an arrow to represent the magnitude and direction of
the momentum vector for the individual objects before the collision and the combined
momentum after the collision.

Now suppose that a medicine ball is thrown to a clown who is at rest upon the ice; the
clown catches the medicine ball and glides together with the ball across the ice. The
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momentum of the medicine ball is 80 kg*m/s before the collision. The momentum of
the clown is 0 m/s before the collision. The total momentum of the system before the
collision is 80 kg*m/s. Therefore, the total momentum of the system after the collision
must also be 80 kg*m/s. The clown and the medicine ball move together as a single
unit after the collision with a combined momentum of 80 kg*m/s. Momentum is
conserved in the collision.

Momentum is conserved for any interaction between two objects occurring in an
isolated system. This conservation of momentum can be observed by a total system
momentum analysis or by a momentum change analysis. Useful means of representing
such analyses include a momentum table and a vector diagram. Later in Lesson 2, we
will use the momentum conservation principle to solve problems in which the after-
collision velocity of objects is predicted.
Express your understanding of the concept and mathematics of momentum by
answering the following questions. Click on the button to view the answers.
1. When fighting fires, a firefighter must use great caution to hold a hose which emits
large amounts of water at high speeds. Why would such a task be difficult?
2. A large truck and a Volkswagen have a head-on collision.
a. Which vehicle experiences the greatest force of impact?
b. Which vehicle experiences the greatest impulse?
c. Which vehicle experiences the greatest momentum change?
d. Which vehicle experiences the greatest acceleration?

3. Miles Tugo and Ben Travlun are riding in a bus at highway speed on a nice summer
day when an unlucky bug splatters onto the windshield. Miles and Ben begin
discussing the physics of the situation. Miles suggests that the momentum change of
the bug is much greater than that of the bus. After all, argues Miles, there was no
noticeable change in the speed of the bus compared to the obvious change in the speed
of the bug. Ben disagrees entirely, arguing that that both bug and bus encounter the
same force, momentum change, and impulse. Who do you agree with? Support your
answer.

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4. If a ball is projected upward from the ground with ten units of momentum, what is
the momentum of recoil of the Earth? ____________ Do we feel this? Explain.
5. If a 5-kg bowling ball is projected upward with a velocity of 2.0 m/s, then what is
the recoil velocity of the Earth (mass =6.0 x 10
24
kg).
6. A 120 kg lineman moving west at 2 m/s tackles an 80 kg football fullback moving
east at 8 m/s. After the collision, both players move east at 2 m/s. Draw a vector
diagram in which the before- and after-collision momenta of each player is represented
by a momentum vector. Label the magnitude of each momentum vector.
See answer below.
7. In an effort to exact the most severe capital punishment upon a rather unpopular
prisoner, the execution team at the Dark Ages Penitentiary search for a bullet which is
ten times as massive as the rifle itself. What type of individual would want to fire a
rifle which holds a bullet which is ten times more massive than the rifle? Explain.
8. A baseball player holds a bat loosely and bunts a ball. Express your understanding
of momentum conservation by filling in the tables below.

9. A Tomahawk cruise missile is launched from the barrel of a mobile missile
launcher. Neglect friction. Express your understanding of momentum conservation by
filling in the tables below.

Answer to Question #6
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Momentum Conservation in Explosions
As discussed in a previous part of Lesson 2, total system momentum is conserved for
collisions between objects in an isolated system. For collisions occurring in isolated
systems, there are no exceptions to this law. This same principle of momentum
conservation can be applied to explosions. In an explosion, an internal impulse acts in
order to propel the parts of a system (often a single object) into a variety of directions.
After the explosion, the individual parts of the system (which is often a collection of
fragments from the original object) have momentum. If the vector sum of all
individual parts of the system could be added together to determine the total
momentum after the explosion, then it should be the same as the total momentum
before the explosion. Just like in collisions, total system momentum is conserved.

