Casting Module

Mohawk College - Introduction to Metal
Casting ...
MATL MTB70 Module 1 - Course Notes...

Principle of Metal Casting
On it's most basic level, when reduced to the most essential elements, molten
metal is poured into a cavity called a old, the mold forms a pre-determined
shape, the metal cools to the point of solidification, after which it can be called
a casting.
A Brief !istory of Metal Casting

The timeline above has the high points as I see them, and only includes my
most favorite characters and events, below will be several other players that
would have made the chart too messy...
1 - Gold !u" is speculated to be the first metal to be cast, due to it's naturally
occurring state in metallic form, there is evidence that dates bac# as far as
$%%%&' of this in the (urasiatic )teppe &elt also #nown as the *ussian &lac#
)ea area.
&etween $%%%&' and +%%%&' there was much development in the art of metal
casting, including the use of 'opper 'u" and eventually by +%%%&' the
smelting of Iron ,e". The dates are fu--y and unimportant with regard to
passing this modules e.amination or so I hope"... &ut the prevailing theory is
that droplets of copper were discovered in the ashes of firepits, formed from the
stone that circled or lined the fire.
/umans, being the clever organisms that we are eventually determined that this
too, was a metal li#e gold, and could be e.tracted from specific types of stone
materials... !n e.cellent &&' audio file e.ists on this theory under the
programme heading 01aterial 2orld0 and the episode is 01ining Great Ormes
/ead0... it may not be e.act but that should be close enough to get you there...
+ - +%%%&' is a nice mar#er that defines the discovery of Iron, similar to
'opper 'u" it is not a naturally occurring metal, but as a species we applied
similar methods to e.tract it as were developed for 'opper 'u".
I wish I'd thought to include 1%%%&' on the timeline as it is significant in that
as populations grew and migrated the above s#ills moved with them. The
'hinese are credited with developing a significant body of casting technology
over that period that included 3ost-2a. casting.
4 - &y 5%%&' the 'hinese had also discovered Iron ,e" and were developing
methods to smelt and cast it.
$ - This date of 6%%!7 8OT &' as the chart shows" is curious, in that cast
crucible steel was first being used in India at that time, what is surprising is that
the technology was lost for a considerable period and did not get rediscovered
until 1+%% years later in 196% by &en:amin /untsman in (ngland.
6 - /untsman li#ely could not have developed his process if not for !braham
7arby of 'oalbroo#dale in (ngland. 7arby is credited as the first foundry man
to use 'o#e as a fuel for firing his Iron ,e" foundry in 194%.
It's also of some significance that an energy crisis was afoot in the 1;%%'s due to
all the wood being burnt into charcoal, ship building and the general need of
growing populations, empires and our drive towards advancing our collective
life styles through innovation... The move to 'o#e not pepsi" cut the cost of
Iron ,e" production to 1<4rd what it was...
5 - 1;66!7 is the year )ir /enry &essemer, one of my favorite figures in
history filed a patent on the &essemer process. &essemer is best remembered
for developing a method of decarbori-ing Iron ,e" into steel... The :ist of it has
to do with blowing air through the molten Iron ,e" in the hopes that the
o.ygen gathers some of the 'arbon out of the li=uid metal, eventually reducing
it to less than +> carbon content... The demarcation between )teel ? Iron
,e"... 7o not ta#e the last statement as gospel yet, as that will be dealt with in
far more detail under the categori-ation of ,errous metals later...
,or more information on )ir /enry &essemer, again I direct you to the &&'
radio $ series called 0Inventors Imperfect0 )ir /enry had an entire 4%min
episode on his life, the &essemer process and some of his other legacies, that
landed him as an Inventor Imperfect.
There are so many other great minds that have contributed to the advancement
of casting technology that an entire course on :ust them would be re=uired...
This is largely due to the evolution of the patent office and the general trend
toward recorded history... If such offices and practices e.isted in 6%%!7 we
would never have lost the first process of ma#ing crucible steel in India, and
:ust thin# how far along we'd be now...
9 - Today, !ll this rich history has been driving toward one purpose, one goal,
one ob:ective, and that is thewor#shop.ca, by #nowing where we've been, I
hope to have a better sense of where I will go.
"ey Metals in t#e $oundry or Metal Casting
!luminum !l", 'opper 'u", 'hromium 'r"
Iron ,e", 1agnesium 1g", 1anganese 1n"
8ic#el 8i", )ilicon )i", Tin )n"
@inc @n"
The above are identified with their (lemental names as found in the periodic
table, the only thing to note at this time is that )ilicon )i" is grouped as a semi-
metal in the periodic table and not as a pure metal.
"ey Nonetals in Metal Casting
'arbon '", )ulphur )", Ahosphorus A"
/ydrogen /", 8itrogen 8", O.ygen O"
Ta#e note, the last three elements listed /ydrogen /", 8itrogen 8", O.ygen
O"" are typically encountered in a gaseous state and will reflect a different
elemental symbology as shown below
/ydrogen /
+
", 8itrogen 8
+
", O.ygen O
+
"
"ey o%ides &in t#e for of ceraics'
!lumina !l
+
O
4
", )ilica )iO
+
", 1agnesia 1gO"
and 'alcium O.ide 'aO"
The compounds listed in this section are the primary constituents of )lag or
7ross encountered in the process of melting metals and their reaction to
O.ygen O" found in the atmosphere
!n effort has been made to list the (lemental symbol alongside of the name or
compound, this is a practice that should continue... (ven if the word Iron ,e" is
used 6 ,ive" times within a single sentence... Arovided the symbols are
accurate to the names, it should aid in the process of internali-ing their
symbol... I'm not saying that this will be on the final (.am, but I'd be =uite
surprised if it wasn't there :ust as a 0Gimme0 mar#... and if you don't #now
these cold, you have no business passing the e.am...
Classification of $oundries
In general terms ,oundries can be grouped by the type of metals that they cast,
the primary groupings are 0,errous0 and 08on-,errous0. The term ,errous
relates to the presence of Iron ,e" in the metal being poured.
! ,errous foundry would typically pour cast iron in it's various forms including
but not limited to the various grades of steel. ! 8on-,errous foundry would
typically pour alloys of metal that are 8OT Iron ,e" based, these would
include, but are not limited to !luminum !l" and all it various alloys, 'opper
'u" and it's alloys of brass and bron-e, as well as the 1agnesium 1g" based
alloys.
If pressed further I would divide the above categories into + two" other sub-
groupings called Bobbing and 'aptive foundries.
'aptive foundries are typically a division of a larger corporation or business,
they are considered 0'aptive0 in that they only ma#e castings for the parent
company. ! good e.ample of a captive foundry would be the engine bloc#
division of an automotive manufacturing facility. One of the advantages of
creating a captive foundry would be consistency of production and greater
control of product development and retention of intellectual property relating to
the castings, and proprietary techni=ues developed for their production.
The Bobbing ,oundry is one that is an open shop that produces castings for
other companies, personally I would thin# that Bobbing ,oundries would
employ a broader s#ill-set and be more fle.ible to meet the constant changes
that influence the casting mar#et. )imilarly Bobbing ,oundries would have the
potential to be more dynamic due to the ever changing types of wor#
performed, and would be able to offer staff greater challenges.
Parts (ntegration
The final sub-section of 1odule 1 deals with the ideology of casting, it's
tremendous potential, and the current trend towards parts integration.
The trend specifically in the automotive mar#et is the creation of comple.
castings that are replacing similarly comple. parts that had previously been
stamped, machined or fabricated by a combination of both.
The very idea of metal casting is such that it evo#es the tenets of the Taoist
0Cn-carved bloc#0... ! bloc# of wood, sitting on the bench before the carver. In
it's virgin state it holds the myriad of possibilities, it can be anything and
everything that is imaginable that would fit within it's volumetric
dimensioning.
!nd such is the mound of molders sand before it ta#es the shape of the casting
that is to be. Over the course of the last ; or D months that I've been letting the
idea of e.tending thewor#shop.ca into a full fledged foundry, my many
relatives and friends have suggested ideas for ob:ect, tools, parts, art pieces etc
that I could cast with the idea that it has business potential...
I agree that all of their suggestions hold promise, but the true potential of a
foundry operation is that it is not constrained to a particular line or mar#et, as
li#e the un-carved bloc# it holds all possibilities within it's bounds.
...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule 1 1!T3 1T&9%, please turn over
the tape to continue listening to 1odule +.

)upport thewor#shop.ca
Back to Mec#anical Tec#ni)ues -Metal Casting Certificate
*isclaier &an unfortunate necessity'
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Casting ...
MATL MTB70 Module + - Course Notes...
Melting of Metals
! prere=uisite to casting is the use of metal in a molten state. The
transformation of metal from solid to molten is accomplished in a variety of
ways through the use of various types of furnaces.
The choice of furnace type is based on these $ factorsE
Alloy Type
Metal Quality
Production Demands
Economics
!lloys have a wide spectrum of temperatures that they melt at, the list below
should illustrate this point.
Metal Alloy Type
Temp *ange
,ahrenheit"
Temp *ange 'elsius"
@inc 56%-;6% 4$6-$66
!luminum 116%-146% 5+%-946
1agnesium 116%-146% 5+%-946
'opper 156%-+16% D%;-11;%
'ast Irons +$6%-+9%% 14$%-1$;%
/igh 1anganese )teel +66%-+56% 1$%%-1$66
1onel 9%8,4%'u" +6%%-+;%% 149%-16$%
8ic#el &ased )uper
!lloys
+5%%-+;%% 1$4%-16$%
/igh !lloy )teels +9%%-+D%% 1$;%-15%%
/igh !lloy Irons +;%%-4%%% 16$%-156%
'arbon ? 3ow !lloy
)teel
+;6%-41%% 1656-19%%
Titanium 41%%-44%% 19%%-1;+%
@irconium 446%-4$6% 1;$6-1D%%
as transcribed from !,) 0Technology of 1etalcasting0
1etal Fuality is effected by o.idi-ation and losses due to vapori-ation, which
can adversely effect the chemical properties of the alloy being melted.
)imilarly the types of refractory used are matched to the basicity or acidity of
the metal and<or its resultant 7ross or slag".
Aroduction demand can range from small batches under 1%%lbs through to 1%%
ton<hr continuous pour furnaces that run for days and wee#s at a time
uninterrupted.
The economics of furnace selection relate to factors of capital depreciation,
maintenance and operating labour, as well as the fuel and power consumption.

$urnace Types
Cruci,le $urnaces
Aictured to the right is thewor#shop.ca's
original 0,at-&oy &last ,urnace0, well as it
turns out it isn't really a blast furnace, but is a
'rucible ,urnace...
The 'rucible ,urnace is one of the oldest
methods of meting metals, this one is fired
with /ardwood or 'harcoal... Though
Aropane<3AG, Oil and electricity are other
ways to fire the furnace.

The basic premise is that the heat, is absorbed by the crucible and transferred to
the metal until it eventually melts.
These furnaces can be stationary as pictured above, or have a tilting mechanism
with a fi.ed
position crucible
in the furnace.

Aictured to right
is another of
thewor#shop.ca
original designs.
This is an oil-
fired furnace that
can melt a
broader range of
alloys with
higher heat
capabilities...
'rucible furnaces are used in smaller foundry operations that melt non-ferrous
alloys. 'rucible furnaces are also well suited to Bobber type foundries as a
selection crucibles can easily be established to meet the re=uirements of the
various alloy types encountered.

-ever,eratory $urnaces

To the right is my
interpretation of a
7ry-/earth )loping
*everb ,urnace.
*everbs are
typically found in
/igh production
!luminum
foundries. They can
be fired either with
Gas, Oil, (lectricity
or a combination of
the three.
!dvantages are /igh capacity, continuous runs, with issues resulting from gas
pic#-up and e.cessive dross formation due to the e.posed flame on the charge.
There are number of various orientations and styles of reverbs.
These include but are not limited to..." )ingle 'hamber, ,ront 'harging, 2ell
,ired, 7ry /earth, Tower-Type Bet 1elter or )tac# and the
regenerative<recuperative burner system furnaces.
These units are typically 1onsters and can be several hundred feet long with
melt capacities topping 96 Tons.
'onstruction is typically of /igh !lumina ,ire bric# ;6> !lumina" and
structural steel from what I can see in the te.t illustrations"... !s with all
furnaces there is a variety of refractory compounds that range from basic to
acidic that can be used to match the p/ characteristics of the metal and
resultant dross<slag.

thewor#shop.ca
graphics dept.
has another
flashy graphic to
the right that
depicts a typical
07irect !rc0
furnace.
4 electrodes are
used that are tied
to a 4 phase
electrical source.
The electrodes
stri#e an arc with
the metal charge.
The heat of the sustained arc can be in e.cess of 9+4+, or $%%%'... That's
fuc#in' hotGGG
2ith such e.treme heat comes the re=uirement of cooling with water :ac#ets,
heat e.changes and recirculation systems.
!rc ,urnaces can be configured with 0Cltra-/igh-Aowered0 C/A"
transformers that can supply 5%%-D%%HIa<ton. I believe the lower case 0a0 is a
typo in the te.t and should be an 0!0 as in !mps...
The furnace can have a pivoting point with a hydraulic actuator to tilt the
furnace bac#ward to s#im of the dross<slag or forward to pour off the metal.
The high temp capacity of this furnace lends itself better toward ferrous casting
than non ferrous. The electrodes can be either graphite or carbon, and are
selected to match the type of metal being melted.
This furnace is beyond the typical home or hobby foundry... or is itJJJ
The In-7irect !rc furnace is similar in principle, but the arc is struc# above the
metal charge and is typically :ust one electrode. The In-7irect furnace also can
be a sealed unit that operates under a reduced atmosphere for specialty metals
that are sensitive to o.idi-ation or atmospheric contamination.
Titanium is a good e.ample of a vacuum process arc furnace, but curiously it
can't be considered an In-7irect !rc, as the Titanium I) T/( (lectrode...
The considerations of p/ matching refractories is stressed in the te.t more so
with !rc furnaces, and so is reflected in this sentence...
Bust so you #now...
!cidic *efractories are )ilica 7io.ide )iO
+
" based ? &ase type refractories
can be either 'alcium O.ide 'aO" or 1agnesium O.ide 1gO". The neutral
refractories are typically !lumina !l
+
O
4
" and the less common 'hrome O.ide
'r
+
O
4
". !s an aside my gut feeling is that the term should be 0'hromium
O.ide0 rather than 0'hrome O.ide0 but I defer to the venerable &ible !,) -
Technology of 1etalcasting"... !lumina is a personal point of interest, as I have
a significant =ty of !luminum 7ross to refine for the remaining metal trapped
in it and to e.tract the !lumina for future uses within the foundry.

(nduction
$urnaces -
Core.C#annel or Coreless
To the right is a basic 'oreless Induction furnace.
The metal charge held in the crucible acts as the core and develops heat through
0(ddy 'urrents0 induced by the (1, (lectro-1agnetic-,orce" that is
concentrated in the centre of the circular primary coil...
The illustration is a 0'ross-)ection0 view, with the Orange depicting the heavy
copper coils that surround the 'rucible ? 'harge.
The 'rucible can be either pushed up and out of the core via a ram, or the
'oil<shell assembly can be lifted up ? away from the crucible, or the crucible
can be fi.ed inside the coil and a tilting mechanism employed for the pouring
process.
There are some unusual properties of the coreless furnace that are worth notingE
specifically that the metal undergoes a circulatory action or stirring once
molten. This is beneficial in uniform distribution of temperature and alloy
chemistry through the melt. &ut li#e all things the drawbac# is the potential for
drawing dross or surface impurities into the melt if the stirring action is
e.cessive.
!lso the 'oil that surrounds the crucible is not a thin !2G K1+ or 1$ copper
wire that you'd find in your house wiring... It is a heavy 'opper tube that
usually re=uires active cooling by passing a flow of water through it. 8o
specifications are given for the 2all thic#ness or inner diameter of the copper
tubing, or I'd be out building one now rather than summari-ing these notes...
3astly, the 'oreless Induction furnace is capable of utili-ing various
fre=uencies to accommodate different !lloy types. 'opper based alloys are
more efficiently melted with !' voltage fre=uencies between 5% and 1%%/-
/ert-", while lighter !lloys such as !luminum are more efficiently processed
at fre=uencies ranging from 16% thru 9%%/- depending on the density of the
alloy.
)weeping generali-ation, 3ow 7ensity L /igh ,re=, and conversely /igh
7ensity L 3ow ,re=.

The illustration to the
right is of the most basic
0'ore<'hannel0 ,urnace.
The distinction for the
less mentally adroit is
the addition of a 0'ore0.
The core acts as a
transfer medium for the
(1, or ,lu. electro-
magnetically spea#ing
8OT 'hemo-
metallurgically". The si-e and shape of the metal containment area is more
fle.ible, and the maintenance of the Arimary 'oil is more accessible.
'ore<'hannel Induction ,urnaces are typically employed to hold Iolumes of
molten metals at a molten state for continuous pour operations... The practice
of pre-melting and holding between + two" different furnaces is called
07uple.ing0 that little bastard will be on the e.am..."
There are issues, not the least of which is the re=uirement of a molten heel of
metal to completely encircle the core, completing the 0)econdary 'oil0 circuit,
before the primary can be energi-ed. This implies that the furnace is a
0'ontinuous 1elt0 class unit and does not lend itself well to 0&atch 1elt
Arocessing li#e it's 'oreless counter-part.
The typical issues of 1etal solidification within the 'hannel 3oop that forms
the )econdary 'oil" are of considerable concern if the !lloy being processed
has a high thermal e.pansion co-efficient as it may potentially damage the
channel upon solidification, or the general hassle of dis-assembling the furnace
should such a =uantity of metal free-e in the channel that it can't be returned to
a molten state.
,or these reason's there are no plans for thewor#shop.ca to employs
0'ored<'hannel0 induction furnaces in the near future.
In closing the Induction ,urnace section here are some cool e=uations and dataE

!nd if that's not enough... 1,%%%2atts L 1H2attL4,$14&TC, and 1H2
continuous power for a duration of 1 hour is 1Hwh, lastly 1DHwh will raise 1
ton or iron 1%%,.
I thin# it would be prudent to not use the above for e.tended e.trapolations due
to such variables as heat losses and ambient temperature variables that could
influence e.tended calculations, mileage may vary.

I'm not sure if I
can thin# of less
e.citing way to
melt metal than
the (lectric
*esistive
,urnace...
! series of 8i-
'hrome
elements are
energi-ed around
the crucible and
the radiant
energy is
absorbed by the
'rucible and the metal...
2ow... 8o noise, fumes, flames or potential for disaster...
Cnli#e the 'ore<'hannel Induction furnace (* type systems can ta#e solid
charge material, but they are typically used in 7uple.ing processes for
consistent holding of molten metal...
Of minor note is the 0Glo-&ar0 furnace that uses a )ilicon 'arbide rod in place
of 8i-'hrome elements placed at the top of the furnace... &ut essentially it is an
(* type with a different element...

/pen !eart# $urnace
)ince these furnaces are no-longer in use since late 1D5%'s early 1D9%'s" there
is no illustration, or supporting narrative.

