ABSTRACT

Aim of this project is control the unmanned rail gate automatically

using embedded platform. Today often we see news papers very often about the railway
accidents happening at un- attended railway gates. Present project is designed to avoid
such accidents if implemented in spirit.
This project utilizes two powerful IR transmitter and two receivers
one pair of transmitter and receiver is fi!ed at upside "from the train comes# at a level
higher than human being in e!act alignment and similarly other pair is fi!ed at down side
of the train direction sensor activation time is so adjusted by calculating the time ta$en
at a certain speed to cross at least one compartment of standard minimum size of the
Indian railway normally % seconds.
The sensors are fi!ed at &''' meters on both sides of the gate we
call fore side sensor pair for common towards gate train and aft side sensors for the train
just (rosses the gate. )hen train cross the fore side sensor it gives signal to the gate
receiver to close the gate. The buzzer is activated to clear the gate area for drivers about %
seconds. *ate motor is turned on in one direction and gate is closed and stay closed till
train crosses the gate and reaches aft side sensors when aft side receiver get activated
motor turns in opposite direction and gate opens and motor stops .
If there is any problem in the gate means it will operate red signal on
both side fro the driver indication.
Train arrival and departure sensing can be achieved by means of Relay
techni+ues. )hen the wheels of the train moves over both trac$s are shorted to ground
and this acts as a signal to microcontroller ",-(%&# indicating train arrival. R./ signal
appears for the road user once the train cuts the relay sensor placed before the %0ms
before the gate .A buzzer is made on as a pre cautionary measure for the road users.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Present project is designed using AT,-(%& microcontroller to avoid
railway accidents happening at unattended railway gates if implemented in spirit. This
project utilizes two powerful IR transmitters and two receivers1 one pair of transmitter
and receiver is fi!ed at up side "from where the train comes# at a level higher than a
human being in e!act alignment and similarly the other pair is fi!ed at down side of the
train direction. 2ensor activation time is so adjusted by calculating the time ta$en at a
certain speed to cross at least one compartment of standard minimum size of the Indian
railway. )e have considered % seconds for this project. 2ensors are fi!ed at &$m on both
sides of the gate. )e call the sensor along the train direction as 3foreside sensor4 and the
other as 3aft side sensor4. )hen foreside receiver gets activated the gate motor is turned
on in one direction and the gate is closed and stays closed until the train crosses the gate
and reaches aft side sensors. )hen aft side receiver gets activated motor turns in opposite
direction and gate opens and motor stops. 5uzzer will immediately sound at the fore side
receiver activation and gate will close after % seconds so giving time to drivers to clear
gate area in order to avoid trapping between the gates and stop sound after the train has
crossed.
The same principle is applied for trac$ switching. (onsidering a situation wherein an
e!press train and a local train are traveling in opposite directions on the same trac$1 the
e!press train is allowed to travel on the same trac$ and the local train has to switch on to
the other trac$. Two sensors are placed at the either sides of the junction where the trac$
switches. If there4s a train approaching from the other side then another sensor placed
along that direction gets activated and will send an interrupt to the controller. The
interrupt service routine switches the trac$. Indicator lights have been provided to avoid
collisions. 6ere the switching operation is performed using a stepper motor. Assuming
that within a certain delay the train has passed the trac$ is switched bac$ to its original
position allowing the first train to pass without any interruption. This concept of trac$
switching can be applied at &$m distance from the stations.
Gate Control7
Railways being the cheapest mode of transportation are preferred over all
the other means .)hen we go through the daily newspapers we come across many
railway accidents occurring at unmanned railway crossings. This is mainly due to the
carelessness in manual operations or lac$ of wor$ers. )e in this project has come up
with a solution for the same. 8sing simple electronic components we have tried to
automate the control of railway gates. As a train approaches the railway crossing from
either side the sensors placed at a certain distance from the gate detects the approaching
train and accordingly controls the operation of the gate. Also an indicator light has been
provided to alert the motorists about the approaching train.
Track Switching:
8sing the same principle as that for gate control we have developed a concept of
automatic trac$ switching. (onsidering a situation wherein an e!press train and a local
train are traveling in opposite directions on the same trac$1 the e!press train is allowed to
travel on the same trac$ and the local train has to switch on to the other trac$. Indicator
lights have been provided to avoid collisions .6ere the switching operation is performed
using a stepper motor. In practical purposes this can be achieved using electromagnets.
Signaling using LCD7
Train arrival and departure message is needed at the platform for the passengers and
also a announcement is re+uired. 5y detecting the signal at trac$s by sensors a command
is sent to the micro controller which enables the 9(/ to display the arrival message. )e
can also use another sensor after the station to display the departure message. And a
buzzer can be connected across it to give a announcement. A specified delay is given to
message so that can be displayed for that much time.
:icro-controllers are also being used increasingly as tools for analysis and design
of control systems. The control engineer thus has much more powerful tools available
now than in the past. /igital computers are still in a state of rapid development because
of the progress in very large-scale integration ";92I# technology. Thus substantial
technological improvements can be e!pected in the future.
5ecause of these developments the approach to analysis design and
implementation of control systems is changing drastically. <riginally it was only a
matter of translating the earlier analog designs into the new technology. 6owever it has
been realized that there is much to be gained by e!ploiting the full potential of the new
technology. =ortunately control theory has also developed substantially over the past
>% years. =or a while it was +uite unrealistic to implement the type of regulators that the
new theory produced e!cept in a few e!otic mostly in aerospace or advanced process
control. 6owever due to the revolutionary development of microelectronics advanced
regulators can be implemented even for basic applications. It is also possible to do
analysis and design at a reasonable cost with the interactive design tools that are
becoming increasingly available.
The purpose of this project wor$ is to present control theory that is relevant to the
analysis and design of :icro-controller system with an emphasis on basic concept and
ideas. It is assumed that a :icrocontroller with reasonable software is available for
computations and simulations so that many tedious details can be left to the
:icrocontroller. The control system design is also carried out up to the stage of
implementation in the form of controller programs in assembly language.
:icro-controllers are ?embedded? inside some other device so that they can
control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a micro-controller
therefore is ?embedded controller?. :icro-controllers are dedicated to one tas$ and run
one specific program. The program is stored in R<: "read-only memory# and generally
does not change. :icro-controllers are often low-power devices. A battery-operated
:icrocontroller might consume %' mille watts. A micro-controller has a dedicated input
device and often "but not always# has a small 9./ or 9(/ display for output. A micro-
controller also ta$es input from the device it is controlling and controls the device by
sending signals to different components in the device.
1! Sco"e o# "ro$ect7
This project is developed in order to help the I@/IA@ RAI9)AA2 in ma$ing its
present wor$ing system a better one by eliminating some of the loopholes
e!isting in it.
5ased on the responses and reports obtained as a result of the significant
development in the wor$ing system of I@/IA@ RAI9)AA2 this project can be
further e!tended to meet the demands according to situation.
This can be further implemented to have control room to regulate the wor$ing of
the system. Thus becomes the user friendliness.
This circuit can be e!panded and used in a station with any number of platforms
as per the usage.
Additional modules can be added with out affecting the remaining modules. This
allows the fle!ibility and easy maintenance of the developed system.
This system consists of following features over manual system7
There is no time lag to operate the device.
Accuracy.
1.3 Contents of the Thesis:
Chapter 2 describes the block diagram and operation of
different units like gate control, track switching and etc., with
block diagrams.
Chapter 3 describes power supply part that we used in this
project, with different parts of it, with ratings.
Chapter 4 presents how the LC interfaced with !"c#1,
which we used in this project for displaying train status message
and e$planation for program.
Chapter # presents stepper motor interfacing and
e$planation for program written.
Chapter % presents detailed e$planation about infrared
sensors and its parts with circuit diagrams.
Chapter & gi'es detailed presentation of all hardware
components that we use in this project.
Chapter ! gi'es the conclusions and future scope of this
project.


