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Burgin Quesnelle Introduction Much of modern technology, from toy cars to cell phones, is dependent on wireless technology.

. Most of this technology is made possible using a type of electromagnetic wave called radio waves. Radio waves are capable of sending information for a variety of different purposes, from moving a toy car a few feet to connecting cell phones through a satellite in space many miles away. Because radio waves are versatile in the types of information they send, they have become very useful to millions of people. For this reason, radio waves prove to be a vital concept to study. The purpose of this experiment was to find out if obstacles of different densities blocking radio waves would have an effect on the transfer of the waves. It is believed that placing an obstacle between the source of a radio wave and its receiver would block and absorb radio waves. The board would cause the radio waves to not transfer as easily. To determine this, a toy car was used. To measure the effect, the toy car was driven with an obstacle between the car and its remote. The distance it traveled was measured in feet. Measuring the distance that the car traveled is a way of measuring how far the radio waves were able to travel. The average distances for each obstacle were then compared to see if there was a significant difference. The effect of obstacles on radio waves has many real life applications. Radio waves are capable of travelling through space, so many of the connections we have with satellites orbiting Earth are through radio waves. By testing what

Burgin Quesnelle obstacles cause disturbances in the transfer of radio waves, it can be determined what materials should be avoided between the satellite and their receivers. Other popular technology, such as television, would be affected the same way by this research. This research may not seem very valuable, but the impact of radio waves on everyday life is far greater than most people believe. Most of the technology any person has used today would be impossible without the knowledge the community has of radio waves. Radio waves are used worldwide so this would affect the worldwide scientific community. This research differs from research of its kind because it uses normal materials and works on a very broad scale. Using this research, more in depth research could be done on a more intense scale. These discoveries could help researchers know what obstacles would be good for use in their research. An experiment such as this could help give a better view of how radio waves, and how other kinds of waves work.

Burgin Quesnelle

Review of Literature A widely discussed topic throughout the field of physics is the behavior of waves. One such type of wave is the radio wave, or a type of electromagnetic wave used to transmit information ("Radio."). A variety of concepts relate to the study of radio waves, a few of these being wave motion, diffraction, how waves are transmitted and blocked, the study of electromagnetic waves, and the property of density and how it can affect wave signal. Wave motion is the term that describes how waves move through a medium. Sound and radio waves travel through the air by displacing the air molecules. This is known as propagation. All types of waves have common properties that they share. These properties include the ability to move through a medium, the ability to transmit a change in energy, and all require a point of origin and source of energy. All types of waves also encompass the same three characteristics: frequency, amplitude, and velocity. Amplitude is the distance between the highest and lowest points of a wave from its rest position. Frequency is how often a cycle of the wave occurs, which is based on the wavelength. The wavelength and frequency of a wave are two properties that are inversely proportional; as wavelength increases, frequency decreases, and vice

