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Examination Committee Dr. C.Kariyawasam Dr. (Ms) W.K.C.N. Dayanthi Ms. T. N. Wickramaarachchi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty of Engineering University of Ruhuna June 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First we wish to express our sincere gratitude to our project supervisors, Dr Cyril Kariyawasam and Mrs. Nadeeka Migunthanna for their guidance in our research work. And also we express our gratitude to Mr. Jayalath C.P.G, to his faith of the project. We wish to thank Dr H.P.Sooriyarachchi, the head of the department, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna and Dr. (Mrs.) Subashi De Silva, the coordinator of undergraduate research project for their great support to success the project. Our appreciate goes to all the technical officers and non-academic staff members of Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering for giving their support to success our research work.
Kothalawala C.D (RU/E/2009/094) Kumara P.G.R.A (RU/E/2009/098) Faculty of Engineering University of Ruhuna
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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................i CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ii 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH ................................................................................... 2 1.2 AIMS & OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 3 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................... 3 2.2 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION.................................................................................................. 3 2.3 INTRODUCTION TO IMPERVIOUS SURFACES ................................................................ 5 2.3.1 Storm water runoff from road surfaces ............................................................................ 5 2.3.2 Storm water runoff from roof surfaces ............................................................................. 6 2.4 STORMWATER POLLUTANTS .............................................................................................. 6 2.4.1 Nutrients ............................................................................................................................... 6 2.4.2 Oils and grease ................................................................................................................... 7 2.4.3 Suspended solids ............................................................................................................... 7 2.4.4 Heavy metals ....................................................................................................................... 7 2.4.5 Organic compounds ........................................................................................................... 7 2.4.6 Microbial contaminants ...................................................................................................... 8 2.4.7 Toxic chemicals .................................................................................................................. 8 2.5 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS ......................................................................................... 9 2.5.1. Physical Parameters ....................................................................................................... 10 2.5.2 Chemical Parameters....................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 13 3. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................... 13 3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 13 3.2 STUDY AREA AND SELECTION OF STUDY SITES........................................................ 13 3.2.1 Study Area ......................................................................................................................... 13 3.2.2 Selection of Study Sites ................................................................................................... 13 Figure 1: Study site within faculty premises ................................................................................... 14 3.3 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES AND TESTING .................................................................... 14 3.4 DATA ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................................... 16 4. TIME PLAN ..................................................................................................................................... 17 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 18 Proposal Report_ii
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Study site within faculty premises .13 Figure 2: Sample collection locations within faculty premises14
Comment [D1]: Not included in the content page Comment [D2]: Check the font size
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CHAPTER 1 1. INTRODUCTION
Much of the rainfall in watersheds having forests and pastures is absorbed into the porous soils (infiltration), is stored as ground water, and moves back into streams through seeps and springs. Thus, in many rural areas, much of the rainfall does not enter streams all at once, which helps prevent flooding (M. J. Pouraghniaei, 2002). According to the same author when areas are urbanized, much of the vegetation and top soil is replaced by impervious surfaces such as roads, parking lots, and pavement disturbing the natural infiltration. Then rainfall runoff that used to be absorbed into the ground must be collected by storm sewers that send the water runoff into local streams. One of the most important causes of water quality deterioration in urban areas is urban stormwater runoff. Even during small rain events, surfaces such as streets, driveways, roofs and parking lots produce stormwater runoff due to its impervious nature. A variety of pollutants which are accumulated on these surfaces are removed by wash-off with storm water runoff leading to a considerable increase in pollutant loading to receiving water bodies. (N.S. Mingunthenna, 2009) The degradation of receiving water quality due to polluted urban storm water runoff is an important issue and impacts on a significant proportion of the urban population. Depending on the land use, stormwater pollutants have different characters. During a rainfall event, the impacts of high flows and discharges of pollutants on receiving water bodies are superimposed on the hydrologic, physic-chemical and biological
characteristics of an urban catchment. Urban stormwater runoff will produce both, shortterm and long-term changes in receiving waters leading to habitat instability and chemical toxicity (Goonethilake A. & Thomas E., 2003). The storm runoff pollution has negative consequences on our aquatic resources (streams, lakes, estuaries, rivers, aquifers and other water bodies) which are most valuable assets of every nation. Change in flow, increased sedimentation, higher water temperature, lower dissolved oxygen, degradation of aquatic habitat structure, loss of fish and other aquatic populations, and decreased water quality due to increased level of nutrients, metals, hydrocarbons, bacteria and other constituents are examples for the resulting negative impacts (Ahmed N., 2011) Impervious surfaces accumulate pollutants deposited from the atmosphere, leaked from vehicles, or windblown in from adjacent areas. During storm events, these pollutants quickly wash off, and are rapidly delivered to downstream waters. Quality of stormwater is typically measured in terms of a range of quality parameters and his knowledge is Proposal Report_1
required to understand the effect of runoff on the receiving water quality and to develop appropriate mitigation measures.