Chapter 2
BLOC% DIAGRA& AND
G'N'RAL
D'SCRI(TION
Block )iagra* an) General )escri"tion
!1 Block )iagra* intro)uction:
+IG !1
The+IG!1shows the general bloc$ diagram of unmanned railway gate control the
various bloc$s of this are7
&. Power supply unit
B. *ate control unit
>. Trac$ changing unit
C. 9(/ :essage display unit
This project uses AT,-(%& microcontroller for programming and operation. And
89@B''> driver.
The 5loc$ diagram consists of the power supply which is of single-phase
B>'; ac. This should be given to step down transformer to reduce the B>'; ac voltage to
lower value. i.e. to -; or &,; ac this value depends on the transformer inner winding.
The output of the transformer is given to the rectifier circuit. This rectifier converts ac
voltage to dc voltage. 5ut the voltage may consist of ripples or harmonics.
To avoid these ripples the output of the rectifier is connected to filter. The filter
thus removes the harmonics. This is the e!act dc voltage of the given specification. 5ut
the controller operates at %; dc and the relays and driver operates at &B; dc voltage. 2o
the regulator is re+uired to reduce the voltage. Regulator D,'% produces %; dc and
regulator D,&B produces &B; dc. 5oth are positive voltages.
The supply from D,'% regulator is used for the purpose of trac$ changing which
consists of a stepper motor driven with 89@B''> the current driver chip. The supply of
&Bv is given to drive the stepper motor for the purpose of gate control. Through ulnB''>
2.2 Operation:
Fig 2.2. shows the of view of model project
This project utilizes two powerful IR transmitters and two receivers1 one pair
of transmitter and receiver is fi!ed at up side "from where the train comes# at a level
higher than a human being in e!act alignment and similarly the other pair is fi!ed at
down side of the train direction. 2ensor activation time is so adjusted by calculating the
time ta$en at a certain speed to cross at least one compartment of standard minimum size
of the Indian railway. )e have considered % seconds for this project. 2ensors are fi!ed at
&$m on both sides of the gate. )e call the sensor along the train direction as 3foreside
sensor4 and the other as 3aft side sensor4. )hen foreside receiver gets activated the gate
motor is turned on in one direction and the gate is closed and stays closed until the train
crosses the gate and reaches aft side sensors. )hen aft side receiver gets activated motor
turns in opposite direction and gate opens and motor stops. 5uzzer will immediately
sound at the fore side receiver activation and gate will close after % seconds so giving
time to drivers to clear gate area in order to avoid trapping between the gates and stop
sound after the train has crossed.
The same principle is applied for trac$ switching. (onsidering a situation wherein an
e!press train and a local train are traveling in opposite directions on the same trac$1 the
e!press train is allowed to travel on the same trac$ and the local train has to switch on to
the other trac$. Two sensors are placed at the either sides of the junction where the trac$
switches. If there4s a train approaching from the other side then another sensor placed
along that direction gets activated and will send an interrupt to the controller. The
interrupt service routine switches the trac$. Indicator lights have been provided to avoid
collisions. 6ere the switching operation is performed using a stepper motor. Assuming
that within a certain delay the train has passed the trac$ is switched bac$ to its original
position allowing the first train to pass without any interruption. This concept of trac$
switching can be applied at &$m distance from the stations.

In this project Atmel ,-c%& :icro controller Integrated (hip plays the main role. The
program for this project is embedded in this :icro controller Integrated (hip and
interfaced to all the peripherals. The timer program is inside the :icro controller I( to
maintain all the functions as per the scheduled time. The 9i+uid crystal /isplay "9(/# is
interfaced to Atmel ,-c%& :icro controller to display the message stepper motors are
used for the purpose of gate control and trac$ changing interfaced with current drivers
chip 89@B''> it4s a &E pin ic.
Infrared sensors are used in this for the detection of the train when ever it
sends a signal to microcontroller the stepper motor should operate or message will be
displayed on 9(/. It consists of units called transmitter and receiver circuit.
Infrared sensor circuit consists of I(%%% timer ( %%% is used to construct
an astable multivibrator which has two +uasi-stable states. It generates a s+uare wave of
fre+uency >, $6z and amplitude %;olts. It is re+uired to switch 3<@4 the IR 9./.
A stepper motor is a widely used device that translates electrical pulses
into mechanical movement. They function as their name suggests - they FstepG a little bit
at a time.
The software is written in (-language and is dumped to the
microcontroller to run the project.
<peration of this project can be e!plained through three units7
&. *ate control unit
B. Trac$ changing unit
>. Announcement unit
C. Two trains opposite on same trac$ case
2.2.1 Gate control nit:

+IG: !!1
Railways being the cheapest mode of transportation are preferred over all the
other means .)hen we go through the daily newspapers we come across many railway
accidents occurring at unmanned railway crossings. This is mainly due to the carelessness
in manual operations or lac$ of wor$ers. )e in this project have come up with a solution
for the same. 8sing simple electronic components we have tried to automate the control
of railway gates. As a train approaches the railway crossing from either side the sensors
placed at a certain distance from the gate detects the approaching train and accordingly
controls the operation of the gate. Also an indicator light has been provided to alert the
motorists about the approaching train.
The above figure shows the gate controlling unit bloc$ diagram. Its
operation can be e!plained through that.
As the figure shows it consists of two pairs of infrared sensors placed at two
sides of gate. They should $eep at a distance of - cm "B$m in usual case# from the gate.
and a stepper motor is used for the purpose of the gate closing and opening. Interfaced to
the 89@B''>.
)hen train reaches the sensor it is detected by IR sensors placed - cm before the
station and led in the sensor will glow because the %%% timer wor$s into +uasi state of
operation. such that the IR 9./ should glow till the timer wor$s in +uasi state i.e. when
train passes away the sensors it again into normal state then it receives %v at terminals
that pin at the ,-c%& terminal goes high which enables the power to the stepper motor to
rotate in steps which drives gate to close similarly when it reaches the second pair of
sensors it senses and send the signal to the microcontroller to enable the current driver to
open the gate by rotating the stepper motor in steps to get bac$ in to original position.
!!! Track changing unit:
FIG: 2.2.2

8sing the same principle as that for gate control we have developed a
concept of automatic trac$ switching. (onsidering a situation wherein an e!press train
and a local train are traveling in opposite directions on the same trac$1 the e!press train is
allowed to travel on the same trac$ and the local train has to switch on to the other trac$.
Indicator lights have been provided to avoid collisions .6ere the switching operation is
performed using a stepper motor. In practical purposes this can be achieved using
electromagnets.
=or the ease of description we are considering only two plat forms thus
this can be implemented to any number of platforms. )hen train reaches the platform
before a &'cm distance apart a set of sensors are placed to detect the train and two pair of
sensors are placed on each of trac$ at platforms. )hen the train is at the first pair of
sensors it sends a signal to microcontroller to $now the availability of plat form. 6ere
after chec$ing availability microcontroller operates stepper motor to change the trac$.
The mechanism is arranged as shown in fig. but in this case the trac$ changing is done
due to second sensor that used to open the gate.
It consists of %v driven stepper motor 89@ B''> current driver chip and
pulley for trac$ changing mechanism.
!!, Announce*ent unit:
8sually announcement made at the station for the information of train arrival and
departure. In this model we are using a buzzer for the announcement and 9(/ for the
purpose of display message. 9(/ is interfaced to ,-(%& microcontroller.
The announcement and display message is according to the second sensor
which should be used for the purpose of gate opening.
!!,1 Train arri-al )etection77

/etection of train approaching the gate can be sensed by means of sensors
R& RB R>HRC placed on either side of the gate. In particular direction of approach R&
is used to sense the arrival1 R> is used to sense the departure of the train. In the same way
RCHRB senses arrival and departure in the other direction. Train arrival and departure
sensing can be achieved by means of relay techni+ue. A confined part of parallel trac$ is
supplied with positive voltage and ground. As wheels of the train is made up of
aluminum which is a conducting material it shorts two parallel trac$s. )hen the wheels
of the train moves over it both trac$s are shorted to ground and this acts as a signal to
microcontroller ",-(%&# indicating train arrival. The train detection in the other direction
is done in the same way by the sensors R& H RC. These sensors are placed five
$ilometers before the gate.
!!,! warning #or roa) users: At that moment the train arrival is sensed on either of
the gate road users are warned about the train approach by R./ signal placed to caution
the road users passing through the gate .R./ signal appears for the road user once the
train cuts the relay sensor placed before the %0ms before the gate .A buzzer is for train
when there is any obstacle1 signal is made R./ for train in order to slow done its speed
before %$m from gate.
!!,, Train )e"arture )etection: /etection of train is also done using relay techni+ues
as e!plained the head of train arrival detection. 2ensor R>HRB respectively considering
direction of train approach do train departure.
A message is displayed on 9(/ when train reaches the platform. 2ensed
by IR sensors.
+uture enhance*ent7 In our techni+ue though it has many merits but still the power
supply of BB>; A( P<).R is re+uired for functioning of the motor. It can be avoided
with the help of a battery charged by a 2olar (ell. 2ince solar energy is an ine!haustible
natural source of energy.
!!. Two trains o""osite on sa*e track:
)e $now that the rate of accidents increasing day by day in this because failure of
mechanism at trac$ changing two trains coming on same trac$. This can also happens
some times due to human negligence. This can avoided by using the following unmanned
detection for two trains coming on same trac$ case.
In our model of project we are using the gate controlling pair of sensors to
e!ecute this method. i.e. when two trains are coming same trac$ at that location the two
sensors will operate at a time i.e. two %%% timers of circuit are driven in to +uasi stable
state and thus corresponding two buzzer will operate at a time and two IR 9./ will
operate and hence signal sends to micro processor to operate the stepper motor at tac$
changing.
The components that we use in order to e!ecute are stepper motor %v 89@B''>
AT,-(%& A@/ IR sensors.
!!/ Initial signal )is"la0:
2ignals are placed near gate each at a specified distance. Train may be
approaching gate at either direction so all four signals are made R./ initially to indicate
gate is <P.@./ and vehicles are going through gate. The road user signals are made
*R..@ so that they freely move through gate. 5uzzer is <== since there is no approach
of train and users need not be warned.