Cupola $urnaces
This is one cool 1utha' ...
If you're into 'ast Iron,
this the way to go...
&asically a steel tube with
rac#s for holding a mi.ture
of charge material, fuel
and refining minerals...
The fuel is ignited by an
o.ygen enriched
atmosphere, and is blasted
into the base, up through
the mi.ture.
The charge material
becomes molten and flows
to the base with the e.pected )lag. ! door is provided to remove the slag, and a
tap is provided to tap-off the molten metal.
The illustration to the right shows a 0*ear-)lagger0... 2ithout seriously
violating the 'opyright of the !,) te.t, I'd love to have included the numerous
other 'upola photo's sectional views and diagrams that are in the boo#...
The basic premise is the same through out... Hey points are to angle Tuyere
slightly to 16 degrees off hori-ontal to get a more central blast to the center of
the charge. There are lined and unlined 'upola's, with the unlined variety
re=uiring water-cooling along the entire body of the steel shell. !s well as
2ater cooled tuyere assemblies that e.tend their life considerably.
The tuyere's typically encircle the base with 5 or more no--les facing inward,
and each tuyere fed off of a common wind-bo., with my personal favorite
being the 07ivided-&last0 cupola that has + two" wind-bo.es and + rows or
tuyere's with an optimal spacing of 4% to $+0 one above the other...
Other enhancements that you can incorporate are e.haust heat e.changers to
preheat the incoming air, this is limited to appro. 9%%-;%%, for conventional
refractory lined 'upolas and e.tended to 1%%%-1+%%, on the water cooled
Tuyere models.
These units typically are used for 'ast Iron production with a carbon content
level of +.$> to 4.;> carbon and a production capacity of over 4% tons per
hour.
The appro.imate dimensioning for commercial 'upolas is determined by the
inside diameter ranging from 1;0 up thru 15%0... there is a slight discrepancy
between the te.t and the lecture notes... The te.t notes production rates up to
1%%tons per hour as opposed to the 4% tons per hour previously noted... &oth
may appear on a test or e.am, but my lawyer advises me that I have a case if
either is mar#ed wrong, unless answered out of conte.t...
There is a lower limit to diameter si-e that will be a function of 0'ritical 1ass
of 'harge or &urden0 but I'm almost positive I've read about 'upolas having
inner diameters as low as 50 on other websites... These would be considered
hobby or low volume units by comparison.
The materials entering the top of the cupola is called a 0'harge or &urden0, this
is a mi.ture of 'o#e, scrap Iron or possibly Iron Ore" and a ,lu.ing agent
3imestone" to aid in removing impurities in the Iron. this mi.ture enters
through a 0'harging 7oor0... 2hile the molten metal is ta#en off from a hole
called a 0Tap0. ,rom the time cupola is fired-up to the time it is shut down or
07ropping &ottom0 is called a 0'ampaign0. ! campaign can run for several
wee#s on larger 'upolas.
The ,lu. is 3imestone or 7olomite" and is added in specific proportions to the
'o#e fuel" and the metal in the charge. ! typical charge according to the
3ecture notes..." is +%%%lbs scrap, ;%lbs lime stone and +6%lbs of 'o#e.
Mielding a ratio of +6 Aarts )crap to 1 part ,lu. to 4.1+6 parts fuel. I want this
basic ratio to be included beyond the scope of the study notes should I ever
decide to build such a furnace, it li#ely will not have a 1 ton capacity...
The 3imestone is essentially 'alcium 'arbonate 'a'O
4
", a source of 'alcium
O.ide when heated... The theory is that 'alcium 'arbonate 'a'O
4
" N /eat L
'alcium O.ide 'aO" and 'arbon 7io.ide 'O
+
" This process is referred to as
'alcination. 7olomite is similar in that it is a source of 'alcium O.ide 'aO"
but also is a source of 1agnesium O.ide 1gO"... I'm hesitant to start firing off
it's e=uations as I :ust don't have the data at hand, and it's not that important...
The 3imestone or 7olomite" produce o.ides" that are p/ 0&asic0, while the
impurities of the scrap Iron and steel are )ilica )iO
+
and !lumina !l
+
O
4
and
some sulphur )" which all tend to be p/ 0!cidic0 the ratio of !cidic to &asic
should be 1O1, the resultant slag will have better fluid properties for removal
when this balance is achieved. The balance is determined by the ratios of 1etal
to ,lu. to ,uel, +6 O 1 O 4.1+6...
or >'aO N> 1gO" over >)iO
+
N>!l
+
O
4
"
The importance of balancing the p/ of the impurities has to do with their
otherwise high melting points in an !cidic O.ide state.
The materials removed in a properly formed slag are 'o#e, !sh, *ust and sand
from the initial charge.
Co0e Production
!ll of the 0'upola0 related information is meaningless in the absence of
'OH(... )o when 0the shit goes down...0 and you're left to ma#e your own 'ast
Iron, you'll want to #now a bit about 'o#e production.
The basics are that the 'o#e is derived from 01etallurgical 'oal0 that is
crushed to less 1<;0 material and fed into sealed ovens that ba#e the impurities
out at well above +%%%, for a period of +$ hrs... this process can be termed
07estructive 7istillation0, though this seems vague, it's what is listed from the
lecture notes" and hopefully will be of use in the Aost !pocalyptic (ra A!(".
The resultant 'o#e is D+> pure 'arbon with the remainder classified as !sh.
Cpon e.posure to the air after opening the ovens 'o#e typically crac#s or
fractures, The typical si-e grade for commercial 'upola furnaces is 50 to ;0, but
in the A!(, I thin# any si-e would do...

Blast /%ygen $urnace
This furnace is a high capacity, fast 'ycle-time steel production furnace, with
production rates up to 1%% tons per hour.
)ince steel is essentially 'ast Iron with a carbon content below +>, the &last
O.ygen process can be classed as a decarburi-ing process. The charge can
tolerate only up to 4%> scrap content with the ma:ority as molten 'ast Iron.
The 'harge is held in a monstrous (gg shaped vessel with an e.haust port at
the bac#, and an inlet port at the top where O.ygen is piped in and ignited... I
believe that this is the modern e=uivalent of )ir /enry &essemer's method of
steel production. The o.ygen passing through the molten metal pic#s-up a high
percentage of the free carbon from the melt and leaves as 'arbon 7io.ide 'O
+
.
Argon /%ygen *ecar,uri1ation Process
)imilar to the &last O.ygen ,urnace in process, but !rgon O.ygen
7ecarburi-ation is considered a secondary process in refining specific alloys
such as )tainless )teel.
The o.ygen is in:ected into the melt via a series of tuyeres with a mi.ture of the
neutral elemental gas !rgon. The O.ygen acts as the catalyst in the
decarburi-ing process, while the !rgon aids in the retention of precious alloy
elements such as chromium.
The in:ection of the gas mi.ture results in a vigorous agitation of the melt that
improves the removal of unwanted elements such as sulfur to the specifically
formulated slag that covers the melt.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule + 1!T3 1T&9%, please turn over
the tape to continue listening to 1odule 4.


Casting ...
1old Types ? 1ethods
This section will largely be a te.t based listing of General 1old types and the
various methods associated with each, as well as the advantages and
disadvantages found with them.
The Te.t is a fair reference, but the material in the video clips is the best so far
in the course... Iery much the sort of thing a 1etal-'asting )pecialty channel
would carry. I've opted to not ma#e illustrations for this 1odule as it would be
a few days of wor#, and li#ely wouldn't come close to the videos, lecture note
images or the te.t...
Conventional Molding - Green )and
This is the traditional 'ope ? 7rag ,las# method, where a re-usable pattern is
placed in a flas#, sand is rammed up, the flas# is rolled, the other flas# half is
applied, rammed with sand, split and the pattern e.tracted to leave a cavity into
which the molten metal is poured.
The *amming process can be termed either as a Bolt or )=uee-e method.
!dvantages - a wide range of metals can be cast with this method, the cost of
materials and patterns is comparatively lower than other methods<types of mold
ma#ing, the process is scalable to higher production run re=uirements and the
molding material bonded )and" is easily recycled.
7isadvantages - The comple.ity of the casting is limited by the re=uirement of
draft, parting lines and the ability to position cores, Aart tolerances and
dimensional accuracy may be lower than other types<methods re=uiring
additional labour costs for finishing<machining of castings,

Conventional Molding - /igh-7ensity 1olding
This method employs mechanical ramming of bonded sands with either
hydraulic or air pressure into the flas# over the pattern. &y using sand with a
lower moisture content higher densities and mold hardness are achieved.
!dvantages - !gain a diversity of 1etal types can be cast, but with closer
dimensional accuracy while improving surface finish over the previous method.
The other benefit is higher production rates reali-ed by the mechani-ation of
the ramming process.
7isadvantages - /igher capital cost of e=uipment, higher labour cost associated
with maintenance and training of staff and tighter =uality control.

Alternative 3ands
This section describes the family of 8o-&a#e or Fuic#-)et binders. The binder
or &onding material is a Aolymer or )ilica Gel that replaces the 'lay ? water
combination found in the Green )and family. The ob:ective of these synthetic
binders is to achieve greater binding strength.
Binder types - (ach has uni=ue properties relating to p/, appropriate
selection for alloy type, strength and sha#e-out to be discussed later
Alkyd rethane
!uran
"odium "ilicate
Acid #ured Phenolic
Phenolic rethane
Phenolic Ester
)#in-7ried ? 7ry )and 1olding
The primary purpose of )#in 7ried molds is to reduce moisture and gas
forming materials at the surface of the mold where the metal sand :unction
occurs. The sand typically has special bonding agents applied prior to drying
such as G1 &ond presumably a proprietary agent developed by General
1otorsJJJ"
The 1old face e.hibits superior mechanical strength, while retaining
comparible 0)ha#e-out0 characteristics to Green )and molds. This method is
employed for medium to /eavy and /eavy castings.
The )urface can be dried with either /ot !ir, Gas or Oil ,lame and the mold
face can be washed with as refractory coating so that's a refractory coating on
a refractory type materialJJJ"
!dvantages - *educed Gas and 1oisture , ie porosity<pinhole gas defects, and a
stronger mold.
7isadvantages - are 3abour and material costs compared to Green )and
molding, reduced production rates due to drying process of molds.
7ry )and 1olding
This is the Green )and process, but with the addition of heat to ba#e the mold
at $%% to 5%%,, the ba#ing process allows for greater mechanical strength, and
higher casting comple.ity. This process is employed for medium to heavy
castings such as gears, housings etc...
!dvantages - The mechanical strength of the mold, tighter dimensional
accuracy, and better surface finishes due to the reduction mold moisture and<or
the application surface coats.
7isadvantages - are the capital cost of &a#e Ovens, cost of operation, and
reduced production relative to Green )and.
)hell 1olding or 'roning Arocess
This process uses a heat activated *esin<'atalyst combination with silica sand,
The pre-coated sand is applied to a heated pattern plate where the resin hardens
to form a shell that is appro. 4<$0 to 10 in thic#ness. The + halves of the mold
are glued together with an appropriate adhesive.
!dvantages - are )uperior dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
7isadvantages - 'apital and labour costs, as well as reduced productivity due to
the process being relatively slow...
this is the end o$ the %#onventional Molding types
Precision Molding and Casting
Aermanent 1old - Gravity feed
This class of mold is typically made of tool steel. cast iron, graphite, 'opper or
aluminum mold material selection is based on the metal type to be cast" for
repeated usage. The metals to be cast generally are restricted to lower 1elting
Temp alloys due to the issues inherent in the handling and mechani-ation of
high temp alloy handling. This process is well suited to the !luminum, @inc
and 1agnesium family of alloys.
This type of process is further divided into + two" variants )tatic and Tilt
Aouring. This process also e.hibits superior dimensional accuracy and surface
finish over the )hell process :ust discussed.
)tatic Aour - The mold is stationary along a fi.ed plane while the molten metal
is poured into a sprue.
Tilt Aour - The mold is placed into a machine that can tilt bac# once the
receiving cups<reservoirs are filled with molten metal, this semi-rotational
action allows for more comple. mold creation then possible with a static mold.

3ow Aressure 1old
This method employs a feed mechanism that e.erts a 6 to 16 A)I head on the
molten metal forcing it into the mold. It should be noted that an !luminum
casting with a wall thic#ness of 6<4+0 or greater is achievable with this
method.
!dvantages - Good dimensional accuracy and casting comple.ity compared to
previous methods discussed and better economy of scale on a per casting basis
beyond the initial tooling cost recovery"
7isadvantages - are typically the capital cost of e=uipment and 1old
production, as well as the restriction of alloys that can be cast.

/igh Aressure 1olding
This is a /igh Iolume casting process for low-temp alloys that offers superior
dimensional accuracy and comple.ity of castings. The 1etal is in:ected into the
mold at pressures up to 6%%%A)I 6,%%%A)I that's highGGG" with such pressures
the susceptibility of porosity defects is increased.
This class also can be divided into + two" classes 'old 'hamber ? /ot
'hamber processes.
!dvantages - 3ow cost of castings when e.tended across very large production
runs with part comple.ity, surface finish and dimensional accuracy at a high
level.
7isadvantages - 'astings are limited to typically 96lbs and re=uire additional
F' procedures to avoid Aorosity defects, stringent 1old 7esign re=uirements
and the Iery /igh cost of tooling and e=uipment that must be e.tended across
high volume production runs to recover the initial costs.
this concludes the section on Permanent Molds
(nvestent Casting
This class of molding describes the process of 0Investing0 a pattern in a suitable
molding material. The Aattern is typically burned out of the mold leaving a
cavity that molten metal can then be poured into.
3ost 2a. Arocess
! wa. duplicate of the desired casting is created to be invested into a 0'eramic
)lurry0. the slurry covered investment can be dipped into alternating coatings
of sand ? slurry until a suitable thic#ness of shell is achieved that can hold the
molten metal after the investment is burnt out.
The 0&urn-Out0 process re=uires that the investment and coating are inverted in
an oven that is fired to 1;%%, so that the investment can flow out and be
recovered. The refractory coating is also cured in this procedure.
Once the investment is lost, and the *efractory is cured the mold is removed
and poured immediately while it is still hot.
!dvantages - /igh level of accuracy and fle.ibility of design due to no draft,
parting lines and the ability to mold under-cuts previously impossible with
other techni=ues. The process is scalable from small to high production
re=uirements and offers reduced finishing costs with e.ception surface =uality.
7isadvantages - include a physical limitation on the si-e of the casting as
determined by the strength of the cured ceramic slurry even when bac#ed by
sand" and a higher material and labour cost which can be offset by savings in
finishing and machining".
(vaporative Aattern 'asting
This is it, 3,1' 3ost ,oam 1etal 'asting" where it all started for me, and is a
great process that has served me well.
Aatterns are produced in (A) (ncapsulated Aolystyrene", the pattern receives a
sprue or feeder system also of (A)" and can be either placed directly into loose
dry sand, or invested into a ceramic slurry. The slurry is air dried or in a low
temp oven but the foam pattern is retained".
In either case the pattern is surrounded by loose dry sand that is being
constantly agitated by a vibratory mechanism as the sand is added to the
container that holds the pattern. The vibratory motion creates a degree of fluid
movement within the surface of the sand that is able to completely fill all
crevices, under-cuts, openings and orifices thus removing the re=uirement of
otherwise comple. cores.
Once the pattern and refractory coating" is completely held in a container of
sand, the metal is poured into the sprue. The heat of the molten metal
evaporates the foam in it's path and accurately fills in behind the foam as it
advances down through the pattern. The vapouri-ed (A) is vented into the
loose sand through the refractory coating if used".
Of note is that the 3ecture notes, te.t and videos all specify the use of a
refractory coating, but I #now for a fact that it can be omitted with a minor
degradation in surface finish and comple.ity of casting. 'astings with wall
thic#ness of 1+% thou0 that's 6 thou less than an 1<;0 are possible... :ust
fantastic...
!dvantages - are but not limited to..." coreless molding, very high casting
comple.ity, comparatively low capital and operating investment, simplified
sha#eout, ease of sand recovery and as mentioned %.1+%0 wall thic#nesses. The
Iideo and notes reflect this as a relatively environmentally benign process... I
have concerns to the contrary"
7isadvantages - Aattern coating re=uires additional labour and material costs,
patterns re=uire care as they can be fragile due to construction, )trict safety
procedures to be followed when handling loose sand post pouring. The last
item applies to all loose sand handling with regard to the ha-ards of )ilicosis,
but especially when handling sand that has burnt (A) covering the grains. The
strong chemical stench of the sand screams of future respiratory ailments if
caution is not e.ercised personal observation ? belief"

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule + 1!T3 1T&9%, please turn over
the tape to continue listening to 1odule $.


Casting ...
3olidification of Metals.

This module is primarily concerned this what happens after that metal actually
is poured into a mold. The process of solidification, through a series of
transitions, and how the alloy being poured impacts the process as well as the
mold material's affect.
The metal being poured can be considered in terms of aE
Aure 1etalO "ingle element metal with a clean phase transition &etween li'uid
and solid
(utectic !lloyO The alloy which has the lowest melting point possi&le $or a
given composition.
1etals in )olid )olution type alloysO A single solid homogeneous crystalline
phase containing two or more chemical species
The definitions above are far from useful... (utectic being a particularly
difficult concept for me to fully understand... for the conte.t of alloying, an
eutectic alloy would be the alloy of + or more elements that combines to a
lower melting point than any of the constituent elements ,or e.ample, eutectic
solder paste has a composition of 54> tin )n" and 49> lead Ab", and has a
eutectic temperature of 1;4P' straight from google", similarly (utectic alloys
e.hibit finer grain si-es than the pure metal and precipitate + or more phases
simultaneously this will be revisited"...
The idea of a solid )olution !lloy would be every other combination of 3ead
Ab" and Tin )n" that is not the (utectic with e.ception of 1%%> 3ead Ab" ?
%> Tin )n", and obviously %> 3ead Ab" ? 1%%> Tin )n", which would be
pure metals.
&eyond the lecture notes, !ssigned Te.t 'hapter 14 8ot 9 as noted in the
course notes", Google is proving to be fantastic, and )teve 'hastain's )and
casting 1anual Iol 1 ? + is yet another perspective, with enough variation in
presentation to ma#e the idea's less vague.
This following level of detail is not re=uired to ma#e castings, but I fear that
more practical information will be based on a sound understanding of this... I
thin# a legitimate concern.
The transition of phase from 3i=uid to )olid" is called the 0heat of fusion0 and
is represented as unit measure energy as a function of unit measure weight of
element or solution" released at transition unit measure temperature s" of
solidification. Ipso ,acto (rgo )um...
2ater is a classic e.ample... 1$$&TC of energy transfer occurs to change 1
pound of water into 1 pound of ice at 4+,. The energy is transferred from the
3i=uid water to the air, earth what ever... 2hen a metal is poured a similar
energy transfer occurs between the metal mold interface, presumably on a
much larger scale.
Properties of T#eral Transfer 5it#in a Casting
The application of thermal energy transfer theory to metal casting re=uires
consideration in the following properties.
The shape and si-e of the casting. The shape and comple.ity of a casting
influences the efficiency with which the thermal transfer occurs, as it is related
to the surface area of the metal-mold interface. The si-e of the casting
including sprue, runners, gates and risers" determines the amount of energy
that must be transferred to complete the phase transition from li=uid to solid.
1olding 1aterial is the recipient of the energy being transferred, so the
composition, thermal characteristics and density of the material also influence
the solidification process of a given casting.
P#ysical *iensioning t#roug# t#e P#ase Transition.
1etals typically have a lower density when molten then when solid, unli#e
water that has a lower density when )olid fro-en" than in it's li=uid state Ice
,loats".
!s density is a function of weight and volumetric displacement, and the weight
of the metal remains constant, the volumetric displacement must be reduced to
raise the density of a specific =ty of metal.
The manner in which the casting solidifies as determined by the alloy, mold,
shape, si-e, sprue, gate, runner and riser system combine to either yield a
dimensionally correct casting or one that has defects such as gross shrin#age
cavities pipe" or dispersed porosity.
!s molten metals typically have a lower density, there is an e.pectation that the
casting will be proportionally smaller than the pattern from which it was cast.
This is a predictable result and the percentile increase in pattern si-e to achieve
an accurate cast si-e is a prere=uisite to useful castings. The 0Aattern-1a#er's
*uler0 is found in most every pattern shop to accurately scale the pattern for a
given alloy to the re=uired solidified dimensions.
*irectional 3olidification
The solidification process begins at the mold-metal interface, meaning the
entire outer s#in of the casting, the energy transfer continues through the layer
of solid metal toward the mold material. !s the energy is traveling in one
direction the solidification process is traveling in the opposite direction.
3ogically, thin sections of castings will solidify before thic# sections of the
casting, as the volume of metal is decreasing in relation to the percentage of
metal that has solidified, a source of li=uid metal has to be drawn upon to #eep
the casting dimensionally accurate. The source of li=uid metal is from the
*isers that act as reservoirs to feed the casting during the solidification phase.
(ssentially there will always be a cavity defect, but the idea is to position the
defect in the riser not the casting itself. This is accomplished by gate and runner
placement such that the thinnest sections cool first and the placement of the
risers ensure a source
of molten metal.
In closing the
process of
07irectional
)olidification0 is
accomplished by
orienting the )prue,
gates, runners,
pattern and risers
such that the thinnest
sections through
thic#est are forming
a wedge that ends
with the risers"
being the thic#est section
The image to the right certainly is overly simplistic but illustrated the basic
idea.
1ore comple. castings would re=uire additional risers and supporting runners
and gating.