Momentum conservation is often demonstrated in a Physics class with a homemade
cannon demonstration. A homemade cannon is placed upon a cart and loaded with a
tennis ball. The cannon is equipped with a reaction chamber into which a small amount
of fuel is inserted. The fuel is ignited, setting off an explosion which propels the tennis
ball through the muzzle of the cannon. The impulse of the explosion changes the
momentum of the tennis ball as it exits the muzzle at high speed. The cannon
experienced the same impulse, changing its momentum from zero to a final value as it
recoils backwards. Due to the relatively larger mass of the cannon, its backwards recoil
speed is considerably less than the forward speed of the tennis ball.
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In the exploding cannon demonstration, total system momentum is conserved. The
system consists of two objects - a cannon and a tennis ball. Before the explosion, the
total momentum of the system is zero since the cannon and the tennis ball located
inside of it are both at rest. After the explosion, the total momentum of the system
must still be zero. If the ball acquires 50 units of forward momentum, then the cannon
acquires 50 units of backwards momentum. The vector sum of the individual momenta
of the two objects is 0. Total system momentum is conserved.
As another demonstration of momentum conservation, consider two low-friction carts
at rest on a track. The system consists of the two individual carts initially at rest. The
total momentum of the system is zero before the explosion. One of the carts is
equipped with a spring loaded plunger which can be released by tapping on a small
pin. The spring is compressed and the carts are placed next to each other. The pin is
tapped, the plunger is released, and an explosion-like impulse sets both carts in motion
along the track in opposite directions. One cart acquires a rightward momentum while
the other cart acquires a leftward momentum. If 20 units of forward momentum are
acquired by the rightward-moving cart, then 20 units of backwards momentum is
acquired by the leftward-moving cart. The vector sum of the momentum of the
individual carts is 0 units. Total system momentum is conserved.

Equal and Opposite Momentum Changes
Just like in collisions, the two objects involved encounter the same force for the same
amount of time directed in opposite directions. This results in impulses which are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. And since an impulse causes and is equal
to a change in momentum, both carts encounter momentum changes which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. If the exploding system includes two objects or
two parts, this principle can be stated in the form of an equation as:

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If the masses of the two objects are equal, then their post-explosion velocity will be
equal in magnitude (assuming the system is initially at rest). If the masses of the two
objects are unequal, then they will be set in motion by the explosion with different
speeds. Yet even if the masses of the two objects are different, the momentum change
of the two objects (mass velocity change) will be equal in magnitude.
The diagram below depicts a variety of situations involving explosion-like impulses
acting between two carts on a low-friction track. The mass of the carts is different in
each situation. In each situation, total system momentum is conserved as the
momentum change of one cart is equal and opposite the momentum change of the
other cart.

In each of the above situations, the impulse on the carts is the same - a value of 20
kgcm/s (or cNs). Since the same spring is used, the same impulse is delivered. Thus,
each cart encounters the same momentum change in every situation - a value of 20
kgcm/s. For the same momentum change, an object with twice the mass will
encounter one-half the velocity change. And an object with four times the mass will
encounter one-fourth the momentum change.
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Solving Explosion Momentum Problems
Since total system momentum is conserved in an explosion occurring in an isolated
system, momentum principles can be used to make predictions about the resulting
velocity of an object. Problem-solving for explosion situations is a common part of
most high school physics experiences. Consider for instance the following problem:
A 56.2-gram tennis ball is loaded into a 1.27-kg homemade cannon. The cannon is at
rest when it is ignited. Immediately after the impulse of the explosion, a photogate
timer measures the cannon to recoil backwards a distance of 6.1 cm in 0.0218 seconds.
Determine the post-explosion speed of the cannon and of the tennis ball.
Like any problem in physics, this one is best approached by listing the known
information.
Given:
Cannon: m =1.27 kg d =6.1 cm t =0.0218 s
Ball: m =56.2 g =0.0562 kg
The strategy for solving for the speed of the cannon is to recognize that the cannon
travels 6.1 cm at a constant speed in the 0.0218 seconds. The speed can be assumed
constant since the problem states that it was measured after the impulse of the
explosion when the acceleration had ceased. Since the cannon was moving at constant
speed during this time, the distance/time ratio will provide a post-explosion speed
value.
v
cannon
=d / t =(6.1 cm) / (0.0218 s) =280 cm/s (rounded)
The strategy for solving for the post-explosion speed of the tennis ball involves using
momentum conservation principles. If momentum is to be conserved, then the after-
explosion momentum of the system must be zero (since the pre-explosion momentum
was zero). For this to be true, then the post-explosion momentum of the tennis ball
must be equal in magnitude (and opposite in direction) of that of the cannon. That is,
m
ball
v
ball
= - m
cannon
v
cannon