Chapter 3
!O"#R $U!!%&
3.1 Circit Diagra' an( intro(ction:
+IG: ,1
Power supply unit consists of following units
i# 2tep down transformer
ii# Rectifier unit
iii# Input filter
iv# Regulator unit
v# <utput filter
,!: ST'(DO1N TRANS+OR&'R
The 2tep down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from
B>'; A( to lower value. This B>' A( voltage cannot be used directly thus it is stepped
down. The Transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down
the voltage the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary
core. The output from the secondary coil is also A( waveform. Thus the conversion from
A( to /( is essential. This conversion is achieved by using the Rectifier (ircuitI8nit.
,, R'CTI+I'R UNIT:
The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the A( voltage into its corresponding /(
voltage. There are 6alf-)ave =ull-)ave and bridge Rectifiers available for this specific
function. The most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode. The
simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in
reverse bias.
The =orward 5ias is achieved by connecting the diode4s positive with positive of
the battery and negative with battery4s negative. The efficient circuit used is the =ull
wave 5ridge rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form the
ripples from the obtained /( voltage are removed using other circuits available. The
circuit used for removing the ripples is called =ilter circuit.
,. IN(UT +ILT'R7
(apacitors are used as filter. The ripples from the /( voltage are removed and
pure /( voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics
of the input voltage. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and
discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the A( voltage and it will discharge in
negative half cycle. 2o it allows only A( voltage and does not allow the /( voltage. This
filter is fi!ed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from ripples.
,/ R'GULATOR UNIT7

+IG ,1! 234/ Regulator
Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage
is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input A( voltage. As and then the A(
voltage changes the /( voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used.
Also when the internal resistance of the power supply is greater than >' ohms the output
gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly
classified for low voltage and for high voltage. =urther they can also be classified as7
i# Positive regulator
&---J input pin
B---J ground pin
>---J output pin
It regulates the positive voltage.
ii# @egative regulator
&---J ground pin
B---J input pin
>---J output pin
It regulates the negative voltage.
,5 OUT(UT +ILT'R:
The =ilter circuit is often fi!ed after the Regulator circuit. (apacitor is most often
used as filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during
the positive half cycle of the A( voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. 2o
it allows only A( voltage and does not allow the /( voltage. This filter is fi!ed after the
Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally.
6ere we used '.&K= capacitor. The output at this stage is %; and is given to the
:icrocontroller.
Chapter 4
%CD INT#RF)CING "IT* )T+,C-1

LCD INT'R+ACING 1IT6 AT37C/1
.1 D'SCRI(TION
FIG: ..1.
9(/ is used in this project for the purpose of displaying message at the station.
9(/ interfacing consists of several parts li$e AT,-(C%& microprocessor B L &E
line 9(/ are main components needed. AT,-(%& is a C' pin /IP micro processor. 9(/
is a B line &E pin device B lines means it contains B rows to display.
To develop a protocol to interface this 9(/ with ,-(%& first we have to understand
how they functions.
These displays contain two internal byte-wide registers one for command and second
for characters to be displayed. There are three control signals called RI) /IIR2 and .n.
2elect 5y ma$ing R2I/I signal ' you can send different commands to display. These
commands are used to initialize 9(/ to display pattern to shift cursor or screen etc.
AT,-(%& can be divided in to C ports and each port consists of , pins. All the
data lines of 9(/ are connected with port P&. i.e. data lines /'-/& are connected to port
P& i.e. to pin numbers & to , through a 2I9 2I9 is a few ohms of resistance connected to
withstand the large voltages and currents.
3.@4 pin is connected with PB.' 3/I4 "R2# is connected with PB.& and RI) pin is
connected with PB.B. i.e. the three pins are connected to the port two. The operation of
9(/ depends upon these three pin only.
=or the pins &, and &- a crystal oscillator circuit is connected to generate cloc$
signals to the micro processor to enable its pins. And B'
th
pin is grounded with oscillator.
C'
th
pin is given to the ;cc i.e. supply lines. And PB.E is given to out put terminals of IR
sensors. And ground terminal of IR sensor is given to B'
th
pin.
.! Descri"tion o# LCD inter#acing "rogra*:
A (-language program is written to interface the 9(/ with AT,-(%& is written
in $eel c software.
Initially all the variables and pins are set to zero i.e. initialized all the re+uired
codes to write this program are in reg%&.h header file.
=irst the data lines are initialized to byte of pins i.e. to a port using 2=R
instruction. And R2 R) .@ 2.@2. and 9./ variables are initialized to pB.' pB.&
pB.B pB.% and pB.D simultaneously. A delay of B% is given after the each e!ecution of the
instruction. And port ' is initialized as output port.
In the program a separate function is written for display message. )hen R>
RC sensor senses the signal to the microcontroller then the variable 2.@2. set to 3logical
high4 i.e. to &. And R2M& and R) M'. Then first display function calls for display on
first line of 9(/. After that it calls for display message on second line of the 9(/. @ow
the message is displayed and reached the station. 2o it stays for some time. A delay of
B%'' sec is given to run program to display the message.
/uring this 9(/ displays4 a message li$e
FTRAI@ I2 (<:I@*
6I-T.(6 (<99.*. F
Then again 2.@2. variable set to zero i.e. 3logical low4. In this R2M' and
R)M'.



Chapter #
$T#!!#R /OTOR INT#RF)CING "IT*
)T+,C-1 U$ING U%N2003

$tepper 'otor interfacing 1ith )T+,C-1
-.1. intro(ction:

Fig -.1. 2hows the complete diagram of a stepper motor interfacing
=ig shows the stepper motor interfacing with AT,-(%& using 89@B''>.
The interfacing of stepper motor consists of several parts li$e AT,-(%&
microcontroller stepper motor and 89@B''> current driver chip.
This can be used in this project for the purpose of gate control and trac$
switching. =or the gate control a &Bv stepper motor is used and for the purpose of trac$
switching %v stepper motor is used.
89@B''> is a current driver chip used for supply control to the stepper motor1
it is a &E pin dip.
AT,-(%& is a C' pin dip micro controller can be divided in to four ports it is
driven by %v supply.

+ig/11 shows the two stepper motors interfaced with AT,-(%& using 89@B''> for the
purpose of this project.
6ere a stepper motor is used for controlling the gates and trac$ switching.
A stepper motor is a widely used device that translates electrical pulses into mechanical
movement. They function as their name suggests - they FstepG a little bit at a time.
2teppers don4t simply respond to a cloc$ signal. They have several windings which need
to be energized in the correct se+uence before the motor4s shaft will rotate. Reversing the
order of the se+uence will cause the motor to rotate the other way.
The bloc$ diagram of stepper motor interfacing is shown bellow7
+ig /1! The connections according to the )iagra* shown can be as follows7
The two output terminals of sensors are given to the port one terminals & and
B. Remaining two terminals are grounded at B'th pin and the buzzer terminals are given
at C and % pins of micro controller and E
th
is given to 9./ which operates for two trains
opposite case. -
th
pin is reset pin through capacitor parallel with resistor. &,
th
and &-
th
pins
are given to the crystal oscillator for the purpose of generating cloc$ signals and B'
th
pin
is grounded. C'
th
pin is given to supply i.e. ;cc. Port ' is given to current driver chip
89@B''> through a C-pin real connector for which middle two pins are grounded and
one is given to %v supply line and another is to &Bv supply line.
Port B is given to another 89@B''> chip to drive another stepper motor.
These two chips connected to microcontroller through a source in line (alled SIL.
+ig /1, shows connection diagram of stepper motor with 89@B''>.
89@B''> is a &E pin dip. Its connections can be e!plained as follows7
=irst C-pins of chip are connected to microcontroller pin at >D-C' pins and second at
B&-BC pins. And ,
th
pin of chip is grounded. A stepper contains % terminals C winding
wires and a power supply wire. These C winding wires are connected to chip and another
to supply. in this circuit too the four pins ?(ontroller pin &?B> and C will control the
motion and direction of the stepper motor according to the step se+uence sent by the
controller.
/! Descri"tion o# C8"rogra* #or gate control9 track switching9 an) two trains
o""osite case:
A (-language program is written to interface the 9(/ with AT,-(%& is written
in $eel c software.
Initially all the variables and pins are set to zero i.e. initialized all the re+uired
codes to write this program are in reg%&.h header file.
Two sensors are initialized with variables sense& senseB at port pins p&.' and
p&.&. with buzzers buzzer& and buzzerB as buz& buzB at p&.C and p&.%. and the led is
connected at pins pB.D.
In the program port& is set as output port and all sensor and buzzer variables are
initialized to zero.
=or gate opening the program e!ecution will be as follows7
The sense& pin goes high with detection of first pair of sensors
then it sends a signal to dri'e stepper motor. (hen automatically the gate
opens.
=or gate closing the program e!ecution will be as follows7
The senseB pin goes high with detection of first pair of sensors then it
sends a signal to drive stepper motor. Then automatically the gate closes. 5y rotating the
stepper motor in reverse direction.
=or two trains opposite case the e!ecution of program will be as follows7
The sense& and senseB pins goes high at a time and the buzzer gives alarm
and gate closes because we are doing this at that part of the module. And us gives a user
or the person at control should ta$e this to them.
The e!ecution of program for trac$ changing as follows7
)hen senseB pin goes high the microcontroller should operate the stepper
motor for trac$ changing which by use of pulley helps in changing trac$ to avoid
accidents. This mechanism can be used for two purposes one in the case of two trains
opposite case and another in the case of auto signaling at the platforms.