Progressive 3olidification
!lthough the lecture notes clearly state that this term must be understood, the
Glossary of terms simply refers to directional solidification. )o the ine=uities of
the college system of Ontario again falls on the shoulders of thewor#shop.ca
when will it endJJJ"
The basic concept is the
formation of crests and
troughs within the
leading edge of the
solidifying metal as it
propagates through the
li=uid metal.
The ideal in the
illustration to the right is
that over time the wave
grows from the right
toward the left, with the
understanding that the
left section continues on
toward an even thic#er
section...
The right most end of the
cross-section has a
greater surface of
mold<metal interface and
is not only growing
inward from the top and
bottom but also from the
right.
!lso of note is that the points in time !, & ? ' are for illustration, and the
free-e wave propagates over a continuum in a semi-linear fashion, and does not
have such e.aggerated demarcation points.
3astly The concept of a ,ree-e 2ave is allegorical in nature only, subse=uent
sections" ta#es this conceptual idea and illustrates it in more accurate detail.

T#ree 3tages of
Contraction &3#rin0age'
This is a comple. time in
the life of a casting, The
li=uid 1etal has a
Iolume 0!0, as it
solidifies it shrin#s
during the phase
transition to solid and
reflects a new volume
0&0, and lastly the
solidified casting further
contracts shrin#s"
through the cooling process )tarting at Temperature of solidification through
to ambient temperature" settling on Iolume 0'0...
Obviously the world around us is in constant dimensional change as the
ambient temperature is always in a state of transition, but the minor variations
in volumetric displacement are negligible compared to the variances that occur
from 0!0 to 0&0 and lastly to 0'0.

(n Consideration
of Pure Metals
!lthough the vast
ma:ority of
castings produced
are alloys of
varying elemental
composition, the
point to start at is
with a pure
elemental
composition. Aure
metals e.hibit
ideal
solidification
characteristics
and introduce a
point of reference
when
consideration of
solidification is
turned to alloyed
compositions.
The illustrations
to the upper right depict a pure metal and the flat thermal property of
solidification. The blue line shows the point of fusion with a predictable
dissipation of energy with no drop in temperature until the solidification
process has completed.
The lower right illustration is of an alloy, and the point of fusion has been
e.panded to cover a range of temperature drop over the energy dissipation.
Two new terms are introduced 03i=uidus ? )olidus0 that denote the points in
the graph where phase transition begins and ends for the solidification
process... 'uriously the area between 3i=uidus ? )olidus has a rather mundane
name 01ushy @one0...
I personally would have preferred @onis Indeterminus, or )oli=us...
Control of t#e 3olidification -ate
&y understanding the factors associated with the solidification process, we can
influence the speed at which solidification occurs, through the use of molding
material, and orientation of casting components, such as risers etc...
The speed of solidification has a direct bearing in such issues as grain si-e
within the solid casting, )hrin#age and associate defects, as well as a new issue
0)egregation0.
!s an !lloy has + or more constituent elements, the individual elements
potential can solidify at varying rates creating concentrations or isolated
poc#ets of that element within the li=uid solution during the phase transition.
The solidification rate can be graphed for various alloys, mold materials etc...
This is mathematically a function of the casting thic#ness assuming a flat
surface" against the s= root of time as well as the introduction of a 'onstant
0H0... I've opted to pass on the diagrams and the math as it's not an essential
building bloc# or so I hope"...
3olidification Modeling
The illustration on the
right has 6 steps shown !
thru (.
!" is the initial nucleus
that forms on the smallest
scale as the outermost
s#in of molten metal
enters the 1ushy @one
by the energy transfer
between the mold-metal
interface... millions of
nucleus form near
simultaneously.
&" is the e.tension of the Arimary a.is into the molten metal
'" is the formations of secondary a.es at right angles to the primary !.is
7" is the e.tended growth of the now complete dendrite with ever thic#ening
branches and trun#s as seen in (...
The crystalline or lattice structure is growing by the solidification of the molten
metal, and this is the free-e wave discussed earlier. The energy transfer
between the li=uid and solid interface is conducted through this dendrite
structure toward the metal mold interface.
6rain 3tructure and 6ro5t#
The illustrations are getting looser
and dirtier as we go along here, but
at least I #now what I'm trying to
depict.
!t the base of the structure to the
right are fine grains that formed
very =uic#ly at the metal-mold
interface, in the center are longer
0'olumnar0 grains that form
directionally in opposition to the
energy flow of the point of fusion,
toward the top are smaller random
0(=uia.ed0 grains that form at a
slower rate.
This cross-section is supposed to illustrate the region of solidification from the
mold wall upward to the li=uid<solid interface.
!t this point get a beer, have a smo#e and review the dis:ointed factoids
presented thus far...
)o... If directional solidification is encouraged though proper placement of
)prue, gates, runners and *isers, we #now that the nucleation of dentrites will
form and grow in opposition to the energy flow inward ma#ing a mushy -one
that is being impregnated by dendrite growth.
)ince the ma:ority of castings are alloys + or more elemental constituents" the
dendrite growth will be displacing higher point of fusion elements into the
li=uid or mushy center. This segregation of constituents impacts grains si-e and
composition.
The !lloy composition is impacted by the thermal gradient of the mold-metal
interface and the efficiency with which it can transfer the energy released by
the point of fusion of the elemental constituents. )ince any given alloy has a
static 1ushy @one based upon it's composition and the mass of the casting, the
only variable that can influence grain formation and reduce elemental
segregation is the time re=uired to transfer the point of fusion energy.
The generali-ation that wide mushy -ones slow phase transitions" promote
(=uia.ed Grains and micro segregation, while narrow mushy -ones fast phase
transitions" promote columnar grain structures is still somewhat meaningless,
e.cept that columnar grains are stronger and contain a better elemental
distribution through the alloy.
In summary the faster the better... I thin# that this is what 1etallurgy ? /eat
treating will be based upon.
!nd again, as this is being repeated it has to be on the final e.am" 1old-1etal
interface is the chill -one with fine grain structure, The ne.t is the columnar
-one that are longer directional grains that grow toward the li=uid metal, the
third is the e=uia.ed -one of small random grains in the center of the casting.
Porosity *efects
The most subtle of the porosity defects is caused by alloyed melts that have a
wide mushy -one transition phase to solid. The elemental nucleation and
dendritic growth displaces molten elements and results in micro porosity.
The most obvious porosity defects are caused by the entrapment of gases within
the molten solution. Typically hydrogen precipitates into melts by contact with
the atmosphere, or poor foundry practices, such as introducing wet charge
materials into the melt.
)ince /ydrogen is highly soluble in molten metal, it is best to avoid, super-
heating metals beyond their melting temperature, and to avoid holding the
metal in a molten state any longer than is re=uired.
Gases can be scavenged from the molten metal by introducing either an inert
gas such as argon or nitrogen and bubbling it through the melt, or using a solid
such as chlorine with an inverted cup that will plunge the chlorine to the bottom
of the melt. !s the chlorine turns to a gas it will form hydrogen chloride,
scavenging the hydrogen in the process.
To reduce the absorption of gases from the atmosphere leave any slag or dross
cover over the molten metal until :ust prior to pouring into the mold.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule $ 1!T3 1T&9%, please turn over


Casting ...
*esign of -isers and $eeding of Castings
Re$erences ( A!" Te)t #hapter *+ ,not -./ #hastain0s !oundry manual 1ol 2/ 3oogle/
lecture te)t 4 audio ,5o video.
This is a helluva way to start 1odule 6. &ut I'm going to :ust put my shoulder
to the yo#e and bull through in the hopes that it ma#es sense before I'm done
the module...
I've simplified the diagram to the
right by putting in references to the
e=uations (F 1, + ? $" there is no
(=uation 4, and I'm not changing
the diagram...
89:1 - $ree1e Point -atio &$P-'
,A*LQL'asting )urface<'asting
Iolume"<*iser )urface<*iser
Iolume"
89:+ - ;olue -atio &;-' &<
A%is'
I*LML*iser Iol<'asting IolR
R8ote the riser volume is the actual
poured vol.
89:4 - &$P-' 3teel &fro t#e lecture'
QL%.1+<y-%.%6 N 1.%R
R8oteO 7on't as# where the constants are from, I'm hoping that we both #now
before this page is finished...
The underlying theme here is Iolumes, )urface !reas, 'astings and *isers...
There are relationships between all these items and values that will help in
designing a complete mold that controls progressive solidification, and
influences directional solidification to produce castings with minimal porosity
and shrin#age defects. This is largely accomplished by ensuring that the risers"
are the last to solidify.
The 'ollege's lin# to a library of mathematical e=uations is down, so again
thewor#shop.ca has to haul their bacon out of the fire... The lin# below
hopefully will be a good start for finding specific e=uations...
#ttp=..555.at#+.org.at#.geoetry.areasvols.#t
The )urface !rea to Iolume *atio is an important consideration when
designing patterns, molds and especially *isers. It would stand to reason that
the lowest )!OI *atio would have the slowest cooling rate a desired attribute
for a *iser", while a high )!OI *atio would ma#e a poor *iser, but would
ma#e for a fast cooling casting if that fle.ibility e.ists for a pattern design".
The following (.ercise hopefully illustrates the )!OI *atio of some basic
geometric shapes.
8oteO !ll shapes have a common volumetric displacement of 1 cubic
footL19+; 'ubic inches
3#ape :1 - 3p#ere
IolumeL$<4" SpiT r
4
19+;L$<4"R4.1$16 Rr
3
19+;L$.1;;9Rr
3
19+;<$.1;;9Lr
3
$1+.64;$Lr
3
At this point 6 &elieve that r 7 the cu&ed root o$ $1+.64;$
rL9.$$$+
The lin# below should offer an on-line 'ube<'ube *oot 'alculator
www.csgnetwor#.com<cuberootcubecalc.html
)urface !rea L$ SpiT r
+
)urface !rea L$ R 4.1$16 R 9.$$$+
+
)urface !rea LD4.6$4; Inches
+

!nd ,inally the )pherical )!OI *atio
D4.6$4;<19+;L0.0741 3A=; for a sp#ere
!s you can imagine, :ust one mista#e early on and this is fuc#ed...

3#ape :+ - Cylinder of !eig#t 1+>
IolumeLSpiT r
+
h
19+;L4.1$16 R r
+
R 1+
19+;<4.1$16 R 1+L r
+
$6.;49D L r
+
again I believe that r L the s=uare root of
$6.;49D
rL5.99%4
!s an aside the generic 2indows calculator does not
perform )=rt function or as far as I found"... the
calculator at the lin# below does...
www.csgnetwor#.com<csgscicalc.html
)urface !rea L +pi r
+
" N + pi r"R h
)urface !rea L +8.*9*:; 5.99%4
+
" N + R 8.*9*:
; 5.99%4" R 1+
)urface !rea L9D;.$9%9 inches
+
!nd ,inally the 'ylindrical )!OI *atio with height 1+0"
9D;.$9%9<19+;L0.4?+0 3A=; for a 1+> tall Cylinder

3#ape :2 - Cu,e of 1+>
IolumeL 3 R 2 R /
Iolume L 1+ R 1+ R 1+
Iolume L 19+;

!reaL 5 a
+
!reaL 5 R 1+
+
!reaL ;5$ inches
+
!nd again the 'ubic )!OI *atio with height 1+0"
;5$<<19+;L0.7000 3A=; for a 1+> Cu,e

3#ape :4 - Cylinder of !eig#t 1>
8ow don't get all wrapped-up in semantics, the e.ercise calls for a
plate that is 10 thic#... but we both #now a plate is :ust a very
s=uat cylinder
IolumeLSpiT r
+
h
19+;L4.1$16 R r
+
R 1
19+;<4.1$16 R 1L r
+
66%.%4D$ L r
+
again I believe that r L the s=uare root of 66%.%4D$
rL+4.$6+D
!nd still the generic 2indows calculator does not perform )=rt function or as
far as I found"... the calculator at the lin# below does...
www.csgnetwor#.com<csgscicalc.html
)urface !rea L +pi r
+
" N + pi r"R h
)urface !rea L +8.*9*:; +4.$6+D
+
" N + R 8.*9*: ; +4.$6+D" R 1
)urface !rea L 45%4.46+; inches
+

!nd ,inally the 'ylindrical )!OI *atio with height 10"
45%4.46+;<19+;L+.0@7+ 3A=; for a 1> tall Cylinder
&elow are the )!OI's of the $ shapes to be compared
<.<:9* "A=1 $or a sphere
<.9+2< "A=1 $or a *2% tall #ylinder
<.:<<< "A=1 $or a *2% #u&e
2.<-:2 "A=1 $or a *% tall #ylinder
Given the generali-ation that opened the )!OI dialog, low )!OI's cool slowly
and ma#e good *isers, one would thin# that a spherical riser would be the best
though somewhat impractical to implement", while a 10 tall cylinder would be
somehow lac#ing in desirable riser properties... I #inda li#e the cylinder, as it is
a practical shape for molding.
!fter writing the test and scoring rather poorly, I decided to revisit the math
and the relationship between )!, I, Geometric shape and dimensioning... !s
I'm generally as la-y as the ne.t guy, below is a lin# to the spread sheet that far
better illustrates what's going on above numerically as well as in a graphical
format... *ight clic# on the lin# and select 0)ave !s...0 the file is created with
(.cel
sa-v calculator.xls
6$ the link doesn0t work give me a couple o$ days 60ve never done this &e$ore/ or email me
and 60ll send it as an attachment.
Proper -iser Positioning and *iensioning
2ith the #nowledge of low )!OI riser geometry, we must consider where we
will place risers" to ensure proper directional solidification and dimensioning
the riser to hold an ade=uate volume of li=uid metal to feed the casting as it
solidifies... Aut yet another way )!OI
*iser"
U )!OI
'asting"
The point a&ove must &e underscored as the lecture re$lects an e)trapolated
rule o$ "olidi$ication Time ,t./
where t
,riser.
> t
,casting.
6$ you0re not paying attention ,like me. you assume that
"olidi$ication Time and "A=1 are synonymous/ they are inversely proportional
,in an ideal world..
!ll of the above is in support of directional solidification, it should be noted
that the contact point between the riser and the casting must be of sufficient
diameter that it doesn't free-e before the casting and leave the riser performing
no function. I would guess that if the diameter was e=ual to or greater than the
section it is connecting to the riser, it would be safe...
&elow are $ points about the *iser<'asting *elationship
1 - *isers are attached to the heaviest sections of the casting
+ - *isers are the last to solidify
4 - ! casting that has more than one heavy section re=uires at least one riser per
heavy section
$ - Occasionally the thermal gradient is modified at the mold-metal interface by
the introduction of a 0'hill0 that can better conduct the heat away from the
casting and lower the solidification time for that section.

/n t#e 3u,Aect of T#eral 6radients...
Thermal gradients can be increased to facilitate faster, directional solidification,
or lowered to allow sections to remain molten to reduce micro porosity within
captive regions that can't be practically fed by risers otherwise.
Thin sections of castings that have the potential to develop captive pools can be
0Aadded0 to #eep a path for directional solidification to follow. 0Aadding0 is the
result of thic#ening a pattern area for the sole consideration of 7irectional
)olidification. !reas that are 0Aadded0 may add machining costs to return the
finished casting to it's original dimensional specification.
!lso thermal gradients can be modified through the use of 0'hills0, a chill is a
material that becomes part of the mold either internally or e.ternally referring
to the physical casting".
(.ternal 'hills - these can be a variety of materials with a greater ability to
facilitate the energy transfer associated with the solidification process, relative
to the molding material used through out the mold. The materials commonly
used are but not limited to" Iron, )teel, Graphite, 'hromite and copper... these
materials typically are inserted in to the mold and lay at the mold-metal
interface.
Internal 'hills - are typically oriented to become part of the physical casting
with a portion e.tending outward into the molding material to act as a path for
thermal energy to rapidly move through, thereby facilitating the solidification
process. Internal chills have issues associated with them that range from
appropriate positioning through fusion with the casting material. The internal
chill material must be compatible with the alloy being cast.
8%ot#eric and (nsulating Applications
The last discussions in this module that relate to *iser 7esign and ,eeding of
'astings relates to the application of e.othermic and insulating materials.
These compounds are the opposite of the chill's previously discussed. )imilarly
they are 8OT applied to the casting, but rather to the top of the riser.
Insulation - !s the name implies this material does not promote energy transfer,
but inhibits it. This reduction of thermal energy transfer out the top of the riser,
helps to maintain the riser as a source of molten metal to feed the casting for a
longer duration.
(.othermic - This compound goes one step further than insulation. The
e.othermic material generates heat that can maintain the riser at a molten state
even longer than an insulation. The (.othermic material is placed on the top of
the riser and is ignited by the molten metal as it contacts the (.o-material...



Casting ...
MATL MTB70 Module ? - Course Notes...
T#e $eeder Net5or0
5ow this is cool stu$$/ i$ you0ve &een $ollowing along/ A. 6 credit you with
%Tenacity%/ upon re(reading my notes/ ,Prep $or the $inal E)am starts on Day
?ne.... 6 personally think it0s all interesting content/ &ut 6 dou&t that 60d have
hung(on this long ,especially the more theoretical parts like dendretic growth
and nucleation sites etc....
@ut this is the meat o$ what 6 signed(up $or...
6ating . -unner *esign
2ith an overview of the solidification of metals" done, we can loo# at the flow
characteristics of the metal as it enters the mold and how it fills the casting. Of
the flow characteristics fluidity<viscosity plays a role as well as velocity,
gravitational acceleration ? vorte., pressure -ones, molten alloy aspiration
from the mold and the momentum or #inetic energy of a fluid.
!lthough the lecture notes introduce these terms and their consideration over
the duration of this module, it seems easier for me to group them at the start.
Lainar $lo5
The factors and issues noted above are all related in some way to the property
of 03aminar ,low.0

This is my Ideal 03aminar ,low0 reference.
The la#e is fed from a water fall at one end
and flows through a dam at the other.
! drop of 4% to $%ft total with the la#e
sitting somewhere in the center.
2hile drift fishing, your boat glides gently
from one end of the la#e to the other over
the course of 6 or 5 hours. Though while
passing through the narrows off in the hori-on, the boat's drift may be up to $
four" times the velocity e.perienced at the widest portion of the la#e.

I :ust thought this made a nice picture +% years ago, but now I reali-e that this is
0Turbulent ,low0.
The violent foaming bubbling action of the water is the result of 0!spiration0
of the water.
Aerhaps on a smaller scale the forces that create this effect wor# identically in
li=uid metal and it's flow through the mold.

