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ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
CH 6: Mechanical Properties
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Hardness: What and how do we measure it?
CHBE213 Dan Samborsky
Students should know this terminology
example: E
x
= modulus in the x-direction
Stress () - Force or load per unit area of cross-section over
which the force or load is acting (tension (+),
compression (-), or shear).
Strain () - Elongation change in dimension per unit length.
(stretching (+), compressing (-)) (it is UNITLESS)
Poissons ratio () ratio of the lateral and axial strains
Students should know this terminology
Poisson s ratio () ratio of the lateral and axial strains.
Youngs modulus (E) - The slope of the linear, elastic region
part of the stress-strain curve (also known as modulus
of elasticity).
Shear modulus (G) - The slope of the linear part of the shear
stress-shear strain curve.
Remember the Glossary in back of book
Review units of stress :
Metric Pascal - Pa (N/m
2
), MPa (N/mm
2
), GPa
[1 MPa= 1x10
6
Pa, 1 GPa = 1 x 10
9
Pa]
English - pound per square inch (psi)
Students should know this terminology
(pound per square foot soils, building loads)
1000 psi = 1 ksi
1 msi = 1,000,000 psi (mostly used for modulus)
approximate conversion factors - 1 MPa = 145 psi
1 GPa = 145 ksi (kips/in
2
)
(ASTM Photo)
We do not know what a material is capable of until we test it.
Mother nature and Murphys Law teach us many things
(Farcus)
OK - ready to test
Even experts are known to make mistakes.
(1930's Life magazine cover?)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Elastic means reversible! (no change)
Elastic Deformation
atomic
bonds
stretch
Elastic behavior is a straight line
on a force - deflection graph.
Material stretches
2
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Plastic means permanent!
Plastic Deformation (metals)
Equation 6.1
Stress
F = force (N, lb)
A
o
= original area before loading (mm
2
, m
2
, in
2
, ft
2
)
= stress (Pa, MPa, GPa, psi, ksi), [note: N/m = Pa]
Historically, Tensile forces are POSITIVE. Compressive = NEGATIVE
Equation 6.2
Strain
Historically, Tensile strains
l
i
= length (mm, m, in, ft)
l
o
= original length, before straining (mm, m, in, ft)
= strain (no units) m/m, km/km, in/in, ft/ft...
Strain is always dimensionless. Most times, it is multiplied by 100 and
reported as percent strain (1% strain = 0.01 strain).
NOTE: ALL calculations are performed with strain, NOT % strain.
are POSITIVE. Compressive = NEGATIVE
Equation 6.3
F = shear force (N, lbs)
A
o
= shear area (mm
2
, m
2
, in
2
)
= shear stress (Pa, MPa, psi, ksi)
Shear
shear stress (Pa, MPa, psi, ksi)
Shear strain is the ratio of deformation to the original dimension.
In the case of shear strain, though, it's the amount of deformation perpendicular to a
given line rather than parallel to it. The ratio turns out to be tan , where is the
angle the sheared line makes with its original orientation. With shear strain we are
only concerned about the change in angles.
Shear strain = = Tan
This will be covered more in EM 215 or EM 253
Youngs modulus (E) - The slope of the linear, elastic region
part of the stress-strain curve (also known as modulus
of elasticity).
= E or
Equation 6.5
= E or
= Stress (N, MPa, psi, ksi)
= strain (not % strain (% strain = strain x 100))
E = Modulus of Elasticity (MPa, GPa, psi, ksi, msi)
What does the elastic modulus mean?
E=207 GPa = 30 msi
If two bars are 1 meter long and are stressed to 200 MPa (29
ksi), the steel bar will stretch 0.97 mm and the aluminum will
stretch 2.90 mm (steel is 3 times as stiff as aluminum).
E=69 GPa = 10 msi
Steel, L = L = L(/E) = 1000 mm (200MPa /207,000MPa) = 0.966 mm
Aluminum, L = 1000 mm (200MPa/69,000MPa) = 2.90 mm
3
L
i
= 305 mm
= 276 MPa
E = 110 GPa (= 110,000 MPa) (from Table 6.1)
E i 6 5 E
Another method than the formula simplification method shown on page 140
and E must have the same units
Equation 6.5 = E
= = 276 MPa = 0.00251
E 110,000 MPa
Equation 6.2 = l / l
i
l = (l
i
) = 0.00251 (305 mm) = 0.765 mm
(so the bar changed in length from 305 mm to 305.765 mm)
and E must have the same units
this is the strain
Some materials do not have a linear elastic region
Figure 6.6, Page 139. - Secant modulus and Tangent modulus
Initial linear slope
Interatomic spacing atomic bonds and modulus
Figure 6.7 Force versus interatomic separation for weakly and
strongly bonded atoms. The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is
proportional to the slope of each curve at the equilibrium interatomic
separation (Force = zero)
Figure 6.7
Figure 2.8
Equation 6.6
Strongly bonded = higher E
Figure 6.8 Since the interatomic separation distance increases with
increasing temperature, the modulus must decrease with increasing
temperature.