Chapter %
INFR)R#D $#N$OR$
Infrare( sensors
2.1.0 intro(ction:
This infrared sensor also called as IR sensors consists of two parts7
&. IR transmitter circuit
B. IR receiver unit
The transmitter unit consists of an infrared 9./ and its associated circuitry.
511 IR Trans*itter unit:
The IR transmitter circuit is shown in the #igure 511.
The transmitter circuit consists of the following components7
&. I( %%%
B. Resistors
>. (apacitors
C. IR 9./
The IR 9./ emitting infrared light is put on in the transmitting unit. To
generate IR signal %%% I( based astable multivibrator is used. Infrared 9./ is driven
through transistor 5( %C,.
I( %%% is used to construct an astable multivibrator which has two
+uasi-stable states. It generates a s+uare wave of fre+uency >,$6z and amplitude %;olts.
It is re+uired to switch 3<@4 the IR 9./.
51! IR Recei-er circuit:
The IR receiver circuit is shown in the #igure 51!.
The receiver circuit consists of the following components7
&. T2<P&D>, "sensor#
B. I( %%%
>. Resistors
C. (apacitors
The receiver unit consists of a sensor and its associated circuitry. In receiver section the
first part is a sensor which detects IR pulses transmitted by IR-9./. )henever a train
crosses the sensor the output of IR sensor momentarily transits through a low state. As a
result the monostable is triggered and a short pulse is applied to the port pin of the ,'%&
microcontroller. <n receiving a pulse from the sensor circuit the controller activates the
circuitry re+uired for closing and opening of the gates and for trac$ switching.
Chapter &
*)RD")R# D#$CRI!TION
#/3#DD#D $&$T#/$
4.1 intro(ction:
A system is something that maintains its e!istence and functions as a whole
through the interaction of its parts. ..g. 5ody Access (ontrol etc. An embedded system
is micro controller-based software driven reliable real-time control system. :icro
controllers and :icroprocessors are widely used in embedded system products. An
embedded product uses a :icro controller to do one tas$ only. A Printer is an e!ample of
embedded system that it is getting the data and printing it.
N .mbedded 2ystem is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a
single specific tas$.
N .mbedded systems are computer systems that monitor respond to or control an
e!ternal environment.
N .nvironment connected to systems through sensors actuators and other II<
interfaces.
N .mbedded system must meet timing H other constraints imposed on it by
environment.
6igh-end embedded H lower end embedded systems. 6igh-end embedded system -
*enerally >B EC 5it (ontrollers used with <2. .!amples Personal /igital Assistant and
:obile phones etc. 9ower end embedded systems - *enerally ,&E 5it (ontrollers used
with a minimal operating systems and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.
.!amples 2mall controllers and devices in our every day life li$e )ashing :achine
:icrowave <vens where they are embedded in.
&icrocontroller
2! intro)uction 7
A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the
processor core "(P8# some memory and II< "inputIoutput# lines all on one chip. The
computer-on-a-chip is called the microcomputer whose proper meaning is a computer
using a "number of# microprocessor"s# as its (P8s while the concept of the
microcomputer is $nown to be a microcontroller. A microcontroller can be viewed as a
set of digital logic circuits integrated on a single silicon chip. This chip is used for only
specific applications.
2!1 AD:ANTAG'S O+ USING A &ICROCONTROLL'R O:'R
&ICRO(ROC'SSOR7
A designer will use a :icrocontroller to
&. *ather input from various sensors
B. Process this input into a set of actions
>. 8se the output mechanisms on the :icrocontroller to do something useful
C. RA: and R<: are inbuilt in the :(.
%. (heap compared to :P.
E. :ulti machine control is possible simultaneously.
.!amples7
,'%& ,-(%& "AT:A9# PI( ":icrochip# :otorola ":otorola# AR: Processor
Applications7
(ell phones (omputers Robots Interfacing to two pc4s.
37c/1 &icrocontroller IC
The AT,-(%& is a low-power high-performance (:<2 ,-bit microcomputer with
C0bytes of =lash programmable and erasable read only memory "P.R<:#. The device is
manufactured using Atmel4s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is
compatible with the industry-standard :(2-%& instruction set and pin out. The on-chip
=lash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional
nonvolatile memory programmer. 5y combining a versatile ,-bit (P8 with =lash on a
monolithic chip the Atmel AT,-(%& is a powerful microcomputer which provides
a highly-fle!ible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The
AT,-(%& provides the following standard features7 C0bytes of =lash &B, bytes of RA:
>B II< lines two &E-bit timerIcounters a five vector two-level interrupt architecture a
full duple! serial port on-chip oscillator and cloc$ circuitry. In addition the AT,-(%& is
designed with static logic for operation down to zero fre+uency and supports two
software selectable power saving modes. The Idle :ode stops the (P8 while allowing
the RA: timerIcounters serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power-down :ode saves the RA: contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other
chip functions until the ne!t hardware reset.
2!! (in )escri"tion o# AT&'L At37c/17
Fig: 4.2. 2
The AT ,-c%& micro controller is a C'-pin I(. The C'th pin of the controller is ;cc pin
and the %; dc supply is given to this pin. This B'
th
pin is ground pin. A &B :6O crystal
oscillator is connected to &,
th
and &-
th
pins of the AT ,-c%& micro controller and two BBpf
capacitors are connected to ground from &,
th
and &-
th
pins. The -
th
pin is Reset pin.
(ort 4
Port ' is an ,-bit open-drain bi-directional II< port. As an output port each pin can sin$
eight TT9 inputs. )hen &s are written to port ' pins the pins can be used as high
impedance inputs. Port ' may also be configured to be the multiple!ed low order
addressIdata bus during accesses to e!ternal program and data memory. In this mode P'
has internal pull-ups. Port ' also receives the code bytes during =lash programming and
outputs the code bytes during program verification. .!ternal pull-ups are re+uired during
program verification.
(ort 1
Port & is an ,-bit bi-directional II< port with internal pull-ups. The Port & output buffers
can sin$Isource four TT9 inputs. )hen &s are written to Port & pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs Port & pins that are
e!ternally being pulled low will source current "II9# because of the internal pull-ups. Port
& also receives the low-order address bytes during =lash programming and verification.
(ort !
Port B is an ,-bit bi-directional II< port with internal pull-ups. The Port B output buffers
can sin$Isource four TT9 inputs. )hen &s are written to Port B pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs Port B pins that are e!ternally
being pulled low will source current "II9# because of the internal pull-ups. Port B emits
the high-order address byte during fetches from e!ternal program memory and during
accesses to e!ternal data memory that uses &E-bit addresses ":<;P Q /PTR#. In this
application it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting &s. /uring accesses to e!ternal
data memory that uses ,-bit addresses ":<;P Q RI# Port B emits the contents of the PB
2pecial =unction Register. Port B also receives the high-order address bits and some
control signals during =lash programming and verification.
(ort ,
Port > is an ,-bit bi-directional II< port with internal pull-ups. The Port > output buffers
can sin$Isource four TT9 inputs. )hen &s are written to Port > pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs Port > pins that are
e!ternally being pulled low will source current "II9# because of the pull-ups. Port > also
serves the functions of various special features of the AT,-(%& as listed below7
(ort (in Alternate +unctions

P>.' RP/ "serial input port#
P>.& TP/ "serial output port#
P>.B I@T' "e!ternal interrupt '#
P>.> I@T& "e!ternal interrupt &#
P>.C T' "timer ' e!ternal input#
P>.% T& "timer & e!ternal input#
P>.E )R "e!ternal data memory write strobe#
P>.D R/ "e!ternal data memory read strobe#
Port > also receives some control signals for =lash programming and verification.
R$T
)eset input. * high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the de'ice.
AL';(ROG
Address 9atch .nable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to e!ternal memory. This pin is also the program pulse input "PR<*# during
=lash programming. In normal operation A9. is emitted at a constant rate of &IE the
oscillator fre+uency and may be used for e!ternal timing or cloc$ing purposes. @ote
however that one A9. pulse is s$ipped during each access to e!ternal /ata :emory. If
desired A9. operation can be disabled by setting bit ' of 2=R location ,.6. )ith the bit
set A9. is active only during a :<;P or :<;( instruction. <therwise the pin is
wea$ly pulled high. 2etting the A9.-disable bit has no effect if the micro controller is in
e!ternal e!ecution mode.
(S'N
Program 2tore .nable is the read strobe to e!ternal program memory. )hen the AT,-(%&
is e!ecuting code from e!ternal program memory P2.@ is activated twice each machine
cycle e!cept that two P2.@ activations are s$ipped during each access to e!ternal data
memory.
'A;:((
.!ternal Access .nable. .A must be strapped to *@/ in order to enable the device to
fetch code from e!ternal program memory locations starting at ''''6 up to ====6.
@ote however that if loc$ bit & is programmed .A will be internally latched on reset.
.A should be strapped to ;(( for internal program e!ecutions. This pin also receives the
&B-volt programming enable voltage ";PP# during =lash programming for parts that
re+uire &B-volt ;PP.
<TAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal cloc$ operating
circuit.
<TAL!