!nd after considerable
searching I found this
picture ta#en with my
first camera"... This
illustrates 0)everely
Turbulent ,low0.
The water is cascading
down a ladder of roc#s,
similar to a staircase
with 5' to 9 ft' steps through a constrained chasm along the 8iagara
(scarpment. though located a few hundred miles north east of 8iagara ,alls"

In summary 3i=uid ,low can be identified as 3aminar, Turbulent or )everely
Turbulent, :ust thin# of the images above if the names don't stri#e you as
intuitive. The identification of the flow types has a mathematical component
that removes the sub:ectivity of the names. The mathematical formula is #nown
as the >-eynoldBs Nu,er> .
! Google 07efineO *eynold's 8umber0 yielded these lin#s...
The Reynolds num&er is the ratio o$ inertial $orces/ as descri&ed &y 5ewton0s second law
o$ motion/ to viscous $orces. 6$ the Reynolds num&er is high/ inertial $orces dominate and
tur&ulent $low e)ists. 6$ it is low/ viscous $orces prevail/ and laminar $low results.
www.erc.montana.eduARes(Bi&CC("DAglossaryAgeng.html

,A$ter ?s&orne Reynolds ,*-92(*C*2./ English scientist.. A non dimensional parameter
representing the ratio o$ the momentum $orces to the viscous $orces in $luid $low.
vesuvius.Esc.nasa.govAerAsehAr.html

the dimensionless ratio o$ $luid acceleration and accelerations induced &y viscosity
typical o$ a particular $low regime.
www.advanced$orecasting.comAweathereducationAweatherglossary.html

The dimensionless ratio used to determine whether the $low in a certain system is
tur&ulent or laminar. Reynolds num&er is as $ollows= Rd 7 ,1elocity ) Diameter )
Density.AA&solute viscosity
www.americanmeter.comAtechsAgaslawsAglosmeas.html
I edited the list to show a consistent definition, as this law of sorts" covers far
more physics than the metal casting industry.
REYNOLDS NUMBER The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces, as described by
Newton's second law of motion, to viscous forces. If the Reynolds number is high, inertial forces
dominate and turbulent flow exists. If it is low, viscous forces prevail, and laminar flow results.
(ee the boo! Biofilms, "harac!lis et al., pg. #$%.&

Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow
SCALE DEPOSIT (Corrosion Eng.& 'artially adherent layers of corrosion products on metals
which generally develop in hard water and at high temperature.

SHEAR STRESS hear stress in a flowing li(uid is the force exerted as one layer moves past
another.
FLUID SHEAR STRESS In flowing fluid all the molecules of the fluid )rub) against one another as
they travel down the tube. *luid molecules also exert a )rubbing) force on the walls of the tube.
This rib or shear force can be calculated for flow in a tube if you !now the fluid velocity,
roughness of the tube, fluid properties, and diameter of the tube.
WALL SHEAR STRESS In biofilm studies we are normally concerned with wall shear stress.
This is the shear stress at the wall caused by the li(uid moving past it.

The demarcation point of an *n U +%%% is considered a 3aminar ,low, while
an *n V +%%% is considered a Turbulent ,low, there may well be a point that
denotes Turbulent and )everely Turbulent but our ob:ective is to stay below
+%%%.
There are a series of other calculations and formulas to place into conte.t, but I
want to return to the gating system and it's components with the idea of laminar
flow in mind.
Basic Coponents of a 6ating 3yste
The basic components of a gating system are 0Aouring &asin0, 0)prue0,
0*unners0 and the 0Gates0 that feed the casting. The metal flows through the
system in the order that they are listed... &elow are some simple diagrams to be
familiar with.
Pouring Basin - I thin# of this as
the 0'rucible -1old Interface0,
note, that a pouring cup and
pouring basin are not
e=uivalents, The pouring cup is
simply a larger target when
pouring out of the crucible, a
Aouring &asin has several
components that aid in creating a
laminar flow of clean metal into
the sprue.
The lecture notes have better
illustrations and the te.t better still, but the idea is that the basin acts as a point
for the li=uid metal to enter the gating system in a laminar fashion. The area I
call 0'rucible-1old Interface0 is where the metal from the crucible first
contacts the mold surface. That area is lower than where the 1outh of the
)prue is located, by having a pool of metal form the flow will be less chaotic
than pouring from the crucible down into the sprue.
The yellow bar that I've labeled as the 07ross-7am0 is positioned so that the
molten metal will contact it's lower face and flow under, while s#imming or
holding bac# any dross from the crucible or what accumulated through the act
of pouring. !s the lower portion fills and the metal is s#immed the cleaner"
metal will rise up to meet the opening of the sprue in a more controlled fashion.
The following are some ideas I have about 0Aouring &asins0
6$ 6 had a standard %@asin Pattern% that 6 would mold into the #ope/ E)tract/
and core with a Dross Dam... #ould the dross(dam &e Eust a solidi$ied section
o$ the same alloy &eing pouredF
60m sure it should &e pre(heated prior to placement... The Dross(Dams that 60m
thinking a&out would &e "ections o$ runners or gates $rom previous castings ,o$
the same alloy.. "o on a production run o$ ,6 typically do runs o$ : to 2: o$ a
given casting./ 6 would ensure that there was at least one chunk to &e saved
a$ter shaking out the castings and cutting away the $eeder network.
"o a$ter the $irst casting/ 6 have a source o$ Dams...
"imilarly/ 6$ 6 was care$ul to design my initial runnerAgating system/ with the
idea that it would &e the physical pattern $or su&se'uent molds Plus a dross
dam ,to &e cut away..
The only issue is to separate the &ase o$ the sprue $rom the Dell/ so that the
pattern,s. can &e e)tracted.
!lawsFFF 6ssuesFFF &eyond dimensional ,over. compensation on the $irst
pattern $or the $eeder network/ 6 think it would work.
6s it worth the e$$ort to make @asins $or placement o$ the same alloy as &eing
cast... 6 realiGe that these may &e single use items/ or possi&ly 2 to 8 uses ma)...
6 see the &ene$its o$
* ( reduced mold(sand pick(up at the most tur&ulent point ,#ruci&le to mold
inter$ace..
2 ( Thermal energy source to reduce viscosity increase on contact ,i$ pre(
heated..
8 ( Possi&ly improved lamination o$ li'uid $low over a smooth,er. sur$ace.
9 ( 6ntegrated Dross(Dam
: ( #ounter 1orte) Ri$ling at mouth o$ "prue. ,this would &e Eust * or 2 degrees
to ensure that the %Head% developing at the &ase o$ the sprue developes
smoothly.
If you have any thoughts or advice regarding the above" feel free to email me
frn#gmb#Wrenfrew.net ... bear in mind I'm not trying to over complicate my
life with additional wor#, but since this foundry is at such a preliminary stage,
the more 0&est Aractices0 I incorporate, the higher the =uality of my wor#, and
I'm sure as fuc# not doing all this to turn out a low grade product.
3prue Placeent and Parts
The sprue is obviously the e.tension
of the sprue mouth into the mold.
3augh if you will, but I have been
placing my sprue tapers in the wrong
direction... it was :ust easier to push
the core inward for e.traction.
The cho#e or narrowest point in the taper is a #ey variable in calculating other
properties and si-ing ratios of components. This is considered the point that
would sustain a 0/ead0 or pressure of molten metal.
Through all of the components there is a need to reduce turbulence and
promote 3aminar ,low. ,rom the Aouring &asin, the flow begins a near
vertical incline that is acted upon by gravity and with an accelerative force that
is 4+ft<)ec<)ec or 4;$ In<sec<sec...
)o a mass falling has a velocity of 4;$ inches<sec after a free fall duration of 1
entire second. ,luids in free fall tend to distort from a columnar shape at their
start into an intertwined series of flow lines that have a rotational vector or
vorte. effect 'loc#wise in the northern hemi-sphere, and counter cloc#wise in
the southern hemi-sphere"...
The rotational effect, though not a strong force, is causing the cor#-screwing
effect of the falling fluid. If allowed to act on the fluid over a great enough
duration or free fall the centrifugal force will separate the flow into droplets.
8one of the above promotes 3aminar flow, plus it aids the formation of dross
and gas pic#-up in the stream that is going to feed the casting.
&y creating a sprue with a taper, the fluid is constrained to retain it's shape,
reducing e.cessive surface area development dross-forming property" and gas
pic#-up.
The area below the sprue is the 02ell0. The well reduces the velocity of the
fluid flow and acts as a reservoir for the runners and gates as they fill.
&elow are some dimensioning ratio's from 'hastain's ,oundry 1anual K+ this
information is not li#ely to be on the module test or the final e.am, but is
relevant to the discussion.
1- 'ho#e or sprue base area is 1<6th the area of the well.
+- The well depth is twice the runner depth.
4- the *unner is positioned above the midpoint of the well's depth.

T#e -unner 3yste
The runner system is fed
by the well and is the
path that the gates are fed
from.
In the broadest terms this
path should be
0&alanced0 with the
model of heating or !'
ductwor# serving as a
good illustration. The
*unner path should promote smooth laminar flow by a balanced volumetric
flow, and avoiding sharp or abrupt changes in direction.
The 0*unner (.tension0 is a 07ead-(nd0 that is placed after the last gate. The
*-(.t acts as a cushion to absorb the forward momentum or #inetic energy of
the fluid flow. The *-(.t also acts as a 07ross<Gas Trap0 for any materials
generated and pic#ed-up along the flow of the runner.
!n Ideal *unner is also proportioned such that it maintains a constant
volumetric flow through virtually any cross-sectional area. In the illustration,
notice that the runner becomes proportionally shallower at the point where an
in-gate creates an alternate path for the li=uid flow.
T#e 6ating 3yste
The Gates in this case"
accommodate a directional
change in the fluid flow and
deliver the metal to the 'asting
cavity.
!gain, the design ob:ective is to
promote laminar flow, the primary causes of turbulence are sharp corners, or
un-proportioned gate<runner si-es.
The + two" dashed blue areas when added together form a relationship to the
dashed blue area of the *unner, which forms a relationship to the 'ho#e or
base of the )prue !rea.
The issue of sharp corners both inner and outer" create turbulence, low ? high
pressure -ones that promote aspiration of mold gases into the flow, and can
draw mold material sand" into the flow. 8one of this is good... &y providing
curved radius changes in direction the above effects are still at play but at a
reduced level. )imilarly sharp angles impact the solidification process and may
inhibit 07irectional )olidification0 with cross-sectional free-ing...
The image to the right is
from the 3ecture notes
,Mohawk #ollege MATB
MT@(I< Mod +. and is :ust
too good a representation
to pass-up.
I stripped a lot of the detail
and formulas to have the
basic flow better
illustrated.
The best analogy I can see is that of a performance tuned e.haust system or
header on an engine.
&y proportioning the gating system, a more uniform flow is promoted with near
e=ual volumes of metal entering the mold from all points. In an un-
proportioned system the furthest gates would feed the most metal, while the
gates closest to the sprue would feed the least. this is counter to what I initially
thought".
$orulasC -atios and *esign 8)uations
(verything covered so far is comprehensible, and intuitive on a conceptual
level, but the math below hopefully offers some insight into =uic#
appro.imations for simple designs, and more in-depth calculations for comple.
systems. !lthough 'omputeri-ed ,low !nalysis programs are used e.tensively
in large ,oundry operations they are beyond the grasp of the small shop that is
:ust starting out if you #now of a ,low )imulator that is freeware or in the
Aublic 7omain definitely email me..." !lso, I imagine that designing on a state
of the art system without at least the most basic concepts or bac#ground is a#in
to dual entry ledger accounting without $-function math s#ills.
Continuity 8)uation - This formula allows calculation of cross-sectional
!reas, relative to flow Ielocity and Iolumetric flow over unit time. This
formula only
wor#s if the fluid flow is a li=uid that does 8OT compress that applies to all
molten metals".
To the right a flow passes through 'ross-sectional area !1 10 by 10, 1 s=0", the
passage narrows to a cross-sectional area !+ .960 by .960, %.65+6 s=0", the
passage e.pands to a cross-sectional area !4 10 by 10, 1 s=0".
The 'ontinuity (=uation can resolve for any term if + others are #nown, and
due to the uncompressible nature of the fluid resolve velocity at #nown cross-
sectional areas...
FL *ate of ,low 'onstant - uncompressible"
ILIelocity of flow
!L!rea 'ross-section"
If F were %.+6 cubic inches per )ec of flowE
IelocityL%.+6<1 or %.+60<sec, at the point !+E
FL%.+6<%.65+6L%.$$0<sec of ,low, )ince the !rea is almost half, the velocity
has to almost double.
C#o0e = -unner = 6ate -atio&s'
The base of the )prue and 'ho#e are the same thing... The ratios between the
cross-sectional !rea can be grouped into either Aressuri-ed or Cnpressuri-ed.
Pressuri1ed - is a system where the gate and runner cross-sectional areas are
either e=ual or less than the cho#e cross-sectional areaE
!1L 'ho#e L 1 )= Inch
!+ L 1st *unner Q-)ec !rea L %.96 )= Inch
!4 L +nd *unner Q-)ec !rea L %.55 )= Inch
!$ L 1st Gate L %.44 )= inch
!6 L +nd Gate L %.44 )= Inch
!reas !+ ? !4 do not get added as they are positioned in line with each other
and flow is successive between the points and not simultaneous. 2hile !reas
!$ ? !6 are added together as flow does pass through these points
simultaneously.
I believe that this e.ample would resolve to a pressuri-ed flow of 1 O %.96 O %.55
Dnpressuri1ed - The #ey distinction is that the *unner must have a Q-sec area
greater than the 'ho#e, and it would appear that the Gates" would e=ual or be
larger than the *unners".
'ommon *atio's noted in the lecture notes, te.t, 'hastian's Iol + areE
1 O + O $
1 O 4 O 4
1 O $ O $
1 O $ O 5
!n e.ception is noted in 'hastain with a 1 O ; O 5 ratio to promote dross capture
in the runner system of !reo-)pace castings.
The 'ontinuity (=. is simplified with the use of ratios as the velocity is
inversely proportional between any + ad:acent ratio values... ie / O 3 e=uates to
an increase in velocity while a 3 O / e=uates to a drop in velocity.
!nd yet again I'm telling you, it's 3aminar ,low, which is harder to control at a
high velocity than a relatively lower velocity.
If you feel at home, with Galileo, Heppler, 8ewton and the lads... 'hastain's
Iol + has much more math and calculations... no time to post here"


Casting ...
This the last in the series o$ notes $rom the %6ntroduction to Metal #asting%
course. 6n closing 60m satis$ied that 60ve learned enough $rom this course that it
was worth the E$$ort/ Money and time to complete. 6t is as the name implies an
6ntroduction.
6 $ound the glo&al perspective o$ the #asting 6ndustry to &e interesting with a
&roader view than 60d considered &e$ore. Although some o$ the processes and
e'uipment would never scale to the "mall $oundry operation such 60m trying to
develope/ enough can &e adopted &eyond what 60d considered.
Cleaning and (nspection
This is the last stage of the casting process before the finished unit is ready for
the ,inishing process 8ot covered in this 1odule".
Cleaning
This stage actually starts with the sha#e-out process. &eyond simply dumping
the mold and pulling the casting, there are vibrating tables, rolling drums this
active impacting or hammers to brea# away the molding material.
Once the casting is free from the mold, the surface can be cleaned with wire
brushes manually or mechanically for softer alloys" or a series of blasting
techni=ues available for harder alloys. These processes also include removing
any residual 'ore material.
Blast Cleaning Types - AirC Eater F Mec#anical are used to clean any
reaining sand or scale fro t#e surface.
Air Blast cleaning is an efficient method that can utili-e a broad range of 1edia
that are selected by the degree of abrasion re=uired to clean the casting and the
softness of the alloy.
1edia include but are not limited to the followingE
!ngular )and or Grit ,&eware "ilicosisJJJ.
)hot - typically a round media including a variety of ceramics and metals
)oft 1edia - such as walnut shell, corn hus#, etc...
!ll methods of air blast should be conducted within proper enclosures to
eliminate not reduce" operator health ? safety ha-ards.
Eater Blast cleaning eliminates many of the respiratory ha-ards associated
with the !ir &last methods, but introduces the re=uirement of ade=uate
cleaning of the effluent or discharge water after use before releasing to a 0Grey
2ater0 destination.
1echanical &lasting poses similar respiratory ha-ards as air blasting but the
delivery mechanism of the media is not through a blast of air. The media is
discharged by a paddle-wheel of sorts with ade=uate velocity that it impacts the
casting with an abrasive action.
Cutting F $ettling t#e Casting
The casting is inspected visually every step by every person that touches the
unit. I believe perhaps naively" that ever employ on the payroll has the right
and the responsibility to scrap a piece at any stage of processing if they #now
the end product will not meet the highest standard.
The casting is removed from the feeder networ#, there are a number of methods
ranging from a manual hac# saw through to a plasma cutter. The manual
method is a tremendous amount of wor# and has a tangible e.pense associated
with it, in terms of =uality blades that can only last up to 1% 'astings with 4 to
5 gates in my e.perience".
'urrently I use a )aw--!ll reciprocating saw and have shaved the per casting
cutting time by +<4rds to 16 min typically, I believe that this time could be
further reduced by +<4rds again to 6 min with a Alasma 'utter with the
appropriate no--le selection... Any Company that would like to send such a
unit would never regret the gesture as I'd sing your praise from the highest
hills.
7epending on the alloy there are numerous power tools that can be used
including &and )aws, 'ircular )aws of various orientations including /and,
Table and 'hop" ensuring that the appropriate blade is matched to the alloy...
5ote do(not cut non($errous alloys with a&rasive disks ,Eust don0t.... as well as
shears and cutting torches.
The ,ettling process is the removal of fins or minor deformations with some
mi. of manual and machinery assisted labour... I use a hammer and a $ 1<+0
angle grinder with a @ircon ,lap-dis#.
'astings that are obvious defects should not even be cut away unless necessary
for re-melt, though cleaning is re=uired regardless. The lecture notes specify
the option of repairs to castings at this point as well, though I personally have
never repaired a casting, either it is #ept or re-melted.
*estructive F Non-*estructive (nspection
7estructive inspection, though not a component of this module is worth tal#ing
about briefly. These would include cutting castings through cross-sectional
areas in pursuit of )ub-surface porosity defects, measuring tensile and shearing
strength of castings as well as impacting various surface areas to determine
hardness.
Obviously these tests are carried out on samples" that would be representative
of a casting run, and typically where the casting is being used in an application
that re=uires very strict =uality control such as vehicular applications... 2here I
would not cast 5 pla=ues and destroy one randomly for fear that it re=uires
1+6%lbs of force to brea# it and it bro#e at 1+$9lbs...
Non-*estructive (nspection is a process that can be performed on a casting
numerous times and leaves the casting in such a state that it can proceed to the
finishing stage if found to be within specifications. This is becoming more
common place as technological advances are made, the methods that are
discussed areE
;isual (nspection - Obviously is )urface Fuality comparison to a reference or
based on the e.perience of the person performing the inspection. This method
is has a labour cost associated with it, though is comparatively low. The speed
and easy of inspection lac#s any record #eeping and may be sub:ective or
inconsistent if performed by personnel of varying e.perience. 1achine Iision
is a promising technology that incorporates high resolution cameras that feed
image data to a comparative processor that can actual gates or arms to
discharge castings into a scrap pile or pass them down a conveyor for further
processing. ,or tons of detail on this e.citing technology and man is it ever
(Q'ITI8GGGG" httpO<<vsd.pennnet.com<home.cfm