Burgin Quesnelle versa. The velocity of a wave is how fast a wave is moving, through different types of waves produce different velocities (Lerner). One type of wave is the electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves were discovered by the Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell. The difference between electromagnetic waves and mechanical waves is that electromagnetic waves dont need to travel through a medium. Electromagnetic waves dont need to travel through a solid or air, but can exist in the vacuum of space. This makes it possible to be used with satellites which control much technology is used today (Anatomy). Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave. The wavelength of radio waves is about 5000 times longer than the wavelength of visible light, ranging from a few millimeters to a few hundred kilometers. Microwaves are a form of short wavelength radio waves. Microwaves are often used for cooking and communication. They also work well for any form of wireless devices (Russel). When waves come into contact with an obstacle, a number of different processes can occur. One of these is diffraction. Diffraction refers to the way in which waves bend or change in order to move past an obstacle or through an opening. Diffraction depends on the size of the object or opening and the wavelength of the wave. Small diffraction occurs when the wavelength is smaller than the opening through which it tries to pass through. Large diffraction occurs when the wavelength is larger than the opening ("Diffraction"). When waves come into contact with an obstacle, they change to get through or around it. This process is shown below in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Diffraction around an Object. (Howard) Objects that interfere with radio wave signal can be opaque or translucent, unlike objects for light waves. For light waves its ability to travel depends on how well the process occurs depends on how easily light is transferred through. The color does not matter when it comes to the blocking of radio waves; what matters is the composition of the material. The process of diffraction makes a difference in how antennas pick up radio signal and how the waves are emitted. Antennas play a key role in transmitting and receiving radio waves. According to the UXL Encyclopedia of Science, information is converted to electric signals and then transmitted out of the antenna and received by another. Antennas come in a large variety of shapes and sizes, depending on their purpose ("Antenna."). Antennas are made of electronically conductive metals such as copper. The Columbia Encyclopedia gives a great deal of information about antennas and their various properties. These include the idea for the antenna to
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Burgin Quesnelle be used to transmit information was developed around 1897 by Guglielmo Marconi, a Nobel Prize winning physicist. He discovered that electronic circuits in a transmitting antenna cause electrons to rapidly move. These electrons then travel through air as electromagnetic radiation and are received by a matching receiving antenna. By using antennas, waves can be distributed in a single direction or several different directions. For example, signals from a radio station are transmitted in many directions so that they can reach a wide radio audience. On the other hand, signals used for radar communications are typically transmitted in a single direction so that the information quickly reaches its designated target. The length of the antenna usually corresponds with the size of the wave that it transmits or receives. Typically, longer antennas are used to send signals of larger wavelengths. In theory, antennas that transmit should also be able to receive, but often the two types of antennas are made differently. This is especially true if the antennas purpose is to transmit high amounts of power. ("antenna."). Radio signals are formed by a transmitter, which creates an electric field of different sizes and intensities that grows until it reaches the receiver, usually in the form of an antenna. Based on a concept known as an attenuation coefficient, not all materials will cause the same amount of interference for radio waves. This coefficient relies on the thickness and composition of an object. Objects with a lower density have a smaller coefficient than objects with a larger density.

Burgin Quesnelle Diffraction also has an effect on radio wave blockage because waves can travel around a barrier (Chavis). The blocking of radio waves is a topic that has been recently studied in the field of physics. A similar experiment has been done in the recent past to determine how obstacles affect radio waves. This experiment was created by Caroline Chan and Sierra Tobin, two students from California, and it was chosen to be a part of the California State Science Fair in 2008. Their experiment detailed the effects of different obstacles and frequencies to test the effectiveness of radio waves from a transmitter to a receiver (Chan and Tobin). The young women built an FM Radio Transmitter to put in an electronic pet finder that would be small and effective enough to attach to a pets co llar. It was hypothesized that obstacles with higher densities would be most obstructive to the radio waves. The effectiveness was tested by measuring the distance where the receiver lost the transmitted signal. Because the primary focus of their experiment was to test different frequencies against the obstacles, their conclusion addressed this first. They concluded that the signal would work for the longest distance at the highest level of frequency tested, but that the effectiveness of the signal varies with different obstacles. In order to gain more conclusive evidence about how the density of the obstacles affects how far a signal will travel, a constant frequency was tested against varying obstacles in the experiment. These varying obstacles were different because of their variations in density. Another article from the UXL Encyclopedia of Science gives a basic

Burgin Quesnelle understanding of this physical property of matter. Density refers to the mass of the unit volume, or the amount of a substance contained in a single volumetric unit of measurement. Density is a property that can be used to compare different materials to other types of materials (Density.). A concept known as the attenuation coefficient of an object describes how different materials create an interference of radio waves based on the thickness and composition of an object. Lower-density objects have a smaller coefficient than larger-density objects. The smaller the coefficient, the less interference is created in the signal. Because of this, the low-density material of foam would create less interference than the high-density material of aluminum (Chavis). This information helped form the basis of the hypothesis that aluminum will cause the highest amount of interference and foam board will cause the lowest amount of interference. The study of waves and their properties is a prominent topic in the world of physics today. Radio waves have a variety of real-life uses, such as radio broadcasting through car stereos or the radar systems on planes or submarines. The effectiveness of radio signal depends on properties such as frequency, amplitude, and wavelength. It is possible that the density of obstacles plays a key role in the effectiveness of signal as well, so the experiment tested that concept.