It is the output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Rela5 (ri6ers
4.3 intro(ction:
IC9 ULN!44,A )escri"tion7 #ig: 2,4

Pins @o. of7&E
Temperature <perating Range7-B'R( to S,%R(
Transistor Polarity7@P@
Transistors @o. of7D
(ase 2tyle7/IP-&E
Temp <p. :in7-B'R(
Temp <p. :a!7,%R(
5ase @umber7B''>
(hannels @o. of7D
(urrent <utput :a!7%''mA
/evice :ar$ing789@B''>A
I( *eneric @umber7B''>
Input Type7TT9 (:<2 %;
9ogic =unction @umber7B''>
<utput Type7 <pen (ollector
Transistor Type7 Power /arlington
;oltage Input :a!7%;
;oltage <utput :a!7%';
7.3.1 PIN CONNECTIONS OF ULN2003:
Fig: 7.3.1
The 89@B''&A 89@B''BA 89@B''> and 89@B''CAare high ;oltage high
current /arlington arrays each containing seven open collector /arlington pairs with
common emitters. .ach channel rated at %''mAand can withstand pea$ currents of
E''mA.2uppressiondiodesare included for inductive load driving and the inputs are
pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board layout.
These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads
including solenoids relays /( motors1 9./ displays filament lamps thermal print heads
and high power buffers. The 89@B''&AIB''BAIB''>A and B''CA are supplied in &E pin
plastic /IP pac$ages with a copper lead frame to reduce thermal resistance. They are
available also in small outline pac$age "2<-&E# as 89@B''&/IB''B/IB''>/IB''C/.
4.3.2 $che'atics of Darlington7s pair:
Fig: 4.3.2
/arlington pairs are bac$ to bac$ connection of two transistors with some
source resistors.
Fig:4.3.3 shows the /arlington pair connection of transistor.
The circuit above is a 3/arlington Pair4 driver. The first transistor4s emitter feeds into the
second transistor4s base and as a result the input signal is amplified by the time it reaches
the output.
The important point to remember is that the /arlington Pair is made up of two transistors
and when they are arranged as shown in the circuit they are used to amplify wea$ signals.
The amount by which the weak signal is amplified is called the +,*-./. .
4.3.3 +'ATUR'S O+ DRI:'R:
2even /arlington4s per pac$age
<utput currents%''mA per driver"E''mA pea$#
Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads
<utputs can be paralleled for high currents
TT9I(:<2IP:<2I/T9 compatible inputs.
Inputs pinned opposite to outputs
2implified layout

IC --- TI/#R$
4...0 Description:
Fig4...0 sho1s +8pin (ip for IC --- ti'er
I( %%% TI:.R used in this project for the purpose of IR sensor circuits.
It can operate in several modes its internal circuit and description is as e!plained below7
2tandard %%% and %%E I(s create a significant TglitchT on the supply when their output
changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other I(s but in more
comple! circuits a smoothing capacitor "e.g. &''K=# should be connected across the S;s
and '; supply near the %%% or %%E.
The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there are fuller
e!planations covering the various circuits7
Astable - producing a s+uare wave
:onostable - producing a single pulse when triggered
5istable - a simple memory which can be set and reset
5uffer - an inverting buffer "2chmitt trigger#
In"uts o# ///7
Trigger input7 when U
&
I
>
;s "Tactive lowT# this ma$es the output high "S;s#. It monitors
the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable circuit. It has a high input impedance
J B: .
Threshold input7 when J
B
I
>
;s "Tactive highT# this ma$es the output low "';#V. It
monitors the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits. It has a
high input impedance J &': .
V providing the trigger input is J
&
I
>
;s otherwise the trigger input will override the
threshold input and hold the output high "S;s#.
Reset input7 when less than about '.D; "Tactive lowT# this ma$es the output low "';#
overriding other inputs. )hen not re+uired it should be connected to S;s. It has an input
impedance of about &'$ .
(ontrol input7 this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is set internally to be
B
I
>
;s. 8sually this function is not re+uired and the control input is connected to '; with
a '.'&K= capacitor to eliminate electrical noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a
problem.
The discharge pin is not an input but it is listed here for convenience. It is connected to
'; when the timer output is low and is used to discharge the timing capacitor in astable
and monostable circuits.
Out"ut o# ///
The output of a standard %%% or %%E can sin$ and source up to B''mA. This is more than
most I(s and it is sufficient to supply many output transducers directly including 9ed4s
"with a resistor in series# low current lamps piezo transducers loudspea$ers "with a
capacitor in series# relay coils "with diode protection# and some motors "with diode
protection#. The output voltage does not +uite reach '; and S;s especially if a large
current is flowing.
To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor.
The ability to both sin$ and source current means that two devices can be connected to
the output so that one is on when the output is low and the other is on when the output is
high. The top diagram shows two 9ed4s connected in this way. This arrangement is used
in the 9evel (rossing project to ma$e the red 9ed4s flash alternately.
2.1 /// ti*ers as asta=le:
An astable circuit produces a Ts+uare wave41 this is a digital waveform with sharp
transitions between low "';# and high "S;s#. @ote that the durations of the low and high
states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any
state7 the output is continually changing between TlowT and ThighT.
The time period "T# of the s+uare wave is the time for one complete cycle but it is
usually better to consider fre+uency "f# which is the number of cycles per second.
T M '.D L "R& S BRB# L (& and f M
&.C
"R& S BRB# L (&
T M time period in seconds "s#
f M fre+uency in hertz "6z#
R& M resistance in ohms " #
RB M resistance in ohms " #
(& M capacitance in farads "=#
The time period can be split into two parts7 T M Tm S Ts
:ar$ time "output high#7 Tm M '.D L "R& S RB# L (&
2pace time "output low#7 Ts M '.D L RB L (&
:any circuits re+uire Tm and Ts to be almost e+ual1 this is achieved if RB is much larger
than R&.
fig
#ig 2.1
=or a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts but this is not too restricting
because the output can both sin$ and source current. =or e!ample an 9./ can be made to
flash briefly with long gaps by connecting it "with its resistor# between S;s and the
output. This way the 9./ is on during Ts so brief flashes are achieved with R& larger
than RB ma$ing Ts short and Tm long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can be added
to the circuit as e!plained under duty cycle below.
(hoosing R& RB and (&
R& and RB should be in the range &$ to &: . It is best to choose (& first because
capacitors are available in just a few values.
(hoose (& to suit the fre+uency range you re+uire "use the table as a guide#.
(hoose RB to give the fre+uency "f# you re+uire. Assume that R& is much smaller
than RB "so that Tm and Ts are almost e+ual# then you can use7
RB M
'.D
f L (&
(hoose R& to be about a tenth of RB "&$ min.# unless you want the mar$ time
Tm to be significantly longer than the space time Ts.
If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to ma$e it RB.
If R& is variable it must have a fi!ed resistor of at least &$ in series
"this is not re+uired for RB if it is variable#.
Asta=le o"eration
)ith the output high "S;s# the capacitor (& is charged by current flowing through R&
and RB. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor voltage and when it
reaches
B
I
>
;s "threshold voltage# the output becomes low and the discharge pin is
connected to ';.
+ig 2.11
The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through RB into the discharge pin.
)hen the voltage falls to
&
I
>
;s "trigger voltage# the output becomes high again and the
discharge pin is disconnected allowing the capacitor to start charging again.
This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to '; which forces the
output low while reset is ';.
An astable can be used to provide the cloc$ signal for circuits such as counters.
A low fre+uency astable "U &'6z# can be used to flash an 9./ on and off higher
fre+uency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. /riving a loudspea$er or piezo
transducer with a low fre+uency of less than B'6z will produce a series of Tclic$sT "one
for each lowIhigh transition# and this can be used to ma$e a simple metronome.
An audio fre+uency astable "B'6z to B'$6z# can be used to produce a sound from a
loudspea$er or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for buzzes and beeps. The natural
"resonant# fre+uency of most piezo transducers is about >$6z and this will ma$e them
produce a particularly loud sound.
Dut0 c0cle
The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete cycle for which the
output is high "the mar$ time#. It is usually given as a percentage.
=or a standard %%%I%%E astable circuit the mar$ time "Tm# must be greater than the space
time "Ts# so the duty cycle must be at least %'W7
uty cycle 0
T'
T' 9 Ts
:
R1 9 R2
R1 9 2R2