AIMS; : Identify of key pollutant indicators which represent washoff storm water quality. Determine of characteristics of pollutants wash-off stormwater from selected impervious surfaces. Determine of quality of washoff storm water in selected impervious surfaces
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amount of pollutant was brought in to receiving water bodies. These wash off pollutants can make sever damage to the natural water bodies (Sagret, 1994). The primary pollutant sources of urban catchments are: Industrial process Construction and demolition activities Corrosion of materials Litter Street and transportation.(Pitt1997; pitt et al 1995)
Because of the urbanization lot of industries are located in the urban area and generate waste in all three states, solid, liquid and gaseous. Fine pollutants are transport by the wind and can settle over the impervious surfaces in the dry period. There are several industries, such as garments, fertilizer manufacturing, cement factories and etc. within the study area. Hence, that it is important to consider the effect of the storm water quality to identify the effect of those factories on the runoff water quality within the study area. Urban development within a watershed has a number of direct impacts on downstream waters and waterways. These impacts include: Changes to stream flow Changes to stream geometry Degradation of aquatic habitat Water quality impacts (Columbia County Stormwater Management Design Manual) The urbanization of watersheds poses threats to water quality from both point and nonpoint sources of pollution. Point sources are locations where specific pollutants are discharged directly into lakes, streams, estuaries, and coastal waters via pipes and other conduits. Point sources include factories, power plants, and sewage treatment plants. Nonpoint source pollution is generated from broad land areas, and pollutants are delivered to water bodies via stormwater and snowmelt runoff. It generally takes several runoff events to transport nonpoint pollutants from their source areas to receiving lakes and streams. (Kent B. Barnes, John M. Morgan III, and Martin C. Roberge) Water quality degradation in urbanized watersheds starts when development begins. Erosion from construction sites and other disturbed areas contribute large amounts of sediment to streams. As construction and development proceed, impervious surfaces replace the natural land cover and pollutants from human activities begin to accumulate on these surfaces. During storm events, these pollutants are then washed off into the Proposal Report_4
streams. Stormwater also causes discharges from sewer overflows and leaching from septic tanks. There are a number of other causes of non-point source pollution in urban areas that are not specifically related to wet weather events including leaking sewer pipes, sanitary sewage spills, and illicit discharge of commercial and industrial wastewater and wash waters to storm drains. Due to the light weight and cost effectiveness, most of new buildings, especially in industrial and commercial areas tend to use metallic roofing materials. Metals like Cu and Zn are used for the roof surfaces including gutters and down pipes. Al and Pb also use for coating and types of fittings. Weathering and other physical damages help to release these heavy metals to rain water with the contribution of its low pH value (Gobel et al., 2006). Finally, development and urbanization affect not only the quantity of stormwater runoff, but also its quality. Development increases both the concentration and types of pollutants carried by runoff. The cumulative impact of development and urban activities, and the resultant changes to both stormwater quantity and quality in the entire land area that drains to a stream, river, lake or estuary determine the conditions of the water body. With the increment of the urban development, it is required to concern about water quality standards.
indirectly source contaminant are those that are transported to roads through normal activity; such as sediment transport by construction sites, farms and dirt roads. So that more than the 95 % of sediment on a given highway originated from sources other than the vehicle themselves JE Ball (2000).
2.4.1 Nutrients
The primary nutrients are nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrate enters the storm water from different land use activities. It comes from fertilizers, decomposition of natural rocks and soils, detergent used to wash car on the streets and from the animal faeces. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) released from the arable land in dissolved or particulate form not only degrade the soil nutrients stock and lower soil productivity, but also cause eutrophication in water bodies. Fertilizers, animal wastes, failing septic systems, detergents, road de-icing salts, automobile emissions, and organic matter such as lawn
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clippings and leaves are all contributors to excessive nutrient levels in urban and agricultural storm water runoff. (Ahmed N., 2011)
and twigs, and other miscellaneous organic matter carried by stormwater runoff into surface water can lead to reduced oxygen levels (Ahmed N., 2011). Gromaire-Mertz et el (1999) and sartor and Boyd (1972) have identified street surfaces as a major contributor of oxygen demanding materials to receiving waters.(Goonethilake A. & Thomas E., 2003)
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Table 1: Sources of Contaminants in Urban Storm Water Runoff Contaminant Sediment and Floatables Contaminant Sources Streets, lawns, driveways, roads, construction activities, atmospheric deposition, drainage channel erosion Pesticides and Herbicides Residential lawns and gardens, roadsides, utility right-of-ways, commercial and industrial landscaped areas, soil wash-off Organic Materials Residential lawns and gardens, commercial landscaping, animal wastes Metals Automobiles, bridges, atmospheric deposition, industrial areas, soil erosion, corroding metal surfaces, combustion processes Oil and Grease/ Hydrocarbons Roads, driveways, parking lots, vehicle maintenance areas, gas stations, illicit dumping to storm drains Lawns, roads, leaky sanitary sewer lines, sanitary sewer cross-connections, animal waste, septic systems Nitrogen and Phosphorus Lawn fertilizers, atmospheric deposition, automobile exhaust, soil erosion, animal waste, detergents