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Problem Statement Problem: To determine the effect that obstacles of different densities have on the distance radio waves will cause a radio-controlled vehicle to travel. Hypothesis: If obstacles of different densities are placed between a remote control and its corresponding radio-controlled vehicle, there will be a significant difference in how far the vehicle travels. Data Measured: The independent variable in this experiment is the density of the obstacle, measured in g/cm3, placed between a radio controlled vehicle and its remote control. There will be five different objects used, all with different densities. These
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Burgin Quesnelle will be wood, aluminum, foam board, plastic, and poster board. A control group that does not consist of an obstacle will also be used. Thirty trials for each obstacle and the control will be completed, 180 trials in all. The dependent variable is the distance, measured in feet, which it takes the vehicle to start after the signal has been transmitted. To measure the effect of the different densities, an ANOVA test will be performed to determine the difference in means and to determine which material has the greatest effect.

Experimental Design Materials: Radio-controlled vehicle (3) Set of 6 rechargeable AA batteries 0.5cm thick Plywood board (50.7x50.8cm) 1.2cm thick Styrofoam board (70.5x50.05cm) 1cm thick Poster board (71.1x55.9cm) 1.5cm thick Plastic (50.75x40.2cm) 0.75cm thick Cookie sheet (40.2x30.6cm) Meter stick 100ft Tape measure TI nSpire calculator Controller dock apparatus

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Procedure: 1. Assign each material and the control a number from 1 to 6 and use the assigned numbers to randomize trials using the randomize command on the TI nSpire calculator. Also, use the same method to assign six different AA batteries to one of three sets. Number the sets 1 to 3 and randomize which set is used in each trial. 2. Extend the tape measure to 40 feet. Lay it on the ground. Align the end of the dock apparatus with the end of the tape measure. 3. Place the designated obstacle into the controller dock apparatus (see appendix for instructions). Adjust the positioning block so that the obstacle is firmly in place. Clamp the block to the base board. 4. Insert two batteries from the randomly assigned set into the controller. Attach the controller to the dock and do not extend the antenna. Insert the remaining four batteries into the vehicle. 5. Pull the start trigger on the controller. Release the trigger when the signal indicator light goes out. 6. When the vehicle has completely stopped, take the meter stick and align it with the front of the vehicle perpendicular to the tape measure on the floor. Find the value on the tape measure where the meter stick crosses it. Record this value. 7. Remove the batteries from both the controller and the vehicle and remove the obstacle board from the dock. Repeat this process until all 180 trials have been completed.

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Burgin Quesnelle Diagram:

Foam Board

Dock Apparatus
Tape Measure Vehicle Controller

Figure 1. Setup of Experiment Figure 1 above shows how the materials were set up in order to carry out the experiment. The tape measure is shown placed on the floor next to the vehicle and lined up with the edge of the dock apparatus. The material used, foam board in this example, was placed between the stationary positioning blocks and the clamped-down adjustable positioning blocks on one side of the base board to hold it upright. On the other side of the board, the controller is firmly secured. The vehicle is placed at the edge of the board.

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Burgin Quesnelle Data and Observations Table 1 Foam Data Battery Set 1 3 5 2 8 2 15 1 22 1 28 2 34 1 41 2 48 3 57 1 73 2 74 1 81 3 88 3 94 2 104 2 110 1 118 1 127 3 129 1 132 1 139 3 144 2 148 3 152 3 159 3 161 1 167 2 173 2 180 3 Average: Trial Material Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Foam Distance (ft) 19.9 21.6 23.7 21.7 16.9 25.7 25.2 19.7 23.8 19.5 17.7 19.4 20.4 23.1 21.9 21.0 20.7 19.5 21.1 21.0 21.7 17.9 19.1 19.3 21.1 19.8 20.4 20.5 20.1 21.5 20.8