;
Fig4...1.2 shows the ### timer in astable operation with )2.
To achie6e a (t5 c5cle of less than -0< a diode can be added in parallel with
)2 as shown in the diagram. (his bypasses )2 during the charging 1mark2 part
of the cycle so that (m depends only on )1 and C13
T' : 0.4 = R1 = C1 1ignoring 4.&5 across diode2
Ts : 0.4 = R2 = C1 1unchanged2
(t5 c5cle 1ith (io(e 0
T'
T' 9 Ts
:
R1
R1 9 R2
7.4.2 555 Monostab!
Fig: 4...2.0
* monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. -t is called
a monostable because it is stable in just one state3 6output low6. (he 6output
high6 state is temporary.
(he duration of the pulse is called the time period 1(2 and this is determined
by resistor )1 and capacitor C13
time period, T : 1.1 = R1 = C1
( 0 time period in seconds 1s2
)1 0 resistance in ohms 1 2
C1 0 capacitance in farads 172
(he ma$imum reliable time period is about 14 minutes.
### monostable output, a single pulse

### monostable circuit with manual trigger

Choose C1 first 1there are relati'ely few 'alues a'ailable2.
Fig 4...2.1
(hoose R& to give the time period you need. R& should be in the range &$ to
&: so use a fi!ed resistor of at least &$ in series if R& is variable.
5eware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate1 errors of at least B'W
are common.
5eware that electrolytic capacitors lea$ charge which substantially increases the
time period if you are using a high value resistor - use the formula as only a very
rough guideX
2.!1 &onosta=le o"eration
The timing period is triggered "started# when the trigger input "%%% pin B# is less than
&
I
>
;s this ma$es the output high "S;s# and the capacitor (& starts to charge through
resistor R&. <nce the time period has started further trigger pulses are ignored.
The threshold input "%%% pin E# monitors the voltage across (& and when this reaches
B
I
>
;s the time period is over and the output becomes low. At the same time discharge
"%%% pin D# is connected to '; discharging the capacitor ready for the ne!t trigger.
The reset input "%%% pin C# overrides all other inputs and the timing may be cancelled at
any time by connecting reset to '; this instantly ma$es the output low and discharges the
capacitor. If the reset function is not re+uired the reset pin should e connected to S;s.
7.4.3 555"55# In$!%ting &'((!% )S*+,itt t%igg!%- o% NOT gat!
Fig: 4...3.0
the buffer circuitTs input has a very high impedance "about &: # so it re+uires only a few
KA but the output can sin$ or source up to B''mA. This enables a high impedance signal
source "such as an 9/R# to switch a low impedance output transducer "such as a lamp#.
It is an inverting buffer or @<T gate because the output logic state "lowIhigh# is the
inverse of the input state7
Input low "U
&
I
>
;s# ma$es output high S;s
Input high "J
B
I
>
;s# ma$es output low ';
)hen the input voltage is between
&
I
>
and
B
I
>
;s the output remains in its present state.
This intermediate input region is a dead space where there is no response a property
called hysteresis it is li$e bac$lash in a mechanical lin$age. This type of circuit is called
a 2chmitt trigger.
If high sensitivity is re+uired the hysteresis is a problem but in many circuits it is a
helpful property. It gives the input a high immunity to noise because once the circuit
### in'erting buffer circuit
1a .8( gate2

.8( gate symbol
output has switched high or low the input must change bac$ by at least
&
I
>
;s to ma$e the
output switch bac$.
7.4.5 555 timer to modulate infrared (IR) light
An IR emitter is going to be modulated using an astable %%% timer in this electronics
e!ercise. The IR emitter needs to be modulated by a fre+uency of >, $6z since the
detector used in this e!ercise only detects >, $6z modulated IR. The detector is set to
only see >, $6z modulated IR because there are random IR sources such as overhead
lights the sun heaters etc. in most environments that can cause interference if using un-
modulated IR.
The following two circuits shown in =ig.C and =ig. % are modulated IR
transmitter and receivers. .ach circuit should be soldered on separate proto-boards.
Fig. 7.4.5.0 modulated IR transmitter

Fig.7.4.5.1 modulated IR receiver
;erify with the TA that everything is soldered correctly. Then apply
power to the transmitter circuit. 8se an oscilloscope to observe the signal at node A.
Adjust the &'$Y variable resistor until the signal at node A is a >, $6z series of pulses.
Apply power to the receiver circuit Point the IR light emitting diode "9./# on the
transmitter to the detector on the receiver. )hen the pushbutton is depressed the visible
9./ on the receiver should blin$. If the visible led is blin$ing randomly put e!posed >%
mm camera film around the IR detector.


$tepper 'otor
4.-.1 Description:
A stepper motor "or step motor# is a brushless synchronous electric motor that
can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motorTs position can be
controlled precisely without any feedbac$ mechanism "see open loop control#. 2tepper
motors are similar to switched reluctance motors "which are very large stepping motors
with a reduced pole count and generally are closed-loop commutated#.
+ig 2/11
7.5.2 Fundamentals of Operation
2tepper motors operate differently from normal /( motors which rotate when voltage is
applied to their terminals. 2tepper motors on the other hand effectively have multiple
?toothed? electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The
electromagnets are energized by an e!ternal control circuit such as a microcontroller. To
ma$e the motor shaft turn first one electromagnet is given power which ma$es the gearTs
teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnetTs teeth. )hen the gearTs teeth are thus
aligned to the first electromagnet they are slightly offset from the ne!t electromagnet. 2o
when the ne!t electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off the gear rotates
slightly to align with the ne!t one and from there the process is repeated. .ach of those
slight rotations is called a ?step? with an integral number of steps ma$ing a full rotation.
In that way the motor can be turned by a precise angle.
7.5.3 Stepper motor characteristics
2tepper motors are constant power devices. As motor speed increases tor+ue decreases.
The tor+ue curve may be e!tended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the
driving voltage. 2teppers e!hibit more vibration than other motor types as the discrete
step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another. This vibration can become very
bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose tor+ue. The effect can be mitigated by
accelerating +uic$ly through the problem speed range physically damping the system or
using a micro-stepping driver. :otors with a greater number of phases also e!hibit
smoother operation than those with fewer phases.
7.5.4 Open-loop versus closed-loop commutation
2teppers are generally commutated open loop i.e. the driver has no feedbac$ on where
the rotor actually is. 2tepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered
especially if the load inertia is high or there is widely varying load so that there is no
possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to
consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but e!pensive servomechanism system
and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper.
A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedbac$ "eg. an
encoder or resolver# so that the commutation can be made optimal for tor+ue generation
according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count
brushless servo motor with e!ceptional low speed tor+ue and position resolution. An
advance on this techni+ue is to normally run the motor in open loop mode and only enter
closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large -- this will allow the
system to avoid hunting or oscillating a common servo problem.
7.5.5 Types
There are three main types of stepper motors7
Permanent :agnet 2tepper
6ybrid 2ynchronous 2tepper
;ariable Reluctance 2tepper
Two-phase stepper motors
(here are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a
two phase stepper motor3 bipolar and unipolar.
Uni"olar *otors
A unipolar stepper motor has logically two windings per phase one for each direction of
magnetic field. 2ince in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without
switching the direction of current the commutation circuit can be made very simple "e.g.
a single transistor# for each winding. Typically given a phase one end of each winding is
made common7 giving three leads per phase and si! leads for a typical two phase motor.
<ften these two phase commons are internally joined so the motor has only five leads.