Li)uid &*ye' Penetration (nspection &LP(' is a process that is able to detect
narrow seams and crac#s at or :ust below the surface of a casting by applying a
li=uid dye or phosphorescent dye, the penetrant is wiped away and the casting
is inspected for residue that has properties that ma#e for easy inspection or
detection.
The chemical composition of the effective dyes" re=uires specific handling
procedures that will be available off their respective 1)7). Aersonally I thin#
that this process also would lend itself well to a Iision )ystems solution, as the
range or spectrum of detection of a sensor can be tailored to significantly
e.tend beyond the range of the human eye.
!lso of consideration is the ability to records results for archival purposes and
defect analysis. This is definitely not for smaller foundries, but a shop that
ma#es under 1%%% !ero-space grade parts that re=uire 01ission-'ritical0
tolerances and verifiable inspection documentation, I'd thin# about
implementing some sort of A!') or Aicture !rchive 'ommunications )ystem.
Magnetic Particle (nspection &MP(' - This process is limited to ,errous
castings and re=uires less overhead than the name implies, the fundamental
process is the application of a magnetic field to the casting, coating the surface
with a magnetic particle compound and e.amining the retained particles for
mar#ers that would denote fractures or inclusions in the casting by the
distribution of the adhering particle matter.
1AI offers advantages over 3AI, in that it can be performed faster, re=uires
fewer material specific handling considerations, offers less clean-up, and can
detect defects up to %.+60 below the casting surface.
The noted drawbac#s are the limitation of testing to ,erro-1agnetic castings,
potential for residual magnetism in the casting, a higher intellectual overhead in
terms of training and competency of staff as well as a measure of casting
cleaning though still less than 3AI".
Dltrasonic (nspection - This inspection system wor#s on the same principles of
1edical Cltra )onography... !n energy or acoustic wave is propagated through
a medium via a transducer, the wave is reflected and the reflection is e.amined
on a display.
In this case the medium the wave propagates through would be the casting.
This inspection system offers superior sub-surface analysis than other processes
listed so far. The reflected wave can indicate a properly formed casting or
identify internal fractures or structures that could not be otherwise found.
This process offers very rapid analysis of casting integrity, as well as lends it's
self to automated and archival processing. The cost and intellectual overhead of
implementing such a system is significant, and this process does not wor# well
with coarse grained castings due to reflection by the grain structure. C)I does
re=uire reasonably flat and or smooth surfaces for the transducer to propagate
and receive the reflected waves.
8ddy Current (nspection &8C(' - This is an emerging technology that is similar
to both C) and 1AI. !n (1, (lectro 1otive ,orce" is induced in the casting
,errous or 8on-,errous" and the induced (1, is read by an inductor that is
sensitive enough to supply detailed information that is analy-ed and displayed.
('I can diagnose and identify grain structure and offer a level of elemental
composition that C)I can-not at this time. 1y guess is that this won't be
cheap...
*adiography - 1uch 3i#e C)I is based on the medical practice of 7iagnostic
Imaging via Q-*ay and the imaging of the .-rays that passed through the
medium on to film. The Q or Gamma rays are absorbed or modified by the
thic#ness, density and<or atomic weight of the cross section being e.amined.
This area has undergone *adical change over the last 1% years, ,ilm is being
replaced with 'rystal cartridges that can be digiti-ed and erased for re-use, any
radiology system being install today 1C)T &( digital... The savings are
always touted to be on the cost of the film, chemicals and processing... True
there are savings, but the labour associated with processing, handling and filing
for archival purposes" far out weighs the other savings.
)imilarly digital radiology techni=ues have developed to the point that through
digital filtering of image data information is made available that could never
have been detected with traditional film techni=ues.
If you have to as# what the cost is, you can't afford it, though systems are
spec'd based on =ty of images processed and the number of image ac=uisition
points Q-*ay station" and the number of view stations for radiographic
interpretation. !lthough the temptation e.ists to develop an archival data
structure in house to save on costs, an open architecture approach should be
adopted to facilitate data sharing between the foundry and customers... If you
are creating castings that have a re=uirement for *adiographic Inspection,
you'll li#ely be called upon to produce sample images to the customer's F'
dept.
These notes are &ased on A!" Te)t #hapter *-/ lecture audio/ te)t and : video
segments.
...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule 9 and 1!T3 1T&9%, than# you
for ta#ing the time to visit thewor#shop.ca and watch for other courses that are
part of this same program.

Casting ...
MATL MTB7+ Module 1 - Course Notes...
E#ut1-Dp 5it# 3andG
)ince 1olten 1etal is hot, and the utility of the mold is the space that it does
not consume, the mold material has to withstand the heat of the metal without
melting, losing it's shape, si-e etc... )ince )and 1olding is done with )and, the
sand must not melt and it's physical dimensioning should remain intact.
)ince sand is generally a ceramic based material it typically has a strong inter
atomic bonding structure that contributes to it's ability to withstand high
temperatures before brea#ing down.
)ince /igh Temperature is a sub:ective term, lets generali-e that most sands
have a melting point above 4%%%,.
The popularity of sand as a molding material is due to it's abundance and
relatively ine.pensive cost.

>*addyC 5#ere does sand coe froG>
I'm glad you as#ed... )and has many sources and compositions, but all sands
have their common origin in the fact that they are granular material resulting
from the disintegration or crushing of roc#.
Of the various bodies that influence and advise the metal casting industry the
!,) !merican ,oundry )ociety" will provide the standards, terms and ranges
of measurement used in this course.
The !,) states that sand is 01ineral 1aterial0 regardless of chemical
composition, and casting sand falls into a broad range of grain si-es that span
+mm to %.%6mm. 1<1+0 to 1<6%%0 or K1% to K+%% 1esh screening.
The four basic sand compositions discussed in this course are )ilica, Olivine,
@iron and 'hromite. These types of sand have various properties that effect
their application to the broad spectrum of foundry wor#.
Of the numerous properties the most important are )hape, 1elting point,
Thermal (.pansion, 2eight measured by &ul# 7ensity and )pecific Gravity"
and p/. The 'hemical composition of these sands provides some insight into
why the other properties are attributed to the various types.
The following charts are based on !,) data listed in !,) pub 0Technology of
1etal 'asting0 I)&8 K%-;9$44-+69-6.
)and 'hemistry ? Aroperty Table
Coposition H 3ilica /livine C#roite Iiron
)iO
+
J@.@+ 41.+ 1.4$ 22.7
1gO %.%41 4J.4 ;.96 -
'r
+
O
4
- - 47.@ -
@rO
+
- - - ?7
!l
+
O
4
%.%$D 1.; +1.24 1
,e
+
O
4
%.%1D 9.1 1J.70 %.%4
'aO %.%%15 %.+ %.D$ -
TiO
+
%.%1+ - %.%4 %.1D
Melting Point
$&C'
2110&1710' 2400&1@77' 2@00&+0J2' 4?00&+72@'
Properties 3ilica /livine C#roite Iiron
'olour 2hite<&rown Green &lac# 2hite
)pecific Gravity +.56-+.59 4.+9-4.49 $.4-$.6 $.5-$.9
&ul# 7ensity D6-D9 D5-1%4 165-156 16+-1;4
Thermal
(.pansion
%.%1; %.%%;4 %.%%$6 %.%%49
Temp *eaction
p/"
!cidic &asic &asic<8eutral )lightly !cidic
)hape Iaried !ngular !ngular *ounded
This chart is important, why the fuc# do you thin# I re-typed it it's in the te.t,
it's in the lecture, it's a slide, it's even referred to in the audio files and I thin#
references are made to it in the video clips"... I believe that li#e the infinite
constant Ai all answers to this module are contained within the chart above...
3and Type ;er,iage
3ilica
)ilica is the most common sand type and can be found where ever water has
had the time to erode roc# to a granular form over time. 3a#es, rivers, river
ban#s etc.
In 8orth !merica Aure )ilica )and is mined primarily in the Illinois and
1issouri )tates from the )t. Aeter deposit, all other silica deposits tend to have
varying degrees of organic and mineral contaminants that must be removed
prior to classification as 'asting )and. These organic and mineral contaminants
effect castings in numerous ways including but not limited to introduction of
carbon into the cast, unpredictable thermal e.pansion and binding properties to
name a few.
"ey (nfoK
High thermal E)pansion <.<*-%Ainch/ Melting point 8**<!A*I*<#/ a varied
shape and acidic pH.
/livine
Olivine )and is an ortho-silicate of 1agnesium 1g" and Iron ,e" and is found
in it's natural state within ,orsterite 1g
+
)iO
$
and ,ayalite ,e
+
)iO
$
neither
terms are overly relevant to this course" (.cept that 'ast =uality Olivine is only
derived form D%> ,orsterite...
The ,orsterite is crushed to reduce the mineral to a granular form, logically
increasing the cost due to production of the material.
Olivine sand is typically used in the 8on-,errous foundry sector, but is used
occasionally in the ,errous )ector to aid in the production of 1anganese 1n"
)teel !ustentic" due to it's ability to overcome adverse chemical reactions that
would result if )ilica sand were used.
"ey (nfoK
Bow thermal E)pansion <.<<-8%Ainch/ Melting point 89<<!A*-I:#/ an angular
shape and &asic pH.
C#roite ,e'r
+
O
$
This is an !frican )and, as it comes from !frica, and has a price tag to reflect
its point of origin.
There is so much I could say about 'hromite ,e'r
+
O
$
, but won't as it's not
germane to this discussion, but I will note that it is used in )teel foundries, and
as a facing or core material where it's superior thermal characteristics are called
upon...
"ey (nfoK
Bow thermal E)pansion <.<<9%Ainch/ Melting point 8-<<!A2<C8#/ an angular
shape and &asicAneutral pH.
Iiron
This is the last of the four sand types and has the fanciest name... @irconium
)ilicate or @r)io
$
to his friends is found primarily in !ustralia, ,lorida and
'alifornia. 2ith the most stable thermal properties of the $ types it is used as a
mold or mold facing material where very high temperatures are encountered
and refractoriness becomes a consideration.
Oh and before I forget, that /igh refractoriness can aid in 07irectional
)olidification0 if your a #eener and can figure that stuff out when you ma#e
your mold.
!nd another minor point that might be worth #nowing @ircon has trace
elements of Cranium and Thorium , no big deal... Bust so you #now... 7ispose
of as the law tells you, though it doesn't say specifically that the sand itself is
ha-ardous...
"ey (nfoK
Bowest thermal E)pansion <.<<8%Ainch/ Melting point 9+<<!A2:8-#/ an
elliptical or rounded shape and slightly acidic pH/ an A!" g$n o$ +: to *9<
with *<< as the most common.

3o 5#y all t#e #ype on T#eral 8%pansionGGG
!lthough )ilica )and is the most common sand, it has some characteristics that
influence it's behavior when used within a mold.
The silica is considered to be in an !lpha Fuart- )tate when below appro.
+%%%,, above that temp it changes to a &eta Fuart- state that is typified by
significant e.pansion. The results of this e.pansion can be mold wall
movement, &uc#les, scabs, *at's tails etc...
)imilarly )ilica sand having a relatively lower melting point compared to the
other sands, has issues with metals that approach and e.ceed ++$%, in the form
of 02etting0 the point where metal starts to cover the surface of the sand grain
faces and ,lu.es with Iron... I don't really get the flu.ing part, but all will
come clear in time..."

A$3 6rain $ineness Nu,er &gfn' F 6rain *istri,ution
2ords li#e 0,ine, 1edium ? 'oarse0 are somewhat vague and sub:ect to
interpretation in the abscence of some form of relativistic model... Than# God
the !merican ,oundry )ociety stepped in and implemented a numeric scale
that does away with all that inaccuracy...
The !,) gfn covers average grain si-e and distribution, as this is an average it
may be somewhat deceptive.
he !,) scale typically covers +6 to 19% according to the Te.t boo#" &ut I
personally have never heard of anything less than ;% or D% on the coarse side
and have regularly heard of fine grains that top the +%% - ++% range...
!nd that's the pointGGG 7on't confuse individual grain 1esh K's with !,) gfn,
as the gfn is an !I(*!G(GGG
2hy such a rangeJJJ Too coarse a gfn is reflected in the surface of the casting,
too fine a gfn and the mold can't pass the gases from the molten metal during
the pour and results in gas related defects.
!nd again on a personal note, I #now from painful e.perience if you can't pass
gas, there will be unpleasant results...

3and !andling
)o if your sand is a distribution of 1esh si-es that is averaged to an !,) gfn,
then it would stand to reason that you would want that distribution to stay, well,
distributed...
'onsider a tumbler of sand rotating on an inclined a.is, the fines grains move
to the bottom, and the coarse grains move to the top. Or :ust a conveyor that is
dumping the sand into a cone shaped pile, the fine grains typically will
accumulate in the center of the cone rising vertically as the cone builds
surrounded by coarser material rolling off to the sides and surrounding the
base...
The above illustrates e.amples of 0)egregation0 and will impact casting =uality
if the !,) gfn distribution is not retained.
3and -eclaation
1an does this 1odule never end...
)o you have some sand, you selected it based on the type that suits your casting
specifications, you ensured that you ordered the right !,) gfn for the metal or
alloy to be cast, Mou've employed 1%%'s of 1,%%%'s of dollars to ensure that the
!,) gfn distribution is retained, Mou cast you first casting and now whatJJJ
Mou open your chec# boo# and hope that you can afford even more machinery
to handle the tas# of )and *eclamationGGG
On the most basic level the spent molds have to be bro#en up to ma#e the sands
flow for molding in the ne.t casting. !long with brea#ing-up the spent mold,
0)and ,ines0 sub-!,) gfn si-ed material that results from mechanical
handling of the sand", spent binder material and any metallic refuse need to be
removed.
!nd for high production foundries the sand has to be cooled prior to re-use if
the production cycle is that rapid.
!s I said, get that chec# boo# out as it ain't gonna be cheap...
Mec#anical -eclaation Processes
The following are e.amples of various methods of mechanically reclaiming
spent mold sands.
Baw 'rusher
Aneumatic )crubbers
Iibratory *eduction
)hot &last *eduction
1echanical )and )crubber
/eating Cnits to burn out residual binders - this is employed when dealing with
chemically bonded sands that use a resin that has cured and can not be re-
activated... (.cessive amounts of cured resins that accumulate in the sand
impact the 3OI or 3oss on Ignition rating of the sand.
)and 'oolers
!ll of the above should not aggravate the accumulation of 0,ines0 by
e.cessively rough handling of sands. )ands that are classed as angular impart
specific properties to the mold and casting, but those attributes are altered if the
sand is literally bro#en by force during the reclamation process and result in a
sand that is now round.
The removal of metals" from the sand is also important as it will directly
impact the refractoriness of the sand and casting =uality and defects. (specially
in a Bobber ,oundry where various alloys are cast using the same sand if it suits
the purpose....this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule 1 1!T3 1T&9+,
please turn over the tape to continue listening to 1odule +.

Casting ...
MATL MTB7+ Module + - Course Notes...

8ven More... hysical roperties of !and
This module will &e considera&ly shorter than others posted as some o$ the
material was already covered in Module K*... n$ortunately it also lacks any
really e)citing content/ &eyond the rather dry classi$ication and assessment
procedures employed within commercial $oundries.
Bonded F DnBonded 3and
This refers to loose sand that has been screened, dried and filtered of impurities
such as carbaceous materials and minerals that would adversely affect the
thermal specifications of the sand. Cnbonded sand usage within the commercial
foundry sector is relatively new since the 1D6%'s" as a result of the
development of various casting processes and new synthetic binding agents.
Arior to the 1D6%'s all foundry sand usage was clay bonded sand, and
presumably was classed as such... 8aturally occurring bonded sand is mined
from river ban#s and similar deposits vague..."
3i1es and 3#apes of 3ands
This section applies to all $ four" sand types listed in 1odK1 )ilica, Olivine,
'hromite, and @ircon"
The 4 three" general shape descriptions of 1old Fuality sands are !ngular,
)ub-!ngular and *ounded, the chart to the right is as good a gauge of the
various classifications and shapes of sand as you'll find...
! fourth classification e.ists 0'ompound0, but compound sands are not
ade=uate for 1etal 'asting due to their fragile nature typically + grains of
lightly fused sand, creating a compound grain" and the mechanical and thermal
stresses of casting.
The 4 three" )and shapes impart various properties such as flowability for
mechani-ed handling and molding", permeability and binder strength.
-ounded 3ands
*ounded )ands offer e.cellent permeability but lac# any interloc#ing strength,
in an unbonded state. In a bonded state re=uire less binder though with a
reduced permeability, but good flow characteristics.
Angular 3ands
!ngular )ands e.hibit lower permeability though with superior interloc#ing
strength when unbonded. In a bonded state re=uire more binder to cover the
higher surface area, and are prone to produce significat sand fines due to sharp
corners brea#ing from mechanical handling.
3u,-Angular 3ands
Aredictably )ub-!ngular sands are a median between *ounded and )ub-
!ngular...
&etter permeability than !ngular, but not as good as *ounded when unbonded,
better interloc#ing strength than *ounded, but not as good as !ngular. 1ore
binder is re=uired than *ounded, but not as much as !ngular, with less fines
generated than angular, but more than *ounded, and a similar mid-point of
flowability.
It is common practice for foundries to use a mi.ture of sand shapes to achieve a
balance of the above properties for their specific molding, handling and casting
needs.

The + two"
e.tremes of sand
shape would be Bo(
"phericalA1ery
Angular grain
compared to a Hi(
"phericalADell
Rounded Grain.
Grain shape has a
considerable
influence on binder
adhesion and =ty,
due to the variance
in grain surface
area.
Grain shape also
influences mold
strength and
permeability.
The last point is that
Grain shape has a
natural tendency to
change from
Angular to
Rounded, due to
handling and usage over time. The points or material that is bro#en off an
angular grain remains in the sand and is termed %!ines%, the =ty of fines also
impacts mold permeability.