Table 1 above shows the data collected with foam as the obstacle. The mean for this data is 20.8 ft. See Figure 1 for when and how data was collected.
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Burgin Quesnelle Table 2 Plastic Data Battery Set 2 3 11 3 18 1 20 3 27 1 32 3 37 1 43 3 55 2 59 1 66 3 67 3 72 3 77 1 83 3 89 3 98 3 106 2 112 3 119 2 123 1 131 2 136 2 138 3 141 1 154 3 163 3 170 2 175 2 178 3 Average: Trial Material Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic Distance (ft) 23.1 21.7 19.9 22.0 25.9 23.6 21.1 19.9 18.2 24.1 20.2 21.8 26.6 21.9 29.3 22.8 18.6 24.6 26.4 27.6 20.3 21.9 21.2 22.1 20.7 21.9 20.4 19.5 21.1 20.1 22.3

Table 2 above shows the data collected with plastic as the obstacle. The mean for this data is 22.3 ft.

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Burgin Quesnelle Table 3 Wood Data Battery Set 3 1 12 3 23 1 33 2 35 3 38 1 47 1 51 1 52 1 62 3 68 2 70 3 84 2 90 2 99 2 103 2 108 2 114 3 121 3 122 2 124 2 134 1 143 2 146 1 153 3 156 3 157 1 162 3 165 2 176 2 Average: Trial Material Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Distance (ft) 21.2 23.9 21.3 22.0 24.5 23.5 26.4 19.5 34.7 21.3 18.7 12.7 28.9 27.1 17.2 27.8 23.2 20.3 22.7 36.7 27.2 21.7 20.7 21.7 30.0 20.5 24.6 20.7 20.9 19.0 23.4

Table 3 above shows the data collected with plastic as the obstacle. The mean for this data is 23.4ft.

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Burgin Quesnelle Table 4 Metal Data Battery Set 4 2 9 3 19 2 25 1 26 3 30 3 36 3 40 3 45 2 61 3 65 2 78 2 79 2 86 2 92 2 95 3 97 1 101 1 109 1 111 3 113 1 116 1 126 2 128 3 130 2 133 1 150 2 160 2 171 2 174 2 Average: Trial Material Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Distance (ft) 23.4 23.5 16.1 22.7 23.4 22.3 23.4 21.6 19.7 20.0 18.7 27.4 18.7 27.4 21.0 22.0 18.7 26.6 27.3 18.9 19.5 26.6 19.9 18.6 20.2 22.0 20.3 18.3 20.3 21.2 21.7

Table 4 above shows the data collected with plastic as the obstacle. The mean for this data is 21.7 ft.

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Burgin Quesnelle Table 5 Paper Data Battery Trial Set 6 3 10 1 14 2 24 1 31 1 39 3 42 1 49 1 53 3 56 2 60 3 63 2 64 1 69 2 71 3 75 2 76 3 87 3 96 3 100 2 105 1 107 1 117 3 120 3 125 2 135 3 145 2 155 2 166 2 179 2 Average:

Material Distance (ft) Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper Paper 19.8 24.2 23.9 21.9 23.5 31.8 36.7 21.3 18.9 33.3 25.7 17.6 25.3 30.3 23.9 22.1 24.3 23.5 31.5 16.4 18.1 20.5 20.0 19.9 19.8 18.8 18.1 17.9 20.0 19.3 22.9

Table 5 above shows the data collected with plastic as the obstacle. The mean for this data is 22.9 ft.