+ig 2//4 Unipolar stepper 'otor coils
In the construction of unipolar stepper motor there are four coils. <ne end of each coil is
tide together and it gives common terminal which is always connected with positive
terminal of supply. The other ends of each coil are given for interface. 2pecific color
code may also be given. 9i$e in my motor orange is first coil "9&# brown is second "9B#
yellow is third "9># blac$ is fourth "9C# and red for common terminal.
5y means of controlling a stepper motor operation we can
&. Increase or decrease the RP: "speed# of it
B. Increase or decrease number of revolutions of it
>. (hange its direction means rotate it cloc$wise or anticloc$wise
To vary the RP: of motor we have to vary the PR= "Pulse Repetition =re+uency#.
@umber of applied pulses will vary number of rotations and last to change direction we
have to change pulse se+uence.
2o all these three things just depends on applied pulses. @ow there are three different
modes to rotate this motor
&. 2ingle coil e!citation
B. /ouble coil e!citation
>. half coil e!citation
8nipolar stepper motors with si! or eight wires may be driven using bipolar drivers by
leaving the phase commons disconnected and driving the two windings of each phase
together Zdiagram needed[. It is also possible to use a bipolar driver to drive only one
winding of each phase leaving half of the windings unused Zdiagram needed[.
Bi"olar *otor
5ipolar motors have logically a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs
to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole so the driving circuit must be more
complicated typically with an 6-bridge arrangement. There are two leads per phase
none are common.
2tatic friction effects using an 6-bridge have been observed with certain drive topologies
5ecause windings are better utilized they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the
same weight.
38lea) ste""er
An , lead stepper is wound li$e a unipolar stepper but the leads are not joined to
common internally to the motor. This $ind of motor can be wired in several
configurations7
8nipolar.
5ipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per
winding.
5ipolar with parallel windings. This re+uires higher current but can perform better
as the winding inductance is reduced.
5ipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only
half the available windings which will reduce the available low speed tor+ue but
re+uire less current.
7.5.6 Theory
A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous A( motor with the number of poles "on
both rotor and stator# increased ta$ing care that they have no common denominator.
Additionally soft magnetic material with many teeth on the rotor and stator cheaply
multiplies the number of poles "reluctance motor#. :odern steppers are of hybrid design
having both permanent magnets and soft iron cores.
To achieve full rated tor+ue the coils in a stepper motor must reach their full rated
current during each step. )inding inductance and reverse .:= generated by a moving
rotor tend to resist changes in drive current so that as the motor speeds up less and less
time is spent at full current -- thus reducing motor tor+ue. As speeds further increase the
current will not reach the rated value and eventually the motor will cease to produce
tor+ue.
(ull8in tor>ue
This is the measure of the tor+ue produced by a stepper motor when it is operated without
an acceleration state. At low speeds the stepper motor can synchronize itself with an
applied step fre+uency and this Pull-In tor+ue must overcome friction and inertia.
(ull8out tor>ue
The stepper motor Pull-<ut tor+ue is measured by accelerating the motor to the desired
speed and then increasing the tor+ue loading until the motor stalls or ?pulls <ut of
synchronism? with the step fre+uency. This measurement is ta$en across a wide range of
speeds and the results are used to generate the stepper motorTs dynamic performance
curve. As noted below this curve is affected by drive voltage drive current and current
switching techni+ues. It is normally recommended to use a safety factor of between %'W
and &''W when comparing your desired tor+ue output to the published ?pull-<ut? tor+ue
performance curve of a step motor.
Detent tor>ue
2ynchronous electric motors using permanent magnets have a remnant position holding
tor+ue "called detent tor+ue and sometimes included in the specifications# when not
driven electrically. 2oft iron reluctance cores do not e!hibit this behavior.
Stepper motor ratings and specifications
2tepper motors nameplates typically give only the winding current and occasionally the
voltage and winding resistance. The rated voltage will produce the rated winding current
at /(7 but this is mostly a meaningless rating as all modern drivers are current limiting
and the drive voltages greatly e!ceed the motor rated voltage.
A stepperTs low speed tor+ue will vary directly with current. 6ow +uic$ly the tor+ue falls
off at faster speeds depends on the winding inductance and the drive circuitry it is
attached to especially the driving voltage.
2teppers should be sized according to published tor+ue curve which is specified by the
manufacturer at particular drive voltages andIor using their own drive circuitry. It is not
guaranteed that you will achieve the same performance given different drive circuitry so
the pair should be chosen with great care.
+ig 2/54
2/2 R(& calculation:8
<ne can calculate the e!act RP: at which motor will run. )e $now that motor needs B''
pulses to complete & revolution. :eans if B'' pulses applied in & second motor will
complete & revolution in & second. @ow & rev. in & sec means E' rev. in & minute. That
will give us E' RP:. @ow B'' pulses in & sec means the PR= is B'' 6z. And delay will
be % milli second "ms#. @ow let4s see it reverse.
V If delay is &' ms then PR= will be &'' 6z.
V 2o &'' pulses will be given in & sec
V :otor will complete & revolution in B second
V 2o the RP: will be >'.
In same manner as you change delay the PR= will be changed and it will change RP:\
2/3 A""lications
(omputer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning
systems. They are typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system and are
simpler and more rugged than closed loop servo systems.
Industrial applications are in high speed pic$ and place e+uipment and multi-a!is
machine (@( machines often directly driving lead screws or ball screws. In the field of
lasers and optics they are fre+uently used in precision positioning e+uipment such as
linear actuators linear stages rotation stages goniometers and mirror mounts. <ther
uses are in pac$aging machinery and positioning of valve pilot stages for fluid control
systems.
(ommercially stepper motors are used in floppy dis$ drives flatbed scanners computer
printers plotters and many more devices.
LCD )is"la0
25 Descri"tion:
9i+uid crystal display "9(/# has material which combines the properties of both li+uid
and crystals. They have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as
mobile as they would be in a li+uid but are grouped together in an order form similar to a
crystal