The negative sign in the above equation serves the purpose of making the momenta of
the two objects opposite in direction. Now values of mass and velocity can be
substituted into the above equation to determine the post-explosion velocity of the
tennis ball. (Note that a negative velocity has been inserted for the cannon's velocity.)
(0.0562 kg) v
ball
=- (1.27 kg) (-280 cm/s)
v
ball
=- (1.27 kg) (-280 cm/s) / (0.0562 kg)
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v
ball
=6323.26 cm/s
v
ball
= 63.2 m/s
Using momentum explosion, the ball is propelled forward with a speed of 63.2 m/s -
that's 141 miles/hour!

It's worth noting that another method of solving for the ball's velocity would be to use
a momentum table similar to the one used previously in Lesson 2 for collision
problems. In the table, the pre- and post-explosion momentum of the cannon and the
tennis ball. This is illustrated below.

Momentum
Before Explosion
Momentum
After Explosion
Cannon 0
(1.27 kg) (-280 cm/s)
=-355 kgcm/s
Tennis Ball 0 (0.0562 kg) v
Total 0 0
The variable v is used for the post-explosion velocity of the tennis ball. Using the
table, one would state that the sum of the cannon and the tennis ball's momentum after
the explosion must sum to the total system momentum of 0 as listed in the last row of
the table. Thus,
-355 kgcm/s +(0.0562 kg) v =0
Solving for v yields 6323 cm/s or 63.2 m/s - consistent with the previous solution
method.
Using the table means that you can use the same problem-solving strategy for both
collisions and explosions. After all, it is the same momentum conservation principle
which governs both situations. Whether it is a collision or an explosion, if it occurs in
an isolated system, then each object involved encounters the same impulse to cause the
same momentum change. The impulse and momentum change on each object are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction. Thus, the total system momentum is
conserved.

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1. Two pop cans are at rest on a stand. A firecracker is placed between the cans and lit.
The firecracker explodes and exerts equal and opposite forces on the two cans.
Assuming the system of two cans to be isolated, the post-explosion momentum of the
system ____.
a. is dependent upon the mass and velocities of the two cans
b. is dependent upon the velocities of the two cans (but not their mass)
c. is typically a very large value
d. can be either a positive, negative or zero value
e. is definitely zero

2. Students of varying mass are placed on large carts and deliver impulses to each
other's carts, thus changing their momenta. In some cases, the carts are loaded with
equal mass; in other cases they are unequal. In some cases, the students push off each
other; in other cases, only one team does the pushing. For each situation, list the letter
of the team which ends up with the greatest momentum. If they have the same
momentum, then do not list a letter for that situation. Enter the four letters (or three or
two or ...) in alphabetical order.