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measured by titration with acid. High level of alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to water and not acceptable for public consumption. (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991) Hardness- Concentration of all major ions increased in the roof runoff compared to rainwater with the exception of ammonium. Potassium and calcium concentrations were particularly elevated through the weathering of the concrete tile roof, and to lesser extent clay roofs. Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate and sodium concentration were measured by (Fster 1998) were approximately twice that found in the rainwater, however there was little difference in concentrations between roof types (P. Kennedy and Jeniffer 2001). Heavy Metals - Trace metals such as copper, lead and zinc are commonly detected in rood runoff. In general, the roofing material is the major influencing factor on trace metal concentrations (Good 1993). For an example, galvanized iron roof tend to have high concentration of zinc and lesser concentration of cadmium in the runoff. The surrounding environment also contributes trace metals. Wet and dry deposition are important source as concentration on trace metal in urban and industrial locations tend to be higher than rural sites with the same roof type (Thomas and Greene 1993). Most metal surfaces exposed to the environment will be subjected to atmospheric corrosion during which corrosion product (Patina) layer is formed (Karlenet al. 2002). Chloride Chlorides are the common constituents of all natural water. Chlorides are not harmful or toxic even at higher concentrations. The higher concentration of chloride imparts salty taste to water. The permitted level is 200 mg/L in portable water. Nitrogen - Nitrogen is one of the most common elements in the world. All living plants and animals need it to build proteins. Nitrogen and phosphorus are both nutrients. High levels of nitrogen may make some people sick, especially young babies. Because nitrogen is a nutrient like phosphorus, the effects of this nutrient on water are almost the same. Like phosphorus, extra nitrogen in water leads to rapid plant growth. Too many plants living in the water can lead to some bad results. COD- Chemical Oxygen Demand is created by biodegradable as well non-biodegradable substances. COD is used to measure the strength of contamination of non-biodegradable organic matters or compounds.
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3.2 STUDY AREA AND SELECTION OF STUDY SITES 3.2.1 Study Area
As the study area of this research, Galle area is selected. Galle is the capital of the southern province, Sri Lanka with a population of about 1,020,000. Average annual precipitation in Galle is 2500mm and average annual temperature around 27.4 0C with a peak temperature of 30.6 0C. As the administrative city and an ancient city of Southern province, a wide range of activities take place in the city which includes tourism, agriculture, fisheries and different types of industrial and commercial activities. Quality of stormwater which collected from representing selected impervious surfaces within Galle area will be tested.
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As the first step, the faculty premise was selected as one study site. According to above criteria, three sites for sampling roof runoff (roofs of canteen, lecture hall building & civil department), three sites for roads, and one site for parking lot (close to administration building) were selected as shown in Figure 1. All selected three roofs, and roads are made from same material. The places for collecting samples were selected as to distribute the locations throughout the faculty.
As next steps, it is expected to collect washoff stormwater samples from Pettigalawaththa junction and Galle bus-stand area.
Comment [D4]: Add a photo and remember t update your list of figures after adding the photo. And cite it befor in the text.
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Comment [D5]: Please specify these three location separately. Ex: Rainwater down pipe at t canteen etc. Remember to update your list of figures after changing names
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CHAPTER 4
4. TIME PLAN
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REFERENCES
Barrios A., June 2000, Urbanization and Water Quality Arthur McGarity1, Optimization for Urban Watershed Management: Stormwater Runoff and Nonpoint Pollution Control Goonathileke A., Thomas E., July 2003, Water Quality Impacts of Urbanization Bandara T.G.J.S, Bandara Y.M.D.L.Y., 2012, Evaluation of Harvested Rainwater Quality as a Drinking Water Source in Urban Landuses in Southern Province Sri Lanka Columbia County Stormwater Management Design Manual, Chapter 1 Section 1.1 D. Wicke, T. Cochrane, A. OSullivan, University of Canterbury, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, Private Bag 4800, Christ-church, New Zealand, An Innovative Method for Spatial Quantification of Contaminant Buildup and Wash-off from Impermeable Urban Surfaces Kent B. Barnes, John M. Morgan III, and Martin C. Roberge Department of Geograph and Environmental Planning Towson University Baltimore, Maryland 21252, Impervious Surfaces And The Quality Of Natural And Built Environments Maryland Department of the Environment Stormwater Manual, Chapter 1 M.C. Gromaire-Mertz, S. Garnaud, A. Gonzalez, G. Chebbo, 1990, Characterization of Urban Runoff Pollution in Paris Metcalf & Eddy, 1991, Third edition, Wastewater Engineering, Treatment, Disposal & Reuse, McGraw Hill Ahmed N., Runoff water quality from a green roof and in an open storm water system, TVVR-10/5020 ISSN-1101-9824 Migunthanna N.S., 2009, Faculty of Build Environment and engineering Queensland University of technology, Determining a set of surrogate parameters to evaluate urban stormwater quality
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