A$3 - gfn &6rain $ineness Nu,er'
*efer to previous 1odule for general info...
It should be noted that the ,oundry determines what is an appropriate !,)-gfn
to provide the appropriate molding properties and finished product for a given
casting, though there are general guidelines but the variability of processes,
alloys, sand types and binders precludes a definitive chart that can be referred
to for selection.
Fuality 'ontrol practices should begin at the shipping doc# when new
unbonded sand arrives at the foundry, beyond the typical chec#s to ensure that
the proper =ty and condition of the material reflects what was ordered, a
sampling of the sand for !,)-gfn should be conducted to ensure that an
appropriate grain distribution e.ists that will be consistent with e.pected
=uality of molds and ultimately castings produced.
!t some point within this module the first of a series of 0On-3ine
3abs<!ssignments will be completed0 The 1T&9+ 1od + 3ab is an actual
!,)-gfn determination. details to follow - provided I pass the 3ab... /aGGG"

To perform the test a predetermined =ty of sand is removed from the batch,
machine or transfer point to be tested. !,)-gfn readings may be grossly
inaccurate if an inappropriate test point provides the sample refer to e.amples
in 1od1 of sand separation due to handling".
!lways ,ollow !,)-11%1-%-) specification to ensure consistent sampling, for
those unfamiliar with !,)-11%1-%-) )and should be ac=uired from a free-
falling stream of sand by passing the container through the stream at a uniform
speed, clearly passing through without overflowing the container...
The sand is weighed to determine a start point or reference. The odds of
actually collecting e.actly to the gram the amount re=uired is very unli#ely, so
it is best to get easily twice as much as you thin# will be the re=uired weight.
I assume that the weight will be
different for each foundry, but once
that =ty is established all testing
will be done with that target weight.
The illustration to the right is a rather lame and grossly inaccurate
representation of a simple sand separator.
! series of evenly spaced slots alternatively direct the sand into &ins 1 and +
respectively.
,or your own piece of mind each bin can be weighed to ensure that the
separator does indeed separate in e=ual parts.
The separator though simplistic is essential in retaining the grain distribution.
The initial =ty of sand is divided over and over again, and weighed until by
)uccessive appro.imation the target weight is arrived at...
ieEInitial weight $94 Grams, Target sample weight 1%%g

&in1 &in+
)plit 1
+45.6g
)plit"
+45.6g 7iscard"
)plit +
11;.+6g
)plit"
11;.+6 7iscard"
)plit 4
6D.1+g
&!old'
6D.1+g )plit"
)plit $
+D.65g
&!old'
+D.65g )plit"
)plit 6
1$.9;g
)plit"
1$.9;g 7iscard"
)plit 5 9.4Dg &!old' 9.4Dg )plit"
)plit 9 4.5Dg &!old' 4.5Dg 7iscard"
The $ four" /old bins should total DD.95g, obviously I've rounded bac# to
1%%th's of a gram and have pre-calculated the appro.imation value after the
first sub-target split value of 6D.1+g was hit, and assumed perfect division of
the )plit weights...
I #now that I can repeat the thought process to determine the split<hold and
discard points, but have no interest in writing out a long prXcis on the theory of
successive appro.imation.
The above being said, measurement to within %.+$g is good enough for me ?
my staff, but more anal supervisors may
demand greater precision...
!ll the 0/old0 bins are dumped together and
weighed chec# that the weight is as
calculated" If there is a gross margin of error
- 3ather, *inse and repeat...
5ote= Do(5ot attempt to simply scoop a &it
o$ sand out &y hand or with a spoon to
adEust the weight &etween &ins in an attempt
to arrive at the "ample weight 'uicker...
This is grounds $or dismissal/ consider this
your written warningJJJ

The 7iagram to the right illustrates a typical
range of )ieve 1esh si-es used in an !,)-
gfn test.
8OT(O The word 0Typical0 implies that
there may be other si-es that can be used for
specific sand distribution ranges, but this
listing can be considered an e)ample, but
not 0the e)ample0.
The )ieves have collars that surround the
mesh and allow them to be stac#ed securely into a column, with a closed pan at
the bottom to catch any material that passes through the finest 1esh sieve.
(nsure that all sieves are completely free of any sand or residue from a
previous test before beginning.
The 'olumn of sieves is placed into an agitator that securely holds the column
and will apply a vibratory action on it to wor# the grains through the various
mesh si-es. This process is run for appro. 16 minutes to ensure that a thorough
separation has occurred.
The sieves are separated and the various distributions are weighed and
documented.
)ince I haven't done the actual 3ab yet... I'm a bit unsure but..." It would seem
that !,)-gfn is ran#ed as a 4, $ or 6 sieve distribution with the condition of at
least 1%> of the total sample weight is present on 4, $ or 6 ad:acent sieves... I
thin#...
)ince that is the case it's li#ely that there is a minimum value as a percentage of
the total sample si-e re=uired to a !,)-gfn to be within or out of bounds of the
e.pected valueJJJ
The point of grain si-e distribution is to stri#e a balance between voids and
permeability of sand.
!ccording to the lecture notes... If a uniform si-e of rounded grains is
compactly rammed, the total volume would still consist of appro. $%> void
space, if the si-e was reduced considerably but remained consistent, it would
still have an e=ual volume of voids...
The solution is to use a distribution of varying grain si-es to fill-in voids to
improve surface finishes, and an added note that )ilica ,lour also can be used
to increase mold densities.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule + 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn over

.
Mohawk College - !and " Molding
#echnology ...

'lay and 'lay 1inerals
!ll clays essentially can be considered /ydrous !lumina )ilicates - I was
unsure what that meant so with Google 07efineO .....0
/ydrous - 'ontaining water, typically chemically bound water or water of
hydration.
!lumina - !n aluminum o.ide compound !l
+
O
4
is a family of compounds
found naturally in clays such as bau.ite or #aolin
)ilicate - ! roc# or mineral whose structure is dominated by bonds of silicon
and o.ygen atoms
The !lumina ? )ilicate components are physical and can be defined on an
elemental level, the /ydrous component is what gives clay it's adhesive and
slippery properties.
The elemental definition of water /
+
O bonds to the !lumina )ilicate through 4
three" methods, (lectrostatic &onding, )urface tension and inter particle
,riction.
The electrostatic bonding mechanism can be defined as dipolar forces initiated
by the preferential absorption of Aositive and 8egative Ions within the /ydrous
solution. The te.t definition goes on for a full page on micellular di-pole
structures...
The #ey component is that this solution has an ionic component that has
enough strength to retain the hydrous element... in english 'lay will dry-out,
but wants to retain a certain amount of water.
!lso the elemental chemistry of various clay types have varying degrees of p/
in part due to the ionic retention of the hydrous component This may be
grossly inaccurate as I've tried to reduce a tremendous amount of detail into as
short a definition as possible"
'lay particles are rather flat in shape and typically can be imagined to stac#
li#e a dec# of cards, this near + dimensionality of alumina silicate when
hydrated imparts the characteristic slippery plasticity of clay. ! typical
individual !lumina )ilicate platelet or fla#e ranges between 1<6%%% to
1<6%,%%%0 in diameter, 1 gram of &entonite, if separated into individual
platelets would cover an area of appro. ;%% s= meters.
Green )and ? 'lays"
!s a binder for sand, clay can be added in proportions ranging from 6> thru to
1+>. The =ty of clay used is influnced by numerous factors such as sand shape,
grain si-e, alloy being poured, si-e and thic#ness section of castings being
poured and the desired sha#e-out characteristics.
!lthough it would appear that the stronger the mold the better, issues can arise
with molds that hinder the collapsability of the mold as the casting contracts
during solidification such as 0/ot Tears0
'lay &onded sand is rated on it's 0Green )trength0 or ability to hold it's shape
until the metal has been poured, and it's 0/ot )trength0 it's ability to hold it's
shape until the metal has solidified.
The 0&ig-4 of 'lay's0 - )outhern &entonite, 2estern
&entonite ? Haolinite
&entonite is mined and consumed in the 8orth !merican mar#et ; to 1 vs
Haolinite, with annual gross weights of 9%%,%%% tons vs D%,%%% tons.
The #ey compositions of the &ig-4 are summari-ed below

Coposition
Base
8%c#ange
-efractoriness
!ydrous
9uality
3#rin0age
&on
drying'
Particle
3i1e
Eestern
Bentonite
O/"
$
!l
$
)i
;
O
+%
-
n/
+
O
/igh. 8a
Ion p/L;-
1%
+1%%-+$6%,
11$;-14$+'
Iery
/igh.
Gel
,orming
Iery /igh U%.%%%%10
'lass 1!
2yo, ).
7a#, Ctah"
D%>
montmorillonite
1%> =uart-,
feldspar mica,
etc...
3out#ern
Bentonite
O/"
$
!l
$
)i
;
O
+%
-
n/
+
O
/igh. 'a
Ion p/L$-
5.6
1;%%, N
D;+' N
)light,
modest
Gelling
Iery /igh U%.%%%%10
'lass 1&
1ississippi"
;6>
montmorillonite
16> =uart-,
limonite, etc...
"aolinite O/"
;
!l
$
)i
;
O
1%
Iery low
4%%%-41%%,
15$9-19%4'
Iery
3ow.
8on gel
forming
3ow
typically
coarse
ground to
flour
'lass II Ill.,
Ohio"
5%> Haolinite,
4%> illinite,
1%> =uart-,
etc...
'hart abbreviated from !,) - Technology of 1etalcasting - )chleg
?$ note a&ove is the Alkalinity o$ the clays &ased on their ionic &onding atom
,5a or #a $or the @entonites./ The elemental $ormulas listed donBt accurately
re$lect the percentile mineral composition o$ the clays.
Eestern Bentonite - is the most popular clay for green sand molding due
to it's compatibility with a broad range of alloys. !lthough it has D%> of the
Green )trength of )outhern &entonite it has significantly more Green )trength
than the ,ire-'lays, and superior /ot )trength characteristics than )outhern
&entonite.
2ith careful control of moisture content most foundries can use 1%%> 2estern
&entonite and avoid blending clays.
Typically moisture content should be #ept between 4; and $+> of !ctive 'lay
as opposed to burnt or spent clay due to firing from previous pours".
Too much moisture impacts the moldability of the sand and sha#e-out
characteristics, while too little moisture effects mold surface stability, and
contributes to erosion defects and mold crac#s.
2estern &entonite re=uires additional 1ulling over )-&en" due to it's
e.pansion properties when hydrated.

)outhern &entonite - /as poor /ot ? 7ry strength properties that e.clude it
from use in steel or 'ast Iron 'asting, as the clay is destroyed above 9%%'.
The hydration of )outhern &en. re=uires less mulling to completely coat sand
grains, offering greater Green )trength, but e.hibits more brittleness that
impacts the ability to e.tract patterns that re=uire deep poc#ets in the mold.
)ou. &en. lends itself well to high production foundries that employ
mechani-ed molding due to it's /igh Green strength.
,oundries and ,oundry supply houses commonly blend the &entonite clays to
achieve an averaging of their beneficial properties, and Haolinite is also
blended with either or both clays to improve the refractoriness of the binder.
,ireclay Haolinite" - !lthough Haolinite clay has the highest refractoriness of
the clay families it has substantially lower green, hot ? dry strength. )imilarly
Haolinite re=uires 1<4 more water to be hydrated as the &entinites, and + to 4
times as much clay is needed to achieve similar coverage.
Property 3odiu Bentinite Calciu Bentonite "aolinite
H Clay to 3and 6 6 1+
H oisture +.6 +.6 4.%
6reen Copression
&P3('
11.+ 1+.$ 1%.+
*ry Copression
&P3('
1%1 5D 91.6
!ot Copression L
&P3('

1000$
11% 66 96
1700$
+1% 1%4 1$6
1@70$
6+% 16% 19%
+000$
4$6 9+ 61%
+700$
; $ +9

Priary Tests
The following are a series of what are considered Arimary Tests that are run on
a continual basis hourly" within a commercial foundry operation to ensure
Green )and performance is maintained at a consistent level.
This modules has $ four" 3ab !ssignments that relate to these tests.
6reen Copression 3trengt# - This is the most common test, and establishes a
benchmar# that allows foundries to compare a standard. This measure can be
affected by 1ulling, clay selection, =uantity of 'lay and moisture.

Copacta,ility - Offers an e.cellent indicator of either Over or Cnder
Tempering of Green )and, when combined with 1oisture testing, this test
becomes a good indicator of sand consistency.
Perea,ility - is a measure of the 0Openness0 of a green sand mi.ture, and is a
determinant in the sand's ability to vent gases. Too high a permeability results
in surface finish defects, and too low results in gas related defects. Aermeability
is used to aid in determining proper !,) -Grain distribution.
Moisture - Testing is also classed as a Arimary test , as the clay is activated
with water and it's plasticity is a function of it's level of hydration. 1any of the
other properties of green sand are dependant on accurate maintenance of proper
moisture levels, Green )trength, /ot )trength, ,lowability and Aermeability...
Teperature - The last of the Arimary tests is Temperature, this relates to high
production environments, where green sand is cycled from mold thru sha#e out,
mulled and into mold again at a high rate. The accepted rule is that sand must
be under 1+%, to re-activate clay binders, and mulling must also occur below
that threshold point. Green sand mulled above 1+%, is simply mi.ed together,
and the sand grains are not being coated.

3econdary Tests
This series of tests are performed less fre=uently daily or wee#ly depending on
volume and test"
Active Clay Content - !H! 1ethelyne &lue Test is used to determine the
percentage of active clay remaining in the green sand mi.. )ince the total clay
blend is determined by the alloy being cast, si-e and weight to sand ratio, the
percentage of 07ead0 or clay that can no longer be re-activated must be
determined to ensure consistency of castings.
Total $ines - the fines or sub-granular content must be maintained below +.6
and $> depending on the castings being produced. The accumulation of fines
from dead clay, sand fractures, or other green sand additives can adversely
effect casting =uality by reduction of permeability, higher moisture
re=uirements or brittle molds affecting green strength.
A$3 -gfn - Grain si-e distribution was beaten-up and left for dead in the
previous module...

Eet Tensile 3trengt# - is an integral function of the green sand process. 2T)
can be adversely impacted by shifts in the !,)-gfn, or accumulation of
contaminants in the sand. T2) is a good indicator of the =uality of the
&entonite in use.

L/( &Loss on (gnition' - ,or some alloys it is necessary to add carbonaceous
material such as 0)eacoal0. 3OI is used to determine the amount of combustible
material in the green sand.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule 4 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn over

#echnology ...
Eater
This module is relatively brief, but is dedicated to the most essential and most
abused material within the green sand molding composition... 2ater.
!s stated in the previous module notes, the water or a=ueous component of clay
goes beyond simply wetting the other minerals. There is an ionic bonding
mechanism at wor# that has water penetration that ranges from 4 to 1%
molecules into the platelet structure.
The ideal hydration of the clay and sand mi.ture is the 0Temper0 of the sand.
Ideal hydration is the point that all water is engaged within the clay structure
and it can absorb no more... &ut there is no e.cess water that is free within the
sand 'lay mi.ture. The terms discussed are 0!dsorbed nor absorbed" ? ,ree
2ater. !dsorbed is the point of ideal hydration, while ,ree 2ater is any
e.cess.
It is the water clay-bond that gives molding sand it's plasticity.
!nd remember each clay type has uni=ue points of hydration.
!ig# *ensity Molding &!*M' - It should be noted that when the molding
process is mechani-ed as in /71 practice, there is a reduced moisture content
re=uired.
Moisture Content
This is a variable due to many factors that influence the re=uirement of waterE
clay type,
percentage of live to dead clay,
the method of mulling,
)upplementary additives Organics - flour etc"
)and Type, shape and grain distribution and fines
Molding 3and Properties ;s Moisture Content
Given that some of the above factors are variable over the life of the sand, the
moisture re=uirements of the sand are similarly dynamic. This implies that to
aim for a static numerical value for moisture content is impossible. *ather, it is
the influence that moisture has on the molding sand that should be aimed at,
these are the various green and hot strength values that are re=uired to create
=uality castings.
!n important factor in the water clay relationship is 0'ompactability0, this
characteristic influences the strength of the molding sand, in an /71
application the sand has a compactability between 4% to $%>.
The Temper point of the sand is the point of ideal hydration, pea# Green
strength as well as ideal, resistance to deformation, toughness and permeability.
!ot 3and Considerations.
The heat of the casting process obviously liberates a =ty of water from the
mold, though it should be noted that the ionic bonds that hold the water and
clay in solution are rather wea# and even temperatures as low as 1+%f to 15%,
well below boiling" still influence the liberation of water. )and molding and
testing should be restricted to temperatures below 1%%,.
It stands to reason that the sand to metal ratio has a significant influence on the
moisture losses associated with the casting process. ,or e.ample a 6%lb mold
that receives 1 lb of molten metal dissipates less heat than a similar =ty of sand
that receives 6 lbs of the same !lloy, which brings to light the influence of the
alloy type. !luminum as a significantly lower thermal transfer re=uirement
than a ferrous alloy such as 'ast Iron, on a volumetric scale as well in
consideration of mass.
(.cess 1oisture 7efects - are found within the following list, deformation
oversi-ed" castings, gas pic#-up resulting in porosity defects, fine crac#s, as
well as hot tears due to too high a hot strength that does not allow the casting to
shrin# uniformly.
2ater li#e most materials, e.pands as it rises in temperature 2ater can e.pand
up to $.4> above it's original volume between 6' and 1%%', above 1%%' the
point of vapori-ation" water e.pands rapidly to 15%% times it's li=uid volume.
)uch a rapid e.pansion of a significant =ty of free water within a mold can
result in an e.plosion.
I picture a shower of li=uid metal droplets emanating outward li#e bullets onto
wor#ers, tools, and building walls and wor# benches. The impact of each
droplet in my nightmare scenario has all of my buildings engulfed in flames
even the hunt camp located a Hm away, I said it was a nightmare" as well as
our house similarly located a distance from the foundry".
The e.pansive property of e.cess or free water within a mold is further
e.asperated by the resultant decrease of the mold's permeability.
2ater can actually be decomposed at e.cessive heat when in contact with
certain alloys, in the case of 'ast Iron the thermo-chemical interaction is
illustrated as 4,e N $/+O Y ,e4O$ N $ /+, essentially forming iron o.ide
rust" and hydrogen on contact. )urely some clever engineer can use this to
create a new energy economy...

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule $ 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn over

.

#echnology ...
6reen 3and Additives
!s the previous module dealt with the issues associated with moisture water"
as the most important consideration in the maintenance of green sand, this
module will address the numerous other materials that can be added and their
effect ? purpose.
To be clear, the only reason to modify or change the properties of the foundry
sand is to improve the =uality of the castings. This can be in the form of
superior surface finishes, reducing or removing persistent defects and the scrap
rate associated with such defects. Other considerations such as flowability or
handling of the sand are included, this area would cover the molding process,
the molds properties in terms of strength, sha#eout, reclamation, and =uic#
reusability for high production foundries.
Through all of the above the primary ob:ective is to establish consistency in the
Green )and formula. I personally feel that there is no optimal or super sand
system, and the end product will be an assortment of benefits and compromises.
;aria,ility T#eory - I found that it was worth my while to 0google - 7efineO
Iariability, 'onsistency and Fuality to get a better sense of their meaning, due
to their typically sub:ective nature 8ote - this definitely won't be on the e.am,
but is an e.ercise that frames a deeper understanding of the overall ob:ective.
*efine= varia,ility-
The characteristic of a product or process in which parameters fluctuate to a
significant degree but do not typically trend in a specific direction. *eduction
of variability is a priority in systems that attempt to ensure consistent =uality
and reduce lead times.
www.&ridge$ieldgroup.comAglosC.htm
! spread of possible outcomes around an e.pected outcome
www.show.scot.nhs.ukAp$cuA3lossary.html
varia,le control c#art- ! chart presenting actual data from =uality tests that
shows the range, upper and lower limits, and deviation characteristics of a set
of observations.
www.&ridge$ieldgroup.comAglosC.htm