+ig:2/24
More
Control Signals It?s #unction
RI)
M ' )rites character in display
M & Reads from display
R2I/I
M ' 2elects command register
M & 2elects /ata register to display
character
.n
M ' /isables the display
M & .nables the displa
Fig:7.5.7.1
microcontroller devices are using Tsmart 9(/T displays to output visual information. The
following discussion covers the connection of a 6itachi 9(/ display to a PI(
microcontroller. 9(/ displays designed around 6itachiTs 9(/ 6/CCD,' module are
ine!pensive easy to use and it is even possible to produce a readout using the , ! ,'
pi!els of the display. 6itachi 9(/ displays have a standard A2(II set of characters plus
]apanese *ree$ and mathematical symbols.
This display contains two internal byte-wide registers one for command and
second for characters to be displayed. There are three control signals called RI) /IIR2
and .n. The table given below will tell you what the use of these three signals is.
5y ma$ing R2I/I signal ' you can send different commands to display. These commands
are used to initialized 9(/ to select display pattern to shift cursor or screen etc. The
different commands and their functions are as given below
=or an ,-bit data bus the display re+uires a S%; supply plus && II< lines. =or a
C-bit data bus it only re+uires the supply lines plus seven e!tra lines. )hen the 9(/
display is not enabled data lines are tri-state which means they are in a state of high
impedance "as though they are disconnected# and this means they do not interfere with
the operation of the microcontroller when the display is not being addressed.
The 9(/ also re+uires > ?control? lines from the microcontroller.
.nable ".# This line allows access to the display through RI) and R2 lines. )hen this line
is low the 9(/ is disabled and ignores signals from RI) and R2. )hen ".#
line is high the 9(/ chec$s the state of the two control lines and responds
accordingly.
ReadI)rite "RI)# This line determines the direction of data between the 9(/ and
microcontroller. )hen it is low data is written to the 9(/. )hen it is high
data is read from the 9(/.
Register select
"R2#
)ith the help of this line the 9(/ interprets the type of data on data lines.
)hen it is low an instruction is being written to the 9(/. )hen it is high a
character is being written to the 9(/.
5its
R2I/IRI)/D /E /% /C /> /B /& /'
=unction
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' & (lear 9(/ memory 6ome cursor
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' & ' (lear and 6ome cursor only
' ' ' ' ' ' ' & II< s
s M &I' 7 2hift screenIcursor II< M &I'
7 shift RI9
' ' ' ' ' ' & / ( 5
/ M &I' 7 2creen <nI<ff. ( M &I' 7
cursor <nI<ff. 5 M &I' 7 (ursor
blin$Ino blin$
' ' ' ' ' & 2I( RI9 ' '
2I( M &I' 7 2creen I (ursor. RI9 M &I'
7 2hift one space right I left
' ' ' ' & /9 @ = ' '
/I9 M &I' 7 ,IC bits per character. @ M
&I' 7 BI& rows of char. = M &I' 7
%L&'I%LD dotsIchar.
' ' ' & (har address )rite to char. RA: address after this
' ' & /isplay data address
)rites to display RA: address after
this
& 5= (urrent address 5= M &I' 7 display is busyInot busy
& ' (haracter type )rite byte to last RA: chosen
& & (haracter type Read byte from last RA: chosen
+ig:2/2!
This is a high +uality &E character by B line intelligent display module with bac$
lighting )or$s with almost any microcontroller.
Rea) )ata #ro* )ata lines @i# it is rea)ingA
Reading data from the 9(/ is done in the same way but control line RI) has to be high.
)hen we send a high to the 9(/ it will reset and wait for instructions. Typical
instructions sent to 9(/ display after a reset are7 turning on a display turning on a cursor
and writing characters from left to right. )hen the 9(/ is initialized it is ready to
continue receiving data or instructions. If it receives a character it will write it on the
display and move the cursor one space to the right. The (ursor mar$s the ne!t location
where a character will be written. )hen we want to write a string of characters first we
need to set up the starting address and then send one character at a time. (haracters that
5efore we access // RA: after defining a special character the program must set the
// RA: address. )riting and reading data from any 9(/ memory is done from the last
address which was set up using set-address instruction. <nce the address of // RA: is
set a new written character will be displayed at the appropriate place on the screen. 8ntil
now we discussed the operation of writing and reading to an 9(/ as if it were an
ordinary memory. 5ut this is not so. The 9(/ controller needs C' to &B' microseconds
"u2# for writing and reading. <ther operations can ta$e up to % m2. /uring that time the
microcontroller can not access the 9(/ so a program needs to $now when the 9(/ is
busy. )e can solve this in two ways.
<ne way is to chec$ the 582A bit found on data line /D. This is not the best
method because 9(/Ts can get stuc$ and program will then stay forever in a loop
chec$ing the 582A bit. The other way is to introduce a delay in the program. The delay
has to be long enough for the 9(/ to finish the operation in process. Instructions for
writing to and reading from an 9(/ memory are shown in the previous table.
At the beginning we mentioned that we needed && II< lines to communicate with an
9(/. 6owever we can communicate with an 9(/ through a C-bit data bus. Thus we can
reduce the total number of communication lines to seven. The wiring for connection via a
C-bit data bus is shown in the diagram below. In this e!ample we use an 9(/ display
with B!&E characters.
+eatures
&E (haracters ! B 9ines
%!D /ot :atri! (haracter S (ursor
6/CCD,' .+uivalent 9(/ (ontrollerIdriver 5uilt-In
C-bit or ,-bit :P8 Interface
2tandard Type
)or$s with almost any :icrocontroller
*reat ;alue Pricing
:a!imum input voltage7 %.>;/(
<perating input voltage7 %;/(
,-bit interface data bus
(ontroller7 6/CDD,' e+uivalent
(haracter font size7 '.&B%?) ! '.B''?6
&C pinIterminals
/isplay size7 B.%?9 ! '.D?)
:odule size7 >.C?9 ! &.B?) ! '.%?T
'*=e))e) C Co*"iler7
A@2I ( - full featured and portable
Reliable - mature field-proven technology
:ultiple ( optimization levels
An optimizing assembler
=ull lin$er with overlaying of local variables to minimize RA: usage
(omprehensive ( library with all source code provided
Includes support for BC-bit and >B-bit I... floating point and >B-bit long data
types
:i!ed ( and assembler programming
8nlimited number of source files
9istings showing generated assembler
Runs on multiple platforms7 )indows 9inu! 8@IP :ac <2 P 2olaris
Aou can compile assemble and lin$ your embedded application with a single step.
<ptionally the compiler may be run directly from the command line allowing
you to compile assemble and lin$ using one command. This enables the compiler to be
integrated into third party development environments such as :icrochipTs :P9A5 I/..
'*=e))e) s0ste* tools:
Asse*=ler:
An assembler is a computer program for translating assembly language ^
essentially a mnemonic representation of machine language ^ into object code. A cross
assembler "see cross compiler# produces code for one type of processor but runs on
another. The computational step where an assembler is run is $nown as assembly time.
Translating assembly instruction mnemonics into opcodes assemblers provide the ability
to use symbolic names for memory locations "saving tedious calculations and manually
updating addresses when a program is slightly modified# and macro facilities for
performing te!tual substitution ^ typically used to encode common short se+uences of
instructions to run inline instead of in a subroutine. Assemblers are far simpler to write
than compilers for high-level languages.
Assembly language has several benefits7
S"ee)7 Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs around.
S"ace: Assembly language programs are often the smallest.
Ca"a=ilit0: Aou can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible in
6igh-level languages.
Si*ulator:
2imulator is a machine that simulates an environment for the purpose of training or
research.
Co*"iler: A compiler is a program that reads a program in one language the source
language and translates into an e+uivalent program in another language the target
language. The translation process should also report the presence of errors in the source
program.
Chapter !
$OFT")R# !ROGR)//ING
So#tware
1 "rogra* #or gate control9 track changing9 an) two rains o""osite case7
_includeUreg%&.hJ
void :2/elay "unsigned int value#1
sbit sense&MP&`'1
sbit senseBMP&`&1
sbit buz&MP&`C1
sbit buzBMP&`%1
sbit ledMPB`D1
void main "#
a
int i1
P&M'!f'1
buz&M'1
buzBM'1
ledM'1
while "&#
a
if "sense&MM& HH senseBXM&#
a
buz&M&1
ledM&1
for "iM'1iUMB1iSS#
a
PBM'!EE1
:2/elay "&'#1
PBM'!((1
:2/elay "&'#1
PBM'!--1
:2/elay "&'#1
PBM'!>>1
:2/elay "&'#1
b
b
sense&M'1
if "senseBMM& HH sense&XM&#
a
buz&M'1
ledM'1
for "iM'1 iUMB1iSS#
a
PBM'!EE1
:2/elay "&'#1
PBM'!>>1
:2/elay "&'#1
PBM'!--1
:2/elay "&'#1
PBM'!((1
:2/elay "&'#1
b

for"iM'1iUMB1iSS#
a
P'M'!EE1
:2/elay "&'#1
P'M'!((1
:2/elay "&'#1
P'M'!--1
:2/elay "&'#1
P'M'!>>1
:2/elay "&'#1
b
b
senseBM'1
if "sense&MM& HH senseBMM&#
a
buzBM&1
:2/elay "B''#1
buzBM'1
b
sense&M'1
senseBM'1
b
b
void :2/elay "unsigned int value#
a
unsigned int !y1
for"!M'1 !U&BD%1!SS#
for"yM'1yUvalue1ySS#1
b
! "rogra* #or )is"la0ing *essage on LCD7
_includeUreg%&.hJ
_includeUstdio.hJ
_include Ustring.hJ
void lcdcmd "unsigned char value#1
void lcddata "unsigned char value#1
void :2/elay "unsigned int time#1
void /isp:sg "char V/isp#1
void /isp(har "char (6AR#1
sfr ldataM'!-'1
sbit rsMPB`'1
sbit rwMPB`&1
sbit enMPB`B1
sbit senseMPB`%1
sbit ledMPB`D1
void main "#
a
unsigned char str ZB'[ str& ZB'[1
int a b total1
aMB1 bM%1
totalMaVb1
P'M'!''1
sprintf"str&?TRAI@ I2 (<:I@* ?#1
strcpy "str?V6IT.(6 (<99.*.V?#1
lcdcmd "'!>,#1 IIBline %!D matri!
:2/elay "B%#1
lcdcmd "'!'.#1 II
:2/elay "B%#1
lcdcmd "'!'&#1
:2/elay "B%#1
lcdcmd "'!'=#1
:2/elay "B%#1
IIlcdcmd "'!'E#1
II:2/elay "B%#1
IIlcdcmd "'!,E#1
senseM'1
ledM'1
while "&#
a
senseM'1
if "sensesMM&#
a
lcdcmd "'!,'#1
:2/elay "B%#1
/isp:sg "str&#1
II lcdcmd "'!c%#1
lcdcmd "'!c'#1
:2/elay "B%#1
/isp:sg "str#1
:2/elay "B%'#1
:2/elay "B%''#1
b
senseM'1
b
b
void lcdcmd "unsigned char value#
a
ldataMvalue1
rsM'1
rwM'1
enM&1
:2/elay "&#1
enM'1
return1
b
void lcddata "unsigned char value#
a
ldataMvalue1
rsM&1
rwM'1
enM&1
:2/elay "&#1
enM'1
return1
b
void :2/elay "unsigned int itime#
a
unsigned int ij1
for"iM'1iUitime1iSS#
for "jM'1jU&''1jSS#1
b
void /isp:sg "char V/isp#
a
while "V/isp#
/isp(har "V/ispSS#1
b
void /isp(har "char (6AR#
a
lcddata "(6AR#1
b
Conclsion:
A new approach for improving safety at 9(s on IR has been suggested. =ormats have
been given to maintain records of 9( inventories accidentIincident reports. .ach 9(
should be assigned a hazard rating and the priority of safety enhancement wor$s be
decided accordingly. A regular assessment of safety performance should be done. This
approach should be able to bring down the rising trend in accidents at 9(s.
Sco"e o# "ro$ect
This project is developed in order to help the I@/IA@ RAI9)AA2 in ma$ing its
present wor$ing system a better one by eliminating some of the loopholes e!isting in
it.
5ased on the responses and reports obtained as a result of the significant development
in the wor$ing system of I@/IA@ RAI9)AA2 this project can be further e!tended
to meet the demands according to situation.
This can be further implemented to have control room to regulate the wor$ing of the
system. Thus becomes the user friendliness.
This circuit can be e!panded and used in a station with any number of platforms as
per the usage.
Additional modules can be added with out affecting the remaining modules. This
allows the fle!ibility and easy maintenance of the developed system.
This system consists of following features over manual system7
There is no time lag to operate the device.
Accuracy.
2imulation is provided to reflect the present status of the system.
.nd user can operate this without $nowing about electronics.