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Burgin Quesnelle Table 6 Table of Averages Material Foam Plastic Wood Metal Paper Control (None) Average Distance (ft) 20.8 22.3 23.4 21.7 22.9 21.6 Standard Deviation 2.02 2.70 4.94 3.03 5.15 2.59

Table 6 above is the table of average distances and standard deviations for the different obstacles. Foam is the obstacle that caused the least resistance, and wood caused the most resistance. Paper is the obstacle that had the most deviation, and foam had the least. Table 7 Densities Material Posterboard Plastic Wood Metal Foam Depth (cm) 1.00 1.50 0.50 0.75 1.20 Length (cm) 71.10 50.75 50.70 40.20 70.50 Width (cm) 55.90 40.20 50.80 30.55 50.05 Mass (g) 413.90 264.40 771.20 365.30 111.40 Volume (cm^2) 3974.49 3060.23 1287.78 921.08 4234.23 Density (g/cm^3) 0.10 0.09 0.60 0.40 0.03

Table 7 above shows the different dimensions used to find the density of each obstacle. This experiment was comparing the distance traveled for objects of different densities, so these were necessary to find. Volume was found using the formula for volume.

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Burgin Quesnelle For a sample calculation, refer to Appendix B. Density was then found by using the equation for density

For a sample calculation, refer to Appendix B. Table 8 Observations


Trial(s) 3,6,8,9,18,33,34, 130,149, 169,170,173,178 16,17,35,37,38, 156,165 Observations All of these trials curved to the left

All of these trials curved to the right

38,54,83,123,126

All of these trials hit the wall at the end of them rolling

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Went very far, but the antenna was a tiny bit extended

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Jolted when hit bump on floor

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Went very far

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Curved left then right

100

Started then Stopped

Table 8 above shows the observations for different trials in the experiment. Trials put together had the same observations.
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Burgin Quesnelle Diagram:

Set-Up Figure 1. Procedure

Insert Material

Car in Motion

Measuring Distance

Figure 1 above shows the procedure for collecting data. The car was set up and raced until the car left the range of the remote. Then, a meter stick was lined up with the front of the car and found the corresponding measurement on the tape measure. This was the number used for data. The first picture is of the set-up of the board and car before the obstacle is inserted. The second picture is when the obstacle is inserted. The third shows the car in motion just after it started moving. The last picture shows the distance traveled being measured with a meter stick.

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Burgin Quesnelle Data Analysis and Interpretation In the experiment, raw data was taken by physically measuring the distance the radio-controlled vehicle travelled. It was hypothesized that the obstacle with the highest density, in this case wood, would cause the radio waves to travel the least amount of distance. In order to determine if there was in fact a difference in the mean distances the waves caused the vehicle to travel, an ANOVA test was used. This test was appropriate because the means of three or more populations were compared to one another. The test was valid to use because of the ANOVA Rule of Thumb: it is okay to use the test when the largest sample standard deviation is no more than twice as large as the smallest standard deviation. The largest was 5.15 and the smallest was 2.59. Twice the smallest deviation is 5.18, which is greater than 5.15, so the test is valid.

Figure 1. Comparative Boxplots for Different Obstacles

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Burgin Quesnelle Figure 1 above shows all of the data graphed as different boxplots. Wood, the material with the greatest density, has the highest spread among all of the different groups. The upper and lower quartiles for that specific group are larger than any other group. The single outlier is where the data was measured to be 36.7 feet. Paper also had a fairly large spread because of a large upper quartile and two outliers. Nearly all of the groups have at least one outlier, except for metal, which is the most normally distributed group. The medians of all groups are very close to each other. The median of wood is the largest at 21.9 feet and the median of foam is the smallest at 20.6 feet. Between the smallest and largest, there is only a difference of 1.3 feet. This could indicate that there is not much of a difference in how radio waves caused the vehicle to travel compared to the different obstacles that were used. Although the boxplots show similar trends in the data across all different groups, the ANOVA test was used to see if there was a statistically significant difference among the obstacles. Table 1 Table of Means, Sample Sizes, and Sample Standard Deviations Material metal wood foam paper plastic control x (ft) 21.7 23.4 20.8 22.9 22.3 21.6 n 30 30 30 30 30 30 s 3.03 4.94 2.02 5.15 2.70 2.59
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Burgin Quesnelle