Melting temperatures
(depending on alloy)
Tungsten ~ 3410
o
C
Steel ~ 1450
o
C
Aluminum ~ 660
o
C
Stronger bonding = higher E = higher melting point
Youngs Moduli: Comparison
See Figure 1.4, Table 6.1 and Appendix B.2 (Pages A.6-A.9)
Poissons ratio () ratio of the lateral and axial strains.
Equation 6.8
Selected values
metals - 0.26 - 0.42 (most about 0.3)
ceramics - 0.1 - 0.31
plastics - 0.33 - 0.46
Figure 6.9
4
Example: The axial elastic strain on a 0.25 diameter rod
fabricated from solid nickel is 0.0016 when it is axially
loaded. Calculate decrease in the diameter of this bar
when it is under this axial load.
Very important in interference fit applications heating/cooling the pins
Special relations for isotropic materials:
Equation 6.9
Isotropic - (Glossary page G6)
Having identical values of a property in all directions
Or
G=
E
2(1+ v)
Typical values
steels - 76 - 82 GPa (11 12 msi)
aluminum - 26 GPa (3.8 msi)
= Poissons ratio
E = Modulus of elasticity
G = Shear Modulus
Relationship between E and G for selected metals
Testing and Test Coupons
Basically, all test standards (ASTM, ISO...) mandate that the
maximum error in whatever test is performed, is less than 1 percent
EPS 138
Typical tensile specimen (many different geometries)
Uniaxial Stress-Strain Testing
Generally use width
tapered geometries
due to gripping
stress
concentrations
Other types of tests:
compression: brittle materials (e.g., concrete, ceramics)
bending (3 point, 4 point)
torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.
Baldwin Universal Testing Machine, 200,000 pound capacity
located in Cobleigh 101
5
Figure 5.3, Smith, Foundations of
Materials Science and Engineering,
3rd edition, P.199
Callister Text
Figure 6.3 (7
th
and 8
th
editions)
There are always textbook errors...
After H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and John Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, vol. 3: Mechanical Behavior, Wiley, 1965,
Fig. 1.1, P.2.)
To pull straight down, the screws have to be turned in the same direction.
Computer controlled universal test machine, EPS 138
Load cell
Rigid test frame
Crosshead
Hydraulic grips
Actuator
(electric or hydraulic)
test coupon
S beam load cell
Canister load cell
Measuring Force
All force sensing devices deform
under an applied load. We usually
measure this deformation by the use
of strain gages and translate the
measured strain into an applied force.
Bending beam load cell
Strain gages
Decreasing cost
and accuracy
Deflection in bending produces higher strains than pure axial
Extensometers to Measure Strain
(in bending)
Strain gage based extensometer
L
Electrical extensometer design
Dial extensometer on
tension coupon
As the beam bends, the resistance of
the strain gage changes
Strain gages, possible arrangements and
connection circuitry
electrical leads
Electrical resistance increases in
tension, decreases in compression
(change for a 120 strain gage is
about 2.4 per % strain (), (very
small))
s
r
a
t
i
o
Material Properties change with Temperature
Design and material uncertainties mean we do not push
the limit of the material.
Factor of safety, N
o
working
=
o
y
N
Often N is
between
1 and 5, or higher
Design or Safety Factors
Equation 6.24
The safety factor can deal with strength, strain, hardness,
weight.....
For strength, we have to indicate what strength???
yield strength or ultimate strength.
So always state factor of safety with respect to yield or
ultimate strength.
13
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that Yielding does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety
of 5 with respect to YIELD STRENGTH.
1045 plain
b t l
d
o
working
=
o
y
N
Design or Safety Factors
carbon steel:
o
y
=310MPa
TS=565MPa
F = 220,000N
L
o
working
N
220, 000N
t d
2
/ 4
|
\
|
.
|
5
Solving for d, d = 47.5 mm (for N=5)
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Summary
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material (area under stress-strain diagram).
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure (total strain elastic strain).