3. Two ice dancers are at rest on the ice, facing each other with their hands together.
They push off on each other in order to set each other in motion. The subsequent
momentum change (magnitude only) of the two skaters will be ____.
a. greatest for the skater who is pushed upon with the greatest force
b. greatest for the skater who pushes with the greatest force
c. the same for each skater
d. greatest for the skater with the most mass
e. greatest for the skater with the least mass

4. A 62.1-kg male ice skater is facing a 42.8-kg female ice skater. They are at rest on
the ice. They push off each other and move in opposite directions. The female skater
moves backwards with a speed of 3.11 m/s. Determine the post-impulse speed of the
male skater.
5. A 1.5-kg cannon is mounted on top of a 2.0-kg cart and loaded with a 52.7 gram
ball. The cannon, cart, and ball are moving forward with a speed of 1.27 m/s. The
cannon is ignited and launches a 52.7 gram ball forward with a speed of 75 m/s.
Determine the post-explosion velocity of the cannon and cart.

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The Law of Momentum Conservati on
The Law of Action-Reaction (Revisited)
A collision is an interaction between two objects which have made contact (usually)
with each other. As in any interaction, a collision results in a force being applied to the
two colliding objects. Such collisions are governed by Newton's laws of motion. In the
second unit of The Physics Classroom,
Newton's third law of motion was introduced and
discussed. It was said that.. in every interaction, there
is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting
objects. The size of the force on the first object
equals the size of the force on the second object. The
direction of the force on the first object is opposite to
the direction of the force on the second object.
Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite
action-reaction force pairs.
Newton's third law of motion is naturally applied to collisions between two objects. In
a collision between two objects, both objects experience forces which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. Such forces often cause one object to speed up
(gain momentum) and the other object to slow down (lose momentum). According to
Newton's third law, the forces on the two objects are equal in magnitude. While the
forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, the acceleration of the objects
are not necessarily equal in magnitude. In accord with Newton's second law of motion,
the acceleration of an object is dependent upon both force and mass. Thus, if the
colliding objects have unequal mass, they will have unequal accelerations as a result of
the contact force which results during the collision.
Consider the collision between the club head and the golf
ball in the sport of golf. When the club head of a moving
golf club collides with a golf ball at rest upon a tee, the
force experienced by the club head is equal to the force
experienced by the golf ball. Most observers of this
collision have difficulty with this concept because they
perceive the high speed given to the ball as the result of
the collision. They are not observing unequal forces upon
the ball and club head, but rather unequal accelerations.
Both club head and ball experience equal forces, yet the ball experiences a greater
acceleration due to its smaller mass. In a collision, there is a force on both objects
which causes an acceleration of both objects. The forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction, yet the least massive object receives the greatest acceleration.
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Consider the collision between a moving seven-ball
and an eight-ball that is at rest in the sport of table
pool. When the seven-ball collides with the eight-ball,
each ball experiences an equal force directed in
opposite directions. The rightward moving seven-ball
experiences a leftward force which causes it to slow
down; the eight-ball experiences a rightward force
which causes it to speed up. Since the two balls have equal masses, they will also
experience equal accelerations. In a collision, there is a force on both objects which
causes an acceleration of both objects; the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction. For collisions between equal-mass objects, each object experiences the
same acceleration.
Consider the interaction between a male and female figure skater in pair figure skating.
A woman (m =45 kg) is kneeling on the shoulders of a man (m =70 kg); the pair is
moving along the ice at 1.5 m/s. The man gracefully tosses the woman forward
through the air and onto the ice. The woman receives the forward force and the man
receives a backward force. The force on the man is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the force on the woman. Yet the acceleration of the woman is greater than
the acceleration of the man due to the smaller mass of the woman.
Many observers of this interaction have difficulty believing that the man experienced a
backward force. "After all," they might argue, "the man did not move backward." Such
observers are presuming that forces cause motion. In their minds, a backward force on
the male skater would cause a backward motion. This is a common misconception that
has been addressed elsewhere in The Physics Classroom. Forces cause acceleration,
not motion. The male figure skater experiences a backwards force which causes his
backwards acceleration. The male skater slows down while the woman skater speeds
up. In every interaction (with no exception), there are forces acting upon the two
interacting objects which are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Collisions are governed by Newton's laws. The law of action-reaction (Newton's third
law) explains the nature of the forces between the two interacting objects. According
to the law, the force exerted by object 1 upon object 2 is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force exerted by object 2 upon object 1.
Express your understanding of Newton's third law by answering the following
questions. Click the button to check your answers.
1. While driving down the road, a firefly strikes the
windshield of a bus and makes a quite obvious mess in
front of the face of the driver. This is a clear case of
Newton's third law of motion. The firefly hit the bus and
the bus hits the firefly. Which of the two forces is
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greater: the force on the firefly or the force on the bus?
2. For years, space travel was believed to be impossible
because there was nothing which rockets could push off of
in space in order to provide the propulsion necessary to
accelerate. This inability of a rocket to provide propulsion
in space is because ...
a. space is void of air so the rockets have nothing to push
off of.
b. gravity is absent in space.
c. space is void of air and so there is no air resistance in space.
d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space and have been able to do so for a long
time..
3. Many people are familiar with the fact that a rifle recoils
when fired. This recoil is the result of action-reaction force
pairs. A gunpowder explosion creates hot gases which expand
outward allowing the rifle to push forward on the bullet.
Consistent with Newton's third law of motion, the bullet pushes
backwards upon the rifle. The acceleration of the recoiling rifle
is ...
a. greater than the acceleration of the bullet.
b. smaller than the acceleration of the bullet.
c. the same size as the acceleration of the bullet.