Table 1 above shows each material as well as its sample mean, x, sample size, n, and sample standard deviation, s. This table was used for easy reference while performing the ANOVA test. Hypotheses: Ho: metal = wood = foam = paper = plastic = control Ha: Not all metal, wood, foam, paper, plastic, control are equal The null hypothesis of the test is that all sample means for all six sample groups are equal to each other and that there is no difference. The alternative hypothesis is that not all sample means are equal. This would signify that there was a difference in how far the waves made the vehicle travel. Assumptions: i independent simple random samples normal distribution in each population same unknown standard deviation, , among sample groups All assumptions for the statistical test were met. Each sample i, where i is any one of the obstacles, was randomly assigned to a trial. Because of the Central Limit Theorem, which states that the population is normally distributed if the sample size is greater than or equal to 30, each sample population was normally distributed. In each of the groups, standard deviation, , was unknown.

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Burgin Quesnelle The F statistic of the test is the proportion of the variation among sample means between each population to the variation among individuals in all the samples within each population. In other words, the F statistic is the mean square group, MSG, divided by the mean square error, MSE.

efore this value could be determined, the weighted mean x had to be found first.

Figure 2. Formula to find Weighted Mean Figure shows the formula used to find the weighted mean x for the experiment.

This is found by multiplying the sample size for each population by the mean for each population, adding them together, and dividing by N, the total number of trials in all samples combined. Refer to Appendix B for the actual calculation. After all values were input into the formula, the value of x was found to be . .

Figure 3. Formula to find MSG Next, the mean square group, MSG, had to be calculated. The formula for this is shown in Figure 3 above. This formula takes the sample size of each population, multiplies it by the difference in sample mean and weighted mean squared, adds them
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Burgin Quesnelle all together, and divides by one less than I, the number of populations. Refer to Appendix B for the actual calculation. This value was found to be 26.81.

Figure 4. Formula to find MSE Finally, the mean square error, MSE, was calculated. The formula to find MSE is shown in Figure 4 above. This formula uses the sample size of each population minus one and multiplies it by the squared sample standard deviation. This is done for each population and they are added together. Then the entire thing is divided by N I, the total number of populations subtracted from the total number of samples. Refer to Appendix B for the actual calculation. This value was found to be 13.03. Now that MSG and MSE had been determined, the F statistic could be found. The F statistic is found by dividing MSG by MSE.

The F statistic is 2.058. This corresponds to a p-value of 0.077. Because of this, it was concluded that the null hypothesis failed to be rejected at =0.05 significance level because the p-value is greater than the alpha level. There is no significant evidence to suggest that the distance radio waves cause a radio-controlled vehicle to travel differs when obstacles of varying densities are placed in the path of the signal. The p-value

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Burgin Quesnelle states that there is about a 7.7% chance that results this extreme were attained by chance alone if the null hypothesis was assumed to be true.

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Burgin Quesnelle Conclusion This research concluded that obstacles of different densities do not have an effect on the transfer of radio waves. After performing the ANOVA test, there was a pvalue of about 0.077. This means that the null hypothesis, that all of the obstacles had the same effect, was not rejected. There is about a 7% chance of getting these results by chance alone if all the obstacles are assumed to have the same effect on the transfer of radio waves. This, along with the major overlap in the box plots, meaning that the data was very similar, led to the belief that the different obstacles did not have different effects on the transfer of radio waves. The original hypothesis for this experiment was if obstacles of different densities are placed in the way of a radio wave signal and was measured by seeing how far the car traveled, there will be a significant difference in how far the vehicle controlled by the radio waves travels. This hypothesis was rejected because there was not significant evidence. These results most likely occurred because of diffraction and absorption. Diffraction explains how waves change to move around an obstacle. Diffraction refers to the way in which waves bend or change in order to move past an obstacle or through an opening. Absorption is when the waves are taken into the obstacle. Since the obstacles that were used were not very large, it would be easy for the waves to be diffracted around the obstacle. This would explain why the means for the data of the different obstacles were quite close because the waves would just move around the obstacle. After the waves had moved around the obstacle, it came down to the distance the waves could travel under normal conditions. In this experiment, on average, paper allowed the vehicle to travel the farthest, and foam caused the most interference.