*efine= Consistency
logic" an attribute of a logical system that is so constituted that none of the
propositions deducible from the a.ioms contradict one another
www.cogsci.princeton.eduAcgi(&inAwe&wn
! measure of the ability of a particular method to converge on the correct
answer as the sample si-e becomes infinite.
www.Goology.u&c.caALottoAEvolDiscA3lossary.html
*efine= 9uality
The characteristics of an item or process that indicate its conformance to
designated parameters, and its degree of perceived customer acceptance or
satisfaction. Fuality characteristics often include reliability, consistency and the
ability to continue performance in stress or volume situations, but are critical
only in relation to the value placed on them by the user or customer.
www.&ridge$ieldgroup.comAglosI.htm
The totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to
satisfy given needs.
www.2asc.comAascwe&AproductsM2<andM2<servicesAriskA@est
M2<PracticesAcontentAresourceAgloss.htm
)o as a Green )and - 1ission )tatement, we could say that 0Our goal is to
reduce the Iariability of the mi.ture such that we can achieve and maintain
'onsistency in an effort to provide Fuality castings.0
Additives - 1any of the additives are naturally occurring minerals, as such
there is a degree of variability in the composition of the additives. This property
of variability contributes in a cumulative fashion as additives are introduced.
This is the rational to minimi-ing the use of additives.
/rganic Additives - include but are not limited to 'ereals, resins, proteins, and
oils.
Cereals - This additive covers the variety of 0,lours0 including corn, wheat,
milo, and rye. The term flour implies a very fine particle si-e.
The purpose of introducing a cereal structure into the molding sand is to
increase plasticity, and dry strength, as well as aid in retaining moisture. The
improved green strength and deformation properties reduce sand inclusions.
The green and hot strength properties of the mold can be improved with cereal
additions between %.+6> and +> by weight. 'ereals typically are destroyed at
temperatures between 6%%, and 9%%,.
In summary, the appropriate addition of cereal material, improves plasticity,
green ? hot )trength, while contributing to the =uality of the casting.
Points of consideration are - The contact of molten metal creates dead material
that will be accumulating in the molding sand over successive castings,
ultimately contributing to e.cessive fines.
(.cessive cereal may rob water from the temper point of the clay and actually
reduce green and hot strength of molding material. (.cessive water and cereal
may create such a high hot strength that the mold can not shrin# or collapse as
the metal solidifies and create hot tears.
)imilarly e.cessive water<cereal combinations typically e.hibit gassing defects
ranging from hydrogen formation to carbon mono.ide and 'arbon 7io.ide
formations.
Cellulose - This additive covers the variety of 0,lours0 including wood, rice
hus#<hull and nut shells. The term flour implies a very fine particle si-e.
The purpose of introducing 'ellulose material is to absorb e.cess water and
improve the flowability of the sand during the molding process.
The destruction of the cellulose material at the mold metal interface creates a
cushioning effect, where the burnt cellulose matter leaves voids that allow the
sand grains to e.pand while retaining better mold dimensional accuracy. This
cushioning effect can aid in reducing scabs, rat-tails, veining, crac#s, hot tears
and buc#le type defects.
!gain, bearing in mind the variability of additives the initial introduction of
cereals should be between 1> and +> of the total weight of the batch.
In summary, the appropriate addition of cellulose material, improves
flowability, dimensional stability and sha#e-out properties while contributing to
the =uality of the casting.
Points of consideration are - The contact of molten metal creates dead material
that will be accumulating in the molding sand over successive castings,
ultimately contributing to e.cessive fines.
!lso li#e cereal material, 'ellulose material if used e.cessively can undermine
the ideal temper of the water<clay ratio and reduce green ? hot strength
properties, resulting in associate defects such as wash-out, wall movement,
gassing, etc...
(norganic Additives - include but are not limited to cement, silicates and some
esters.
(ron /%ide - is a fine inorganic additive that has it's place primarily with )ilica
based sands. The purpose of adding Iron O.ide is to aid in the thermal transfer
of heat from the mold metal interface, and provide some stabili-ation of the
mold's dimensional properties.
This thermal property is most effective with alloys that promote the
li=uefaction of Iron O.ide creating the best thermal transfer properties, while
leaving room for the sand grains to e.pand.
Points of consideration are - The introduction of fines and the effect on
permeability, the scavenging effect the Iron O.ide has on the moisture content,
potentially reducing Green ? /ot )trength, and the pronounced brittleness or
reduced plasticity" of the mold, which may impact the ability to draw patterns
that have deep poc#ets.
)imilarly the addition of Iron O.ide has an effect on the refractoriness of the
molding sand and may contribute to 0&urn-On0 type defects.
Car,onaceous Materials - These materials are applicable to 'ast Iron alloys
and some of the larger, thic# walled copper alloy molding sands. 'arbonaceous
material is used to improve the surface =uality of the casting. 8ote that
carbonaceous materials are 8OT used in the casting of steel, as it would
introduce carbon and alter the alloy in undesirable ways.
The term that describes how a casting separates at the mold metal interface is
called 0Aeel0. This property is enhanced by the addition of carbonaceous
material.
The list of 'arbonaceous materials includes but is not limited to" seacoal,
asphalt, Gilsonite, lignite and petroleum distillates. Of these the most common
is )eacoal, a finely crushed bituminous coal.
)eacoal is typically added at +> to ;> by weight relative to the batch of
molding sand. The Iolatile nature of the powered coal produces a significant
volume of smo#e and gas, though the gases aid in producing a non-o.idi-ing
atmosphere for the metal surface with the addition of 03ustrous 'arbon0
This production of gases necessitates the addition of vents to aid in the
dispersion of the gas. The materials listed above have significantly higher
volumes of 0Iolatile 'arbons0 and as such can replace seacoal in a 1 to + ratio
half as much as was used of the seacoal".
Points of consideration are - The effect of fines from the seacoal and the
re=uirement of heavy venting due to reduced permeability. !lso the
introduction of e.cessive asphalt, gilsonite, lignite and petroleum distillates,
that essentially water-proofing the sand and clay, inhibiting the hydration of the
clay and bonding action, resulting in poor Green ? /ot )trength properties.
! general note that applies to all modifications to the green sand mi.tures,
regardless of additive is the volumes or masses of material. The e.amples given
for 'ast Iron green sands are all listed in the per-ton ranges. The larger the
scale of production typically the easier the additives are to control assuming
ade=uate mechani-ation is employed to handle such volumes". The illustration
that comes to mind is the maintenance of an a=uarium for fish, it's generally
much easier to maintain the properties of a larger 1%%g" tan# than it is for a
small 6g" tan#, and if 1I8O* errors are made, the larger medium can be
somewhat more forgiving...
Polyer Additives - These materials are relatively new additions to the foundry
and serve the purpose of lowering the surface tension of the water, offering
better clay hydration and superior coating properties to the sand. This modified
water of sorts can ma#e minor allowances for hot sand molding environments
by the reduced moisture loss relative to the less hydrated clay.
)imilarly the use of polymers to enhance hydration can translate into reduced
mulling re=uirements
C#eical Additives - I thin# the name is too generic as everything can be
reduced to a chemical compositionJ no matter... !n e.ample of a chemical
additive would be )oda !sh for the purpose of reducing the acidic p/ that
results from cereal usage or the contamination of molding sand by the
introduction of spent core material that was cataly-ed by an acidic process.
This counter action of a lowered or acidic p/ is employed to stabili-e the
properties of the &entonite clays that are effected by acid p/ resulting in a
wea#er bond strength.
The soda ash is added in proportions that restore the p/ to the ; - D range,
though be aware that this will activate clay that has been dormant and result in
variations in mulling and significant modifications to Green compression
strength. If this occurs, avoid the 0Hnee-Ber#0 response of reducing the clay
content...
I hope you get the picture that as soon as we start to modify one parameter we
effect other parameters and soon, we're ma#ing additions that are counter acting
previous additions, ad nauseum...
In summary, only employ additives to impart a characteristic improvement in
the sand for the casting at hand, select the additives" carefully with the
implications on the entire system as materials decompose due to e.posure at the
mold metal interface, as well as any supplementary additives that may unduly
complicate the maintenance process in the course of counter-acting the effects
of initial additives.
*ilution 3and
This is the addition of sand of an appropriate grain si-e or distribution to buffer
or counter act the accumulation of fines and restore permeability. (ssentially
dilution sand can be added to counter act a variety of additive related issues, as
the name implies it dilutes the general composition based on the volumes of the
composition and the volume of dilution re=uired to achieve a specific purpose.
&e aware that the addition of dilution sand may re=uire the proportionate
addition of other constituents to ensure that the mi.ture retains it's desired
properties.
In closing, dilution sand is typically added at the rate of +%> to 4%> to
maintain the sand mi. over time. !ll clay-based Green )and mi.ture inevitably
re=uire some maintenance to ensure that 'ompactability, *efractoriness and
Aermeability via grain distribution remains within acceptable ranges.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odule 6 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn over

#echnology ...
MATL MTB7+ Module&s'?F7 - Course Notes...
1odules 5 ? 9 could be under one heading of binders, these are of greater
interest for the purpose of creating 'ores. 'ores are parts of the mold that
typically are placed after the pattern is removed and form internal passage ways
within the casting.
Initially I thought that 1ohaw# had glossed over the topic of core-binders, with
a gross lac# of detail on the chemical binder systems found in the foundry
industry. Cpon careful reading and research into the chemical binder systems, I
started to see the typically high environmental impact these systems impose.
The families of ,uran, Ahenolic Crethane, and Crea ,ormaldehyde, impose
significant capital and operating overheads to be handled in an effective and
safe manner. !lthough I en:oy the e.posure to the spectrum of industrial
processes, regardless of their applicability to my foundry, I agree with the
'olleges choice in omitting significant detail on these systems.
Module : ? - Protein ,ased Binders
This family of binders is a recent innovation developed by General 1otors
'orp. G1 began with an *?7 effort in 1DD% to replace their current binder
systems with a more environmentally friendly system that could compete with
regard to 'ost ? Aerformance properties.
The result was a Aolymer-Aeptide based binder that is formed through the use
of 03ong-'hain !mino !cids0, these amino acids are found in the base
material 0'ollagen 'ompounds0 ? an additive that promotes thermal
brea#down is also included . The materials are derived from renewable
naturally occurring sources and refined into a non-to.ic compound.
The *?7 effort brought G1bond to mar#et in the late 1DD%'s. This product is
licensed through /ormel ,oods. !s an aside the licensing to a food industry
manufacturer is an indication of the low impact the compound has on the
environment, either a true testament or :ust clever mar#eting on the part of G1.
&elow is a lin# that has several Iideo clips on G1&ond
httpO<<www.gmbond.com<updateZvideo.html
(ssentially the process re=uires 1> protein based binder by weight, mi.ed dry
to a rounded grain sand. The addition of water acts as a catalyst that forms
polymer bonding of the mi.ture. The sand flowability is optimal at a lower
temperature. 'ores are blown or formed, and heated to create a &iopolar
crystalline structure from the polymeri-ation of the binder.
These cores e.hibit e.cellent tensile strength on the order of +%%psi with less
than +> binder. Arotein based core binders wor# well in !luminum and
1agnesium foundries as well as 'ast Iron production. 'I binder would have an
additional component ,errous O.ide" that improves surface finish added,
though must not be present for either !l or 1g castings.
The sha#eout characteristics are also e.cellent, as the core is reduced to free
sand due to thermal brea#down of the polymeri-ed biopolar crystal structure.
!ny retained core material is completely water soluble and is easily washed
form the casting.
The problems of 'ore Gases is also eliminated as well as the to.icity of
traditional core processes by as much as DD> in !l ? 1g production. !ll
aspects from initial mi.ing through post-casting reclamation share in the
benefits of an environmentally benign process.

Module :7 - C#eical Binders
This module will focus on the 08o-&a#e0 process and resin bonded sands.
5ote= There are signi$icant risks and high capital 4 operating costs associated
with certain $amilies o$ chemically &onded sands. This is related to $indings
that indicate carcinogenic properties and environmental concerns associated
with the reclamation and disposal o$ spent sands.
The resin based binders are typically a + two" part process. Initially the sand is
coated with a resin, and then activated with a second compound #nown as a
catalyst. The activation of the resin with a catalyst forms synthetic polymers
that create the high strength properties re=uired in the mold or core application.
The #ey distinction between the Arotein based binders and chemical is the
chemical catalyst vs a heat catalyst, and the formation of synthetic binding
polymers vs the amino acid based polymers that are water soluble.
The trend in the 1D;%'s was toward developing 08o-&a#e0 or room temperature
curing compounds.
The basic idea of establishing consistency in casting production is also
important when considering chemically bonded molds ? cores. The primary
constituent is the sand itself, ideally a sand that has a rounded shape re=uires
less binder and can provide improved mold<core densities and strengths.
)and handling has a significant impact on mold<core =uality, typically long
sand transports through steel piping should be avoided as it can degrade the
sand, also any process that might lead to segregation of the grain distribution is
to be avoided.
Teperature
The effects of temperature are important in both 0/eat Aattern0 process and the
08o-&a#e0 process.
Ideally /eat Aattern molding re=uires that temperatures are held within 6%, of
the target temperature based on the application datasheet for the binder system
being employed". The 8o-&a#e process re=uires that all processes be within the
range of 9%, to 1%%,. The mi.ing of sands an resins is inhibited by e.cessive
viscosity at temperature below 6%,, while the resins will begin to partially
evaporate at temperatures above 1%%,, leaving a gummy residue with poor
activation characteristics when the catalyst is introduced.
The property of activation or 0)et-Time0 is also influenced by the temperature
of the resin coated sand. The general rule of thumb is that for every 1% 7egrees
' the mi.ture is above the optimally recommended temperature, 1% minutes
can be removed from the 0)et-Time0 ieE If a resin coated mi.ture is rated to set
within 4%min if the mi.ture is at +4' when activated, a mi.ture at 44' will set
in +% mins, while a mi.ture at $4' would set in 1% mins... 8ote that a mi.ture
at $4' well above 1%%," would have very poor core<mold strength properties
due to decomposed resin prior to activation by the catalyst.
I doubt that it re=uires mentioning that sand<resin mi.tures at 64' will not
reverse time, by setting 6 minutes prior to the addition of the catalyst...
'onversely sand that is below 9%, can ta#e significantly longer to set or cure
when activated, while sands below 6%, are too viscous to be moved effectively
and would result in poor activation if at all. This condition is counteracted by
the use of in-line resin or sand heaters to aid to maintaining an ade=uate
temperature...
A*; - Acid *eand ;alue
7efined as the property of a sand or additive to affect the cure process as a
function of the materials acidity or basicity on the p/ scale.
The p/ scale is defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration within an a=ueous solution... This is the same scale that is used to
maintain drin#ing water, and a=uariums for fish #eepers etc...
The /ot-&o., 2arm-&o., !cid
'atalyst 8o-&a#es systems
re=uire an acidic !7I, while
'old-&o. and Ahenolic Crethane
processes re=uire a more basic
!7I.
This !7I re=uirement now demands that the sand be tested to ensure that it is
consistent with the process being employed, as the !7I of sands can drift over
use.
Moisture
The effects of e.cessive moisture can have tremendous impact on the
properties of the cured core<molds if outside the specified norms for the process
being used.
Typically moisture content is #ept below %.44> due to it's negative effects. this
is illustrated in the lecture notes asE
%The e$$ect o$ a hot summer day with *<<M humidity will cause the tensile
strength to drop &y 9 times%
The effect of moisture condensing on cool sand on a hot day is a significant
factor. This creates a parado. of sorts as there is also a relationship between the
speed of activation or the formation of the polymeri-ed bonds and the strength
of the core<mold. Cp to a limit, the slower the polymeri-ation of the resin, the
stronger the bond. The parado. e.ists in the molds ability to resist absorption of
moisture when cured but having to use comparably cooler sand to achieve the
slower catalyst activation, and creating a condition where condensation
potentially could occur. ,i$ you understood that on the $irst reading you can
take my spot in line $or the gold star....
*ensity
The core density also holds a relationship to the cured strength properties of
core<molds.
The most common way to influence density is through grain shape of the sand,
where a rounded shape will re=uire the least binder for effective coverage,
compactability increases between ; to 1%> over an angular grain shape.
!gain a balance has to be established as too high a density will adversely effect
the permeability of the core<mold and create issues associated with gas related
defects such as porosity.
8%pansion C#aracteristics
The final consideration in all binder systems, and especially for cores is the
thermal e.pansion characteristics of the sand being used... )ilica )and has the
worst characteristics at almost $ times the rate of e.pansion than, Olivine,
'hromite and @ircon )ands.
The dimensional integrity of the core within a closed area of the casting
potentially could create stress or hot tears, especially when a binder is used that
has poor collapsibility or too high a /ot )trength.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odules 5 ? 9 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn
over the tape to continue listening to 1odule ;.


#echnology ...
MATL MTB7+ Module @ - Course Notes...
!eat Activated C#eical Binder 3ystes
3et me retract, my statement in the previous section 5 ? 9", about the lac# of
coverage of the 0&inder )ystems0... This section and the ne.t + sections are
more info on binders...
The chemical binders are grouped by activation, the main groupings are /eat
!ctivate, 'old-&o. ? 8o-&a#e. This section will deal with the /eat !ctivated
class.
Of note within the 0'hemical &inders0 is that the ma:ority are classed as
Organic, or based on 'arbon compounds". The In-Organic, or 8on-'arbon
binders are based on )ilicate compounds" or Ahosphate<1etal O.ide
compounds".
The In-Organic binders re=uire more attention when molding, provide lower
strength levels and are the least reactive when cataly-ed, though do have a
place in specific foundry operations that re=uire other properties that are
beneficial.

Cold-Bo% No-Ba0e !eat-Activated
Ahenolic<Crethane<!mine ,uran<!cid )hell
)ilicate<'O+ Ahenolic<!cid 'ore Oil
,uran<)O+ Ahenolic<(ster Ahenolic /ot-&o.
!crylic<(po.y<)O+ Oil<Crethane ,uran /ot-&o.
!crylic" ,*' <)O+ )ilicate<(ster Crea ,ormaldehyde /ot-&o.
Ahenolic<(ster 1ethyl
,ormate"
Ahenolic Crethane 2arm-&o.
Ahenolic<'O+ Ahosphate<1etal O.ide
Aolyol Crethane
The table above is the !,) grouping re-typed for =uic# reference... This
section will not cover every 0/eat-!ctivated0 binder type listed but will discuss
the more common applications and provide an overview of the group.
Core /il Binder Molding
This method has been replaced by other systems but was once a dominant core
bonding system and is one of the oldest. The 'ore sand is dry mi.ed with
cereal additives, 2ater is added to activate the cereal material and achieve a
measure of green strength. Once the )and<'ereal<water is well mi.ed a =uantity
of #erosene oil is added that improves the flowability of the sand and acts as a
releasing agent for the formed core.
The mi.ture is blown or rammed into a core mold, removed and ba#ed at
between 46%, ? 6%%, in an oven with ade=uate air flow to evacuate any
moisture release from the core.
3#ell or Croning Process
The )hell process, also #nown as the 'roning process named for it's developer
Bohannes 'roning" is comparatively more current than the 'ore Oil process, as
it was developed during the second 2orld 2ar. The shell process is still in use
today.
Aart of the )hell Arocesses longevity is it's relative ease of use, and it's
adaptability to mold production as well as 'ore production.
Typically most foundries purchase core sand that is pre-coated with resin.
!lthough it is possible to resin coat the sand in-house, the technical nature of
the process generally precludes doing so. The coating methods described in the
te.t are termed 0/ot-'oating0 and 02arm-'oating0, both re=uire precision
temp control of sand, resin and typically a chemical wash and mechanical
treatment to particulate the sand for usage.
)hell sand has an indefinite shelf life prior to molding and the mold<cores
similarly have an indefinite shelf-life prior to use.
The core mold is a heated bo. typically 6%%, - 66%," that the sand is blown or
rammed into. The sand is held at temperature for a period of time that allows
the resins to melt and form either a solid or hollow shell core. In hollow cores
the bo. is tilted to allow un-cataly-ed sand to pour out for the ne.t core.
&eyond the advantages of long storage periods, )hell 'ores provide good
surface finish properties due to their flow and density characteristics, and
hollow cores aid in the 0)ha#e-Out0 properties of the casting.
!ot Bo% Core Process
The dominant process are ,uran, Ahenolic ? Crea ,ormaldehyde. These
process are even more current than the )hell process, having been developed in
the early 1D5%'s much li#e myself...".
Though their application is somewhat restricted due to the environmental issues
that surround the emissions of ,ormaldehyde in production.
These binder systems made the production of thin-walled castings in the
production of engine-bloc#s possible due to their superior strength and sha#e-
out characteristics.
The 4 resin types can be used individually or in combination to create specific
core types with properties that are tailored to the casting in =uestion. The
hybrid resins are formulated with consideration to the !7I !cid 7emand
Ialue" of the sand and the p/ nature of the resin's themselves to ensure proper
polymeri-ation into a stable thermoset.
Ear-Bo% Core Process
This method is similar to the /ot-&o. listed above, though the heat activation
occurs appro. 1%%, lower than the traditional 0/ot-&o.0 temperature.
The Arocess also is similar to /ot-&o. 'ore production in that it uses a ,uran
based resin, though the catalyst is a mild acid, resulting in substantially reduced
,ormaldehyde and Ahenol emissions.
The reduction of environmental pollutants, reduced energy consumption
re=uired in core activation ma#e this a more viable and economically attractive
'ore Aroduction method, while offering the fle.ibility of using plastic core
molds at the lower activation heats.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odules ; 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn
over the tape to continue listening to 1odule D.