4. Kent Swimm, who is taking Physics for the third year in a row (and not because he
likes it), has rowed his boat within three feet of the dock. Kent decides to jump onto
the dock and turn around and dock his boat. Explain to Kent why this docking strategy
is not a good strategy.
5. A clown is on the ice rink with a large medicine ball. If the clown throws the ball
forward, then he is set into backwards motion with the same momentum as the ball's
forward momentum. What would happen to the clown if he goes through the motion of
throwing the ball without actually letting go of it? Explain.
6. Chubby, Tubby and Flubby are astronauts on a spaceship. They each have the same
mass and the same strength. Chubby and Tubby decide to play catch with Flubby,
intending to throw her back and forth between them. Chubby throws Flubby to Tubby
and the game begins. Describe the motion of Chubby, Tubby and Flubby as the game
continues. If we assume that each throw involves the same amount of push, then how
many throws will the game last?

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Using Equations as a Guide to Thinking
The three problems on the previous page illustrate how the law of momentum
conservation can be used to solve problems in which the after-collision velocity of an
object is predicted based on mass and velocity information. There are similar practice
problems (with accompanying solutions) lower on this page which are worth the
practice. However, let's first take a more qualitative approach to some collision
problems. The questions which follow provide a real test of your conceptual
understanding of momentum conservation in collisions.
Suppose that you have joined NASA and are enjoying your
first space walk. You are outside the space shuttle when your
fellow astronaut of approximately equal mass is moving
towards you at 2 m/s (with respect to the shuttle). If she
collides with you and holds onto you, then how fast (with
respect to the shuttle do you both move after the collision?

This problem could be solved in the usual manner with a momentum table; the variable
m could be used for the mass of the astronauts or any random number could be used for
the mass of the astronauts (provided each astronaut had the same mass). In the process
of solving the problem, the mass would cancel out of the momentum conservation
equation and the post-collision velocities could be determined. However, there is a more
conceptual means of solving this problem. In order for the momentum before the
collision to be equal to the momentum after the collision, the after collision velocity
must be smaller than the before collision velocity. How many times smaller must it be?
By what factor must the velocity be decreased? Before the collision, the amount of mass
in motion is m; after the collision, the amount of mass in motion is 2m. The amount of
mass in motion has doubled as the result of the collision. If the mass is increased by a
factor of two, then the velocity must be decreased by a factor of 2. The before-collision
velocity was 2 m/s so the after-collision velocity must be one-half this value: 1 m/s.
Each astronaut is moving with a velocity of 1 m/s after the collision.
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The process of solving this problem involved using a conceptual understanding of the
equation for momentum (p=m*v). This equation becomes a guide to thinking about how
a change in one variable effects a change in another variable. The constant quantity in a
collision is the momentum (momentum is conserved). For a constant momentum value,
mass and velocity are inversely proportional. Thus, an increase in mass results in a
decrease in velocity.