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Burgin Quesnelle Some errors occurred in this experiment, though. The first is the inaccuracy of data collection. The tape measure used to record data could collect data to the hundredth decimal place, so the data should have been recorded to this place as well. Since the p-value for the statistical test was close to being significant, more accurate data may have resulted in a lower p-value, making it significant, or have made a higher p-value, making it more obvious that there wasnt an effect. Also, many of the trials curved off the path of the measuring tape, but the distance was still measured in the distance it traveled along the measuring tape. The data could have been more accurate if it was measured straight to the vehicle. This could have the same effect on the pvalue as the accuracy of the recorded data mentioned previously. Furthermore, the experiment could have been made better by using materials all the same size and shape. The obstacles used in this experiment varied widely in width and height, though most materials were relatively the same depth. Had the obstacles all been exactly the same size, the effects of diffraction could have been decreased. Although diffraction still would have been present, it would have acted on the objects in a more uniform way and would have provided a better understanding of the true effect of obstacle density. If this experiment was to be performed again, it could have been done using more accurate measurements and more accurate materials. The controller could also have been contained in a box of the obstacle, so that diffraction would be limited. The effect of radio waves obviously has a major influence on the scientific community. This specific experiment could help on a wider scale, especially in areas such as communication. Since no obstacles, no matter what their density, have any

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Burgin Quesnelle greater effect than any other, it makes it easier to place cell phone towers and satellites. This explains why people are able to receive telephone calls indoors. The density of the walls does not have an effect on the signals. It doesnt matter what is between what transmits the waves and their receiver. This research could be performed on a much larger scale to better this real world application. This research could also lead to studies of other materials with different densities. The effect could also be studied in other ways instead of measuring the distance, such as measuring the time the car took to start or how much the waves dispersed. The experiment by Caroline Chan and Sierra Tobin that measured the effect of radio waves using FM Radio Signals concluded that there was a difference, but their experiment differed from this one in their use of different types of ways to create radio waves (Chan). Based on the research that was done prior to conducting the experiment, the results found in this experiment contradict other work in this field. Based on the attenuation coefficient, the objects of lower densities would have a lower coefficient and that would cause it to have lower interference on the radio waves (Chavis). This experiment showed that the different densities didnt change, which would imply that they had the same attenuation coefficient, which isnt the case. The difference in the results of this experiment and of other studies in the field may be different because of the scale of the experiment. The combination of these different experiments can be used to compare data on different scales. According to previous research, aluminum foil and other electronically conductive materials would block or interfere with radio waves. Further research could help broaden the knowledge on radio waves and many other kinds of waves.

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Burgin Quesnelle Appendix A Building the Controller Dock Apparatus: The apparatus was used to secure the different obstacle boards in place during the experiment. Materials: (6) Wooden block, 4.7x3.6x8.6cm Plank of wood, 50.3x50.3x0.5cm (2) Piece of 2x4, equal length (2) Clamp size??/? (12) Screws, 2in Power Drill Vehicle Controller Procedure: 1. On the underside of the board, bore four holes into the square base and 2 into each piece of 2x4 so that the pieces are four inches from the edge of the board. Insert screws into the holes and drill them so that the pieces are secured to the board from the underside of the base. 2. Take two of the small wooden blocks and place them in two of the corners of the base board, facing the same direction. Bore holes through the base and the blocks, and then drill screws into them from the underside of the base board. These blocks will be referred to as the stationary positioning blocks. 3. Take the radio controller and place it on the opposite side of the board from the blocks that were screwed in, parallel to the edge of the board. Align two more of the small blocks so that when screwed in, the controller will not move. When they are placed correctly, mark their positions, bore holes, and drill them to the base board.

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Burgin Quesnelle 4. Use the remaining two small blocks and clamp them to the board near the stationary positioning blocks. These will function as adjustable positioning blocks when the obstacles are placed in the apparatus. Diagram:

(Underside) 2x4 Blocks Controller Adjustable Positioning Blocks Stationary Positioning Blocks Figure 1. Controller Dock Apparatus Base Board

Controller Positioning Blocks

Clamp

Figure 1 above shows the completed apparatus. The apparatus consists of several different wooden blocks secured to a base board elevated off of the ground by two pieces of 2x4. The different materials used in the experiment were secured between the stationary and adjustable positioning blocks.