#echnology ...
MATL MTB7+ Module J - Course Notes...
More C#eical Binder 3ystes - Cold Bo% Tec#nology
The 0'old-&o.0 technologies are currently being used in high-end core
production and high volume core production shops. 2hat distinguishes this
system from the /ot ? 2arm-&o. techni=ues beyond the use of heat as a
catalyst is the use of a vapour or gas as a cataly-ing agent. The sand that is used
is still a resin coated sand though.
Of the most popular in use today +%%6" areE
sodium silicate<carbon dio.ide gas"
phenolic urethane<amine vapor"
epo.y acrylic<sulphur dio.ide gas"
!lthough other processes are also in use these three form the ma:ority of the
mar#et in use.
Ahenolic Crethane<!mine or AC! for short" is ran#ed as the K1 process in use,
with (po.y !crylic<)ulphur 7io.ide as an alternative method to the AC!
system. 3astly )odium )ilicate<'arbon 7io.ide will be discussed.
P#enolic Dret#ane.Aine &PDA'
This system uses a + part resin coating made up of a Ahenolic based resin that is
dissolved by an organic solvent, and isocyanate material that is dissolved by a
similar solvent. These compounds are blended with clean sand to form the resin
coating. Once properly coated the sand is blown into the 'ore molds.
The 'ore molds that are used in 0'old-&o.0 applications have special
considerations for passing gases or vapours through the pattern. ,or a AC!
mold the venting ensures that ;%> of the cross-sectional area of the core is
e.posed to the cataly-ing gas.
The gas<vapour that is used is from the !mine family... below are the results of
a =uic# 0Google-7efine0 . The common theme appears that this is an !mmonia
based molecule that has been modified to fall into an 0Organic0 classification.
One of a class of organic compounds which can be considered to be derived from ammonia by
replacement of one or more hydrogen by organic radicals.
www.p=corp.com<technicalservice<Glossary.asp
!n organic molecule which consists of an ammonia molecule where one or more of the hydrogen
atoms has been replaced by organic groups.
misterguch.brin#ster.net<vocabulary.html
! curing agent used with epo.y resins that is any of a class of ammonia derivatives.
www.airproducts.com<Aroducts<'hemicals<(po.y!dditives<content<Glossary.htm
The !mine based vapour<gas is introduced under pressure, once the !mine is
introduced, a flush of clean air is introduced to the mold also under pressure.
The purpose of the air is to ensure that the !mine is completely passed through
the mold<core, as well as remove any pronounced odor or health ha-ard. !s
with many chemical processes, the addition of heat to the clean air will
accelerate the catalyst action of the !mine gas with the Ahenolic Crethane resin
mi.ture.
The !mine gases are carefully collected and vented off to a scrubber that
neutrali-es the !mine and recovers the vapour in the form of !cidic )alts.
The + two" most common !mine based catalysts are triethylamine T(!" and
dimetylethylamine 71(!". 71(! is the more effective cataly-ing agent but
has a higher cost and also has a much stronger odour, as a result T(! is found
more commonly in 'ore<1old production usage.
Considerations
The AC! binder class falls under the definition of a Aolymeric resin system.
This type of chemical composition has some properties that have to be
accounted for. The primary concern is dimensional accuracy, the core<mold
will shrin# in the coarse of the curing process. The amount of shrin#age is a
function of the density of the core<mold, the proportions of resin, the type of
aggregate and<or sand as well the age of the core<mold.
!lso of note is that even with a clean-air flush the core<mold is still only 9% to
;%> cured, the remainder of the curing process occurs as the catalyst gases
evaporate once the core<mold is removed from the core bo..
Cnli#e some core<molding systems AC! has a very short shelf life for the resin
coated sand. It is advised that the sand be cataly-ed as soon as possible after
coating. !lso proper design of core venting and aspiration of the 'ore<1old
bo. is a prere=uisite to consistently stable core<mold production, as the gas
catalyst interaction with the resin coated sand is crucial.
In closing this section any chemical system that has an acronym li#e AC!
li#ely has a poor environmental impact and this is true in this case... ! general
rule of thumb would be that industrial organic compounds can be potentially
harmful to staff and the environment. The adherence to local regulations in the
use of such a system is essential to being a safe employer and corporate
citi-en...
,or my part thewor#shop.ca will stic# to such benign process as wheat flour
binders ba#ed with molasses.
3odiu 3ilicate.Car,on *io%ide
The )odium )ilicate<'arbon 7io.ide system is a popular alternative to the
AC! system :ust discussed. This system is classed as an 0In-Organic0 binder
system and as such has fewer health and environmental concerns associated
with it's use.
Arimarily the use of 'O+ as the cataly-ing gas<vapour removes the re=uirement
of a scrubber as the gas in inert, has no odour and will 8OT be a respiratory
irritant. )imilarly the )odium )ilicate binder has a lower environmental impact
and can be considered comparatively inert.
The )odium )ilicate<'arbon 7io.ide system was introduced in the 1D6%'s and
pre-dates Ahenolic Crethane<!mine. The popularity of AC! is largely due to
superior strength properties over )odium )ilicate<'arbon 7io.ide.
One of the pluses of a )odium )ilicate<'O+ system is that it generates very
little gases when compared to Organic systems, so has fewer porosity defects.
The strength properties of the 'ore<1old are closely related to the )odium
)ilicate ratio. Optimal performance has been established with 1 part )ilicate to
+.6 parts )oda compounds.
Of concern with this process is the core<mold tendency to absorb moisture in
humid environments, this adverse property should be attended to with air
conditioning and humidity handling systems. !lso this property implies a
relatively short shelf-life of core<molds. The duration of gassing has an effect
on 'ore<1old )trengths, a fully cured mold will have a high initial strength but
should be used the same day as it will have fully 1<6th the strength of an under
cured core<mold $;hrs later.
The temperature of the )odium )ilicate mi.ture when gassed has a significant
impact on compressive strength of the core<mold. !ssuming a 5%sec gassing
time to activate or cataly-e the binder, W 4+, the compressive strength is
appro. +%A)I, W 5%, it is close to 6%A)I and at 1%%, is :ust under +%%A)I
compressive strength.
The )ha#e-Out characteristics for a )odium )ilicate<'O+ core<mold are
unfortunately, =uite poor, although some additives are available to improve this
property for ,errous metal castings, these additives can't be used in non-ferrous
applications. )imilarly the sand reclamation process can be hampered by
vitrification of the core due to heat, mechanical reclamation has poor results
though some water based systems are available.
8po%y Acrylic.3ulfur *io%ide &$-C'
This final 0'old-&o.0 system is also #nown as the ,*' system, though I
couldn't find the reason in either the lecture notes or te.t...
This system uses a blend of both !crylic and (po.y resins to derive the best
strength properties of both compounds. !crylic based resins have e.cellent
green strength and moldability, with poor hot strength characteristics, while
(po.y based resins provide e.cellent /ot )trength properties though with
longer cure-times and gassing re=uirements.
! blend of 46 parts (po.y to 56 parts !crylic with pero.ide for ,errous
applications" seems ideal, or alternatively a 6%<6% mi. for !luminum
production is used. These proportions are mi.ed to sand in %.6> to +.%>
concentrations.
The benefits of this system are reduced scrap sand, better flow properties from
the mi.er through the hopper and into the core blowing machinery.
This system is free of 2ater and 8itrogen from a gas generation perspective
and also Ahenol, urea-formaldehyde, and isocyanate from an environmental
view. Though the catalyst gas )ulfer 7io.ide" does re=uire additional
e=uipment )crubbers" for reclamation. The reclamation system most
commonly used is a 0Aac#ed Tower )crubber0 this system uses a water and 6>
)odium /ydro.ide solution. The resultant )odium )ulphate solution has a p/
of ;.6... 3ocal laws and environmental regulation will dictate whether this can
be discharged or re=uires specific disposal considerations...
!s an aside, how can there be such vague guide-lines for disposal of this type
of material, either this effluent is benign or ha-ardous, I can't see how regional
:urisdiction would matter... again a process that I will not underta#e for the sa#e
of profit...

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odules D 1!T3 1T&9+, please turn
over the tape to continue listening to 1odule 1%.


#echnology ...
No-Ba0e Air-3et Binder 3ystes
This the final section for this course as well as the last of the 'ore<1old &inder
systems.
The !ir-)et or 8o-&a#e systems are distinguished from the cold-&o. systems
:ust covered in that they are cataly-ed by a li=uid rather than a gas agent. The
!ir-)et binder system is generally used by smaller 0Bobber-)hops0 or low
volume foundries due to the additional time re=uired for the binder system to
cure once molded.
This binder system has 4 three" distinct phases or durations that start
immediately after the catalyst is added to the coated sand mi.ture and occur at
ambient room temperature. The first phase is 02or#-Time0 this is the period
that all mi.ing transport, molding and compaction will occur within, the second
is the 0)trip-Time0 referring to the period that has to elapse before core<mold
has polymeri-ed enough to hold it's shape and be removed from the core bo.,
lastly the 0'ure-Time0 is the period of time that has to elapse once the core
starts to set-up to the time that the resins are fully cured or polymeri-ed.
2or#, )trip ? 'ure times should be predictable consistent durations that are
specific to the resin type being used, the =ty ? type of catalyst added, the
ambient temperature of the sand and room as well as humidity.
Teperature F !uidty
The considerations of temperature and humidity can be even more critical with
some of the binder systems that generate water as a byproduct of the
polymeri-ation process. The moisture has to be evaporated from the core<mold
to ensure that the binder is not under-cured and proportionally wea#er as a
result.
)imilarly any surplus moisture or un-cataly-ed solvents may contribute to
e.cessive gassing and porosity defects in the casting.
!s discussed in a previous module, the 1%'<1;, *ule is applicable... The basic
premise is that every rise in sand<resin temperature of appro. 1%'<1;, cuts the
current phase time in half. The ideal temperature or mid-point from which to
wor# is between 96, ? ;6,, with a lower limit of appro. 6%, and an upper
limit of appro. 11%,.
The sand<resin mi.ture may become too viscous below 6%, to flow properly,
and the resin will not be able to properly coat the grains if not pre-coated.
Temperatures above 11%, tend to evaporate the solvents within the resins",
resulting in gummy resin that also does not coat or flow properly.
In an effort to accommodate the temperature re=uirements of the binder system
that a foundry is using, )and heaters and<or chiller may be needed to achieve
consistent results. !s a last resort the core<mold may be ba#ed in an oven to
ensure all moisture and solvents have been evaporated, curiously I thin# that
this would open the door to litigation on the basis of 0,alse !dvertising0 if sold
as a 08o-&a#e0 binder system...
T#e Big-2
!s with the 'old-&o. system there are 4 three" main families of binders that
will be discussed
the $uran%acid system
the !ilicate%ester system
the henolic urethane system
$uran.Acid 3yste
The first is the ,uran<!cid system. This system is categori-ed as the ,uran
,amily but contains no furan, but rather is composed of either Crea
,ormaldehyde C," or Ahenol ,ormaldehyde A," as well as a ,urfuryl alcohol.
google defineO ,uran
*esin formed from reactions involving furfuryl alcohol alone or in combination with other
constituents.
www.hghouston.com<f.html
a colorless to.ic flammable li=uid used in the synthesis of nylon
www.cogsci.princeton.edu<cgi-bin<webwn
,uran, also #nown as furane and furfuran, is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound. ,uran is
a clear, colorless, very volatile and highly flammable li=uid with a boiling point close to room
temperature. It is to.ic and may be carcinogenic.
en.wi#ipedia.org<wi#i<,uran
The ,urfuryl alcohol is said to be miscible with water, to clarify this see belowE
google defineO 1iscible
'apable of being mi.ed in any concentration without separation of phasesE eg, water and ethyl
alcohol are miscible.
www.havoline.com<carcare<glossary<m.html
1iscible means able to be mi.ed. Two li=uids are said to be miscible if they are partially or
completely soluble in each other. 'ommonly, the term miscible is understood to mean that the two
li=uids are completely soluble in each other. )ee also )olubility."
ccinfoweb.ccohs.ca<help<msds<msdstermse.html
The capability of being mi.edE mutually soluble.
www.airproducts.com<Aroducts<'hemicals<(po.y!dditives<content<Glossary.htm
'apable of being mi.ed together.
www.sludgehappens.com<dewateringZglossary.htm
The system is considered as Organic, and readily polymeri-es with acidic
catalysts to a solid state at room temperature
The ,uran family has 4 sub groupings based upon the 8itrogen ? water content
of the system. These are generically identified as 3ow, 1edium ? /igh
8itrogen systems.

$uran.Acid Binder Classification
&itrogen ' (ater '
)ow < ( 8 < ( :
Medium 2 ( - : ( *:
*igh : ( ** *< ( 8<
These percentages are representative of the percentile of the polymeri-ed resin,
and do not include the volume of sand<aggregate, although neither te.t or
lecture notes e.plicitly say this, I thin# it is self evident...
The catalyst reaction is e.othermic or one that generates heat, although not
stated, it's possible to theori-e a relationship between the moisture content
created during the polymeri-ation phase and rate of cure. 2hat is stated is that
higher moisture contents do generally lead to slower cure-times.
The tensile strength of the core<mold is also negatively impacted by higher
levels of moisture. The third issue is the relationship between 8itrogen 8" and
moisture. Though the effect of nitrogen is less pronounced with 8on-,errous
castings, it is problematic with ferrous especially steel" castings.
The 8itrogen and by association moisture" content can be modified by the use
of 03ow-80 ,urfuryl alcohol.

Typical Material proportions
Mold Core
!and C-.C+M C-.I<M
+esin <.-<M *.<<M
Catalyst <.29M <.8<M
8ote that molds generally have less resin ? catalyst than cores.
The catalyst material is an acid, and is generally from either the Ahosphoric or
)ulfonic families, with the )ulfonic acids yielding faster cure times. The rate of
cure can be accelerated up to a point, beyond which core<mold =uality is
effected by dried wea# surfaces that are prone to being friable when cast.
The acidic nature of the catalyst is what activates and precipitates
polymeri-ation. The sand that is used can adversely affect the curing process if
it has a high !7I !cid 7emand Ialue", effectively neutrali-ing the catalyst
before the curing process is complete. Olivine sand does have a high !7I and
would be considered unsuitable, while )ilica, 'hromite and @ircon sands would
be acceptable.
In closing, the ,uran ,amily of binders are among the most widely used
systems for the class of 8o-&a#e<!ir-set. They offer fle.ible wor#, strip and
cure times, good /ot-)trength ? (rosion *esistance and relative ease of sand
reclamation.
On the negative side )O+ )ulfur 7io.ide" is produced during the casting
process, as well as the to.icity of the resin ? catalyst components involved.
The release of residual formaldehyde during the sand reclamation process also
poses health and environmental concerns.
I thin# that the shift to 0Off-)hore0 high volume casting may have motivators
beyond 0'heap-3abour0, is it possible that more industrially friendly
environmental policies and la. 2or#-place )afety governance could be
contributing to the trendJ
Or is it the whining 8orth-!merican wor#er that thin#s s<he is above
carcinogenic compounds and would rather breathe clean air than ,ormaldehyde
laden clouds of sulfur dio.ide that is to blameJ
Aerhaps the purpose of this course is to illustrate what 8OT to use for
sustainable production.
3ilicate.8ster C#eical Binder $aily
This family is composed of a )odium )ilicate resin that is In-Organic that is
cataly-ed by an organic !cid (ster. The various binder compositions are
achieved by varying the ratio of )ilica )iO+" to )oda 8a+O" when mi.ing the
resin with water. The range of ratio's for foundry usage in 'ore<1old
production is from +.% up to 4.%.
The Table below better illustrates the weight ratios for the range of
)ilicate<(ster binder resins.

3ilicate.8ster -esin Coposition
8a
+
O )iO
+
/+O 2t. *atio
)ow *:.2M 8<.9M :9.9M 2.<
Medium *2.IM 8<.-M :+.:M 2.9
*igh **.2M 8*.CM :+.CM 2.-:

google defineO ester
!n ester is a compound formed from the reaction between an acid and an alcohol. In esters of
carbo.ylic acids, the -'OO/ group of the acid and the -O/ group of the alcohol lose a water and
become a -'OO- lin#age.
www.eere.energy.gov<biomass<studentZglossary.html
an organic compound produced by the reaction between a carbo.ylic acid and an alcohol
www.learnchem.net<glossary<e.shtml
'ompound formed by the elimination of water and bonding of an alcohol and an organic acid.
www.carpetbuyershandboo#.com<carpetZglossaryZe.htm
! molecule containing an ester lin#age, a carbonyl group bonded to an O that is in turn bonded to
a '.
www.foresight.org<8anosystems<glossary<glossaryZe.html
!bove is a =uic# reference to better define an (ster. It should also be noted that
In-Organic molecular bonds are generally wea#er than Organic bonds.
The same considerations of !7I of the sand are applicable to this system as
the polymeri-ation occurs as a result of the acidic catalyst. The cataly-ing (ster
is added at a rate of 1% to 1+> of the resin used to achieve consistent core<mold
production.
The sand must be above 16', and the grains are coated with the sodium silicate
resin. The addition of the acidic ester causes the resin to gel and harden. The
speed and degree of hardness achieved is related to the type of acidic ester used
as a catalyst.
The 4 three" (ster catalysts that are commonly used within the foundry
industry are glycerol diacetate that provides the fastest curing action, followed
by ethylene glycol diacetate which is a mid-range curing speed (ster and lastly
glycerol triacetate classed as a slow speed catalyst.
Aroprietary blends of the three (sters have been formulated to offer a finer
degree of control over cure rate and speed.
Advantages
The primary advantages to this system are environmental compared to the
,uran ,amily, with an inorganic resin composition, absence of )ulfur,
phosphorous or formaldehyde emissions.
)ilicate<(ster is better suited to a broader range of applications covering both
,errous ? 8on-,errous casting due to the absence of 8itrogen pic#-up.
*isadvantages
The in-organic nature of the resin bonding impacts both sha#e-out and sand
reclamation, as the bond is not bro#en by heat. This can be improved by
additives what these additives are, and whether they drag down the
environmental performance of the )ilica (ster family is not discussed"
The strength of the core<molds is also lower than that of the other 8o-&a#e<!ir-
)et families.
P#enolic Dret#ane $aily
The final class of 8o-&a#e<!ir-)et binder families are the Ahenolic Crethanes
introduced in the 1D9%'s. This system is most prominent in the production of
small to medium si-ed core<molds.
This class of binders is =uite similar to the AC! cold-bo. system discussed in
1odule KD, with the difference being an !cidic 3i=uid over the Iapour<Gas
!mine catalyst used in 'old-&o. production.
1oisture absorption is less of a problem with this 8o-&a#e system over the
AC! 'old-&o. system.
Advantages
The Ahenolic Crethane 8o-&a#e system offers the fastest 'ure-Time, while
maintaining a high wor# to strip time ratio.
The cured core<molds e.hibit good strength characteristics, while providing
e.cellent sha#eout and sand reclamation properties.
The binder and coated sand has long storage stability.
*isadvantages
The presence of Iolatile Organic 'ompounds IO'" in the solvents can't be a
good thing. !s well as the production of smo#e and odors during the casting
process I wonder what they areJ !re they healthy smo#es and odors li#e those
found in cigarettesJJJ"
The process is generally not used for ferrous )teel" casting due to the presence
of 8itrogen.
'losing comments...
This course 1T&9+" is a necessary evil, in that it is rather boring and pretty
dry but did cover a fairly broad range of basic #nowledge and gave an overview
of industrial practices with regard to &inder systems... I thin# that an
opportunity was lost to drill deeper into the binder systems with a greater
emphasis on 2or#-place safety and environmental concerns. !lso a module on
current regulations, typical 1aterial )afety 7ata )heets 1)7)" and
government regulatory bodies that oversee the ,oundry industry would have
been helpful.

...this is the end of 'ourse notes for 1odules 1% 1!T3 1T&9+.

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Mohawk College - Introduction to Metal

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