A twofold increase in mass, results in a twofold decrease in velocity (the velocity is
one-half its original value); a threefold increase in mass results in a threefold decrease in
velocity (the velocity is one-third its original value); etc. Of course, it is instructive to
point out that this form of problem-solving is limited to situations in which one of the
two objects is at rest before the collision and both objects move at the same speed after
the collision. To further test your understanding of this type of quantitative reasoning,
try the following two questions.

A large fish is in motion at 2 m/s when it encounters a smaller fish which is at rest. The
large fish swallows the smaller fish and continues in motion at a reduced speed. If the
large fish has three times the mass of the smaller fish, then what is the speed of the large
fish (and the smaller fish) after the collision? Click the button to view answer.

A railroad diesel engine has five times the mass of a boxcar. A diesel coasts backwards
along the track at 4 m/s and couples together with the boxcar (initially at rest). How fast
do the two trains cars coast after they have coupled together? Click the button to view
answer.
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Express your understanding of the concept and mathematics of momentum conservation
by answering the following questions. Assume isolated systems and momentum
conservation for each problem. Click the See Answer button to view answer. (If
necessary, return to the instructional page on solving collision analysis problems.)
1. In a physics lab, 0.500-kg cart (Cart A) moving rightward with a speed of 92.8 cm/s
collides with a 1.50-kg cart (Cart B) moving leftward with a speed of 21.6 cm/s. The
two carts stick together and move as a single object after the collision. Determine the
post-collision speed of the two carts.
2. A 25.0-gram bullet enters a 2.35-kg watermelon and embeds itself in the melon. The
melon is immediately set into motion with a speed of 3.82 m/s. The bullet remains
lodged inside the melon. What was the entry speed of the bullet? (CAUTION: Be
careful of the units on mass.)
3. A 25.0-gram bullet enters a 2.35-kg watermelon with a speed of 217 m/s and exits the
opposite side with a speed of 109 m/s. If the melon was originally at rest, then what
speed will it have as the bullet leaves its opposite side? (CAUTION: Be careful of the
units on mass.)
4. In a physics lab, a 0.500-kg cart (Cart A) moving with a speed of 129 cm/s
encounters a magnetic collision with a 1.50-kg cart (Cart B) which is initially at rest.
The 0.500-kg cart rebounds with a speed of 45 cm/s in the opposite direction. Determine
the post-collision speed of the 1.50-kg cart.
5. A 3000-kg truck moving rightward with a speed of 5 km/hr collides head-on with a
1000-kg car moving leftward with a speed of 10 km/hr. The two vehicles stick together
and move with the same velocity after the collision. Determine the post-collision
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velocity of the car and truck. (CAREFUL: Be cautious of the +/- sign on the velocity of
the two vehicles.)
6. During a goal-line stand, a 75-kg fullback moving eastward with a speed of 8 m/s
collides head-on with a 100-kg lineman moving westward with a speed of 4 m/s. The
two players collide and stick together, moving at the same velocity after the collision.
Determine the the post-collision velocity of the two players. (CAREFUL: Be cautious
of the +/- sign on the velocity of the two players.)
Answers
1. The problem can be solved using a momentum table:


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Using Equations as a Recipe for Algebraic Problem-Solving
As discussed in a previous part of Lesson 2, total system momentum is conserved for
collisions between objects in an isolated system. The momentum lost by one object is
equal to the momentum gained by another object. For collisions occurring in an isolated
system, there are no exceptions to this law. This law becomes a powerful tool in physics
because it allows for predictions of the before- and after-collision velocities (or mass) of
an object. In this portion of Lesson 2, the law of momentum conservation will be used
to make such predictions. The law of momentum conservation will be combined with
the use of a "momentum table" and some algebra skills to solve problems involving
collisions occurring in isolated systems.
Consider the following problem:
A 15-kg medicine ball is thrown at a velocity of 20 km/hr to a 60-kg person who is at
rest on ice. The person catches the ball and subsequently slides with the ball across the
ice. Determine the velocity of the person and the ball after the collision.
Such a motion can be considered as a collision between a person and a medicine ball.
Before the collision, the ball has momentum and the person does not. The collision
causes the ball to lose momentum and the person to gain momentum. After the collision,
the ball and the person travel with the same velocity (v) across the ice.

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58
If it can be assumed that the affect of friction between the person and the ice is
negligible, then the collision has occurred in an isolated system. Momentum should be
conserved and the post-collision velocity (v) can be determined using a momentum
table as shown below.

Before Collision After Collision
Person
0 (60 kg) v
Medicine ball
(15 kg) (20 km/hr)
=300 kg km/hr
(15 kg) v
Total
300 kg km/hr 300
Observe in the table above that the known information about the mass and velocity of
the two objects was used to determine the before-collision momenta of the individual
objects and the total momentum of the system. Since momentum is conserved, the total
momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision.
Finally, the expressions 60 kg v and 15 kg v were used for the after-collision
momentum of the person and the medicine ball. To determine v (the velocity of both the
objects after the collision), the sum of the individual momentum of the two objects can
be set equal to the total system momentum. The following equation results:
60 v + 15 v = 300
75 v = 300
v = 4 km/hr
Using algebra skills, it can be shown that v =4 km/hr. Both the person and the medicine
ball move across the ice with a velocity of 4 km/hr after the collision. (NOTE: The unit
km/hr is the unit on the answer since the original velocity as stated in the question had
units of km/hr.)
Now consider a similar problem involving momentum conservation.
A 0.150-kg baseball moving at a speed of 45.0 m/s crosses the plate and strikes the
0.250-kg catcher's mitt (originally at rest). The catcher's mitt immediately recoils
backwards (at the same speed as the ball) before the catcher applies an external force to
stop its momentum. If the catcher's hand is in a relaxed state at the time of the collision,
it can be assumed that no net external force exists and the law of momentum
conservation applies to the baseball-catcher's mitt collision. Determine the post-
collision velocity of the mitt and ball.
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59
Before the collision, the ball has momentum and the catcher's mitt does not. The
collision causes the ball to lose momentum and the catcher's mitt to gain momentum.
After the collision, the ball and the mitt move with the same velocity (v) .

The collision between the ball and the catcher's mitt occurs in an isolated system, total
system momentum is conserved. Thus, the total momentum before the collision
(possessed solely by the baseball) equals the total momentum after the collision (shared
by the baseball and the catcher's mitt). The table below depicts this principle of
momentum conservation.