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Burgin Quesnelle Appendix B Calculations for the ANOVA Test: An ANOVA test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between obstacles. All calculations for this test are shown here.

Figure 1. Formula to find Weighted Mean Figure shows the formula used to find the weighted mean x for the experiment.

This is found by multiplying the sample size for each population, n, by the mean for each population, x, adding this value from each population together, and dividing by , the total number of trials in all samples combined.

Figure 2. Sample Equation Used to find Weighted Mean Figure above shows the formula to find the weighted mean x when the correct

values are input. All sample sizes, n, consisted of 30 trials. The samples means for each population were multiplied by n, and divided by 180, the total number of trials. The value was found to be 22.12.

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Burgin Quesnelle Figure 3. Formula to find MSG Next, the mean square group, MSG, had to be calculated. The formula for this is shown in Figure 3 above. This formula takes the sample size of each population, multiplies it by the difference in sample mean and weighted mean squared, adds this value for each population together, and divides by one less than I, the number of populations.

Figure 4. Sample Equation Used to find MSG Figure 4 above shows the formula to find the mean square group, MSG, when the correct values are input. All sample sizes, n, consisted of 0 trials. The weighted mean x was subtracted from each sample mean for each population, squared, and multiplied by n, then divided by 5, the total number of materials minus one. The value was found to be 26.81.

Figure 5. Formula to find MSE Finally, the mean square error, MSE, was calculated. The formula to find MSE is shown in Figure 5 above. This formula uses the sample size of each population minus one and multiplies it by the squared sample standard deviation. This is done for each
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Burgin Quesnelle population and they are added together. Then the entire thing is divided by N I, the total number of populations subtracted from the total number of samples.

Figure 6. Sample Equation Used to find MSE Figure 6 above shows the formula to find the mean square error, MSE, when the correct values are input into the formula. All sample sizes, n, consisted of 30 trials, so n1 was 29 for each population. This value was then multiplied by the sample standard deviation squared and each population was added together. Then everything was divided by N-I, or 180-6, the total number of trials minus the number of populations. The value was found to be 13.03. Now that MSG and MSE had been determined, the F statistic could be found. The F statistic is found by dividing MSG by MSE.

After dividing MSG by MSE, the F statistic of the test was found to be 2.058. To calculate the p-value, the degrees of freedom had to be determined as well. This value was calculated by dividing I-1 by N-I.

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Burgin Quesnelle The degrees of freedom allowed for one to find the general interval in which the p-value would fall. This interval was found to be 0.05 and 0.10. Using technology, the specific pvalue was found to be 0.077.

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Burgin Quesnelle Works Cited "Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave." Mission:Science. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2010. Web. 18 Apr. 2013. "antenna." The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed.. 2012. Encyclopedia.com. 17 Apr. 2013 "Antenna." UXL Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 153-155. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr. 2013. Chan, Caroline, and Sierra Tobin. Radio Hide and Seek: The Effect of Obstacles on Radio Waves. California State Science Fair, 2 Apr. 2008. Web. 7 Apr. 2013. Chavis, Jason C. "How Are Radio Waves Blocked?" WiseGeek. Conjecture Corporation, 25 Mar. 2013. Web. 07 Apr. 2013. "Density." UXL Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 624-626. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr. 2013. "Diffraction." UXL Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 648-651. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr. 2013. Howard, David. Diffraction around an Object. Digital image. EE Times. UBM Tech, 2 Apr. 2008. Web. 18 Apr. 2013. Lerner. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 625. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 Apr. 2013. "Radio." UXL Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Vol. 8. Detroit: UXL, 2002. 1626-1628. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 6 Apr. 2013. Russell, Randy. "Radio Waves." Radio Waves. National Earth Science Teachers Association, 13 July 2005. Web. 18 Apr. 2013.

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