Ball
0.15 kg 45 m/s =6.75 kgm/s (0.15 kg) v
Catcher's Mitt
0 (0.25 kg) v
Total
6.75 kgm/s 6.75 kgm/s
baseball and the catcher's mitt was used to determine the before-collision momenta of
the individual objects and the total momentum of the system. Since momentum is
conserved, the total momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before
the collision. Finally, the expression 0.15 v and 0.25 v are used for the after-collision
momentum of the baseball and catcher's mitt. To determine v (the velocity of both
objects after the collision), the sum of the individual momentum of the two objects is set
equal to the total system momentum. The following equation results:
0.15 kg v +0.25 kg v =6.75 kgm/s
0.40 kg v = 6.75 kgm/s
v = 16.9 m/s
Using algebra skills, it can be shown that v =16.9 m/s. Both the baseball and the
catcher's mitt move with a velocity of 16.9 m/s immediately after the collision and prior
to the moment that the catcher begins to apply an external force.
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The two collisions above are examples of inelastic collisions. Technically, an inelastic
collision is a collision in which the kinetic energy of the system of objects is not
conserved. In an inelastic collision, the kinetic energy of the colliding objects is
transformed into other non-mechanical forms of energy such as heat energy and sound
energy. The subject of energy will be treated in a later unit of The Physics Classroom.
To simplify matters, we will consider any collisions in which the two colliding objects
stick together and move with the same post-collision speed to be an extreme example of
an inelastic collision.
Now we will consider the analysis of a collision in which the two objects do not stick
together. In this collision, the two objects will bounce off each other. While this is not
technically an elastic collision, it is more elastic than the previous collisions in which
the two objects stick together.
A 3000-kg truck moving with a velocity of 10 m/s hits a 1000-kg parked car. The
impact causes the 1000-kg car to be set in motion at 15 m/s. Assuming that momentum
is conserved during the collision, determine the velocity of the truck immediately after
the collision.
In this collision, the truck has a considerable amount of momentum before the collision
and the car has no momentum (it is at rest). After the collision, the truck slows down
(loses momentum) and the car speeds up (gains momentum).

The collision can be analyzed using a momentum table similar to the above situations.

Truck
3000 10 =30 000 3000 v
Car
0 1000 15 =15 000
Total
30 000 30 000
the truck and car was used to determine the before-collision momenta of the individual
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objects and the total momentum of the system. Since momentum is conserved, the total
momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision. The
after-collision velocity of the car is used (in conjunction with its mass) to determine its
momentum after the collision. Finally, the expression 3000v was used for the after-
collision momentum of the truck (v is the velocity of the truck after the collision). To
determine v (the velocity of the truck), the sum of the individual after-collision
momentum of the two objects is set equal to the total momentum. The following
equation results:
3000*v + 15 000 = 30 000
3000*v = 15 000
v = 5.0 m/s
Using algebra skills, it can be shown that v =5.0 m/s. The truck's velocity immediately
after the collision is 5.0 m/s. As predicted, the truck has lost momentum (slowed down)
and the car has gained momentum.
The three problems above illustrate how the law of momentum conservation can be
used to solve problems in which the after-collision velocity of an object is predicted
based on mass-velocity information. There are additional practice problems (with
accompanying solutions) later in this lesson which are worth the practice. However, be
certain that you don't come to believe that physics is merely an applied mathematics
course which is devoid of concepts. For certain, mathematics is applied in physics.
However, physics is about concepts and the variety of means in which they are
represented. Mathematical representations are just one of the many representations of
physics concepts. Avoid merely treating these collision problems as mere mathematical
exercises. Take the time to understand the concept of momentum conservation which
provides the basis of their solution.
The next section of this lesson involves examples of problems which provide a real test
of your conceptual understanding of momentum conservation in collisions. Before
proceeding with the practice problems, be sure to try a few of the more conceptual
questions which follow
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References

Francis Weston Sears, University Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc,
London, 1964.

Look Kwok Wai, Advance Level Physics, Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd,
Singapore, 2006.

Lam Chok Sang, Topical Practice Execises Physics, Volume 1, Federal Publications,
Singapura, 2004.

Bond Thomas, a-level Challenging drill questions for H1 H2 Physics, Cosmic Service,
London, 2006

Bueche Frederick J . College Physics Tenth Editin, The McGraw-Hill Companies,
United States of America, 2006
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Physics
For XI Le ve l
1
st

Se me ste r

Compiled By :
Ichwan Aryono

SMA NEGERI 3 YOGYAKARTA
2009

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64

Contents

Preface ..........................................................................................................................ii

1. Chapter 1
Linear Motion ......................................................................................................... 1

2. Chapter 2
Elasticity and Harmonic Motion ............................................................................ 13

3. Chapter 3
Universal gravitation ............................................................................................ 22

4. Chapter 4
Momentum and Impuls ........................................................................................ 24

Reference .................................................................................................................... iii

_________

Modul Xi Sem 1 2009-2010

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