TRANSPORT OF

CONCENTRATES AND TAILINGS

2 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation














Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 3


CHAPTER 11
Equation Chapter 11 Section 1

TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATES ANDTAILINGS


Within a mineral processing plant the ore and the product of the dressing
operation and the concentrates and tailings, must be transported within a given unit
operation, from one unit operation to another, from the plant to a port, where the
concentrate is shipped to the world market and from the plant to a tailings pond to get
rid of the waste materials. In the case of the crushing plant and the feed to the grinding
plant, where the ore is essentially dry, the transport is made efficiently in belt
conveyors. In the flotation plant and between flotation and solid-liquid separation in
thickeners and filters the transport is made through pipelines and finally, flotation
tailings is transported to tailing ponds through pipelines or channels.
The use of pipelines in the plant enables to transport a maximum load for a
minimum of space using conventional centrifugal pumps and pipes that, in most cases,
will not exceed 12 inches in diameter. For short distance tailing disposal or for long
distance concentrate transportation, pipelines exhibit a remarkable degree of flexibility.
No mater what the nature or complexity of the topography a pipeline can always be
layout.
Slurries with particle size less than 270 mesh (50 microns) are called
homogeneous, and they behave as fluids with increase density and particular rheology.
A to diluted of such suspension requires a high transport velocity to prevent particles to
settle. On the other hand a suspension with high concentration will behave as a fluid
with yield stress and again high transport velocities will be required to maintain a
turbulent regime that will prevent solid deposition. In either case, the system will
operate beyond its economic point. The knowledge of the rheological properties of the
slurries for the design of pipeline systems is therefore appreciated. The power
consumption to pump 100 tph of homogeneous slurry horizontally is between 0.1 to
0.2 kW/ton-km (Condolios et al. 1967). Gravity transport of homogeneous slurries is
possible if a gradient of at least 1.5 meters for each 100 meters is provided (Kleiman
1960).
Slurries with particle bigger than 270 mesh (50 microns) form heterogeneous or
mixed slurries that form a vertical concentration profile and some bed formation while
being transported. These materials are transported in suspension or by saltation or bed
movement depending on the size of the particles. To prevent settling, higher velocities







4 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

must be used and specific lower limits to this velocity must be established. Materials
with particle size under 9 mesh (2 mm) and at least 20% of material under 270 mesh
can be transported by centrifugal pumps with a power consumption, for 100 tph, of
about 3 to 4 kW/ton-km (Condolios et al. 1967). Material with sizes over 9 mesh (2
mm) will require higher power consumption in the range of 6 to 12 kW/ton-km
(Condolios et al. 1967) and will subject the pipe to severe wear.

11.1 TRANSPOR OF A FLUID THROUGH A PIPELINES
The incompressible stationary flow in a horizontal circular tube may be described
by the following variables, the fluid density ( , ) t r , velocity ( , ) t v r , pressure ( , ) p t r
and extra stress ( , )
E
t T r . These field variables should obey the following field
equations:
0 = v (11.1)
,
E E ET
p = + + = v v T g T T (11.2)
Since the tube is cylindrical there is axi-symmetry, therefore cylindrical
coordinates will be used.

Continuity
( ) , )
0 , ( )
z
z z
v r z
v v r
z

= =

(11.3)
Componente r: 0
E
rz
T p
g
r z


= +

(11.4)
Componente : 0=
p

(11.5)
( )
1
Componente z: 0=
E
rz
p
rT
z r r

+

(11.6)
If we call
0
0
L
p p p = > the pressure drop between the extremes of the tube,
equation (11.6) may be written in the form:

( )
1
E
rz
p
rT K
z r r

= =

(11.7)
Integrating by parts the left side of (11.7) yields:

0
0
0
,
L
p L
L
p
p Kdz p p KL = =


Defining
0
,
L
p p p = <0
p
K
L

= (11.8)








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 5

Integrating by parts the right side of (11.7) yields:

( )
E
rz
d rT Krdr =



1
2
E
rz
C
T Kr
r
= +
Since at the tube axis the stress is finite, (0, )
rz
T z , for 0, 0 r C = = , then:

1
( )
2
E
rz
T r Kr =
And substituting K from (11.8), yields the distribution of shear stress in a cylindrical
tube:

1
( )
2
E
rz
p
T r r
L

= ,
1
( )
2
p
r r
L

= (11.9)
where ( ) ( )
E
rz
r T r = .

Fig. 11.1 Shear stress distribution for the flow in a cylindrical tube.

If we call ( )
w
R = the shear stress at the wall, from equation (11.9) we may
write:

1
0
2
w
p
R
L

= > (11.10)
The ratio of shear stress at r and at the wall, is:
( ) r







6 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


w
r
R

= (11.11)
It is important to realize that equations (11.9) to (11.11) are valid for any type of
fluids, since we have not invoked any type of constitutive equation for
E
rz
T .
11.2 NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
For a Newtonian fluid, the constitutive equation for the extra stress
E
rz
T is:

E z
rz
v
T
r

(11.12)
Substituting into (11.9) gives:

1
2
z
v p
r
L r

Velocity distribution
Integrating with boundary condition ( ) 0
z
v R = at the wall gives:

2
2
2
2
1
( )
2 2
1
( ) 0
2 2
1
2 2
z
z
z
v p
r
r L
p
v r r C
L
p
v R R C
L
p
C R
L

= +

= + =

=


2
2
1
( ) 1
4
z
pR r
v r
L R


=




(11.13)
The velocity distribution is parabolic as shown in figure 13.2.








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 7


Fig. 11.2 Velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid
in a circular tube.
Volume flow rate
The flow rate is given by
0
2 ( )
R
z
Q v r rdr =

, then:

1 2
4
0
1
1
2
pR r r r
Q d
L R R R

4
1
8
p R
Q
L

= (11.14)
Average velocity
The average velocity may be obtained from de volume flowrate by /
z
v Q A = ,
where
2
A R = is the cross sectional area of the tube:

2
1
8
z
pR
v
L

= (11.15)
The shear rate at the wall may be written in terms of the average velocity (11.15) and
the shear stress at the wall (11.10) in the following way:

2
z
r R
v pR
r L

Defining
w z
r R
v r
=
= & and substituting (11.15) into this equation yields:







8 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


8
z
w
v
D
= & (11.16)
where 2 D R = is the tube diameter
Maximum velocity
The maximum velocity is obtains for 0 r = , then, from (11.13):

2
1
4
m
pR
v
L

= (11.17)
Problem 11.1
Calculate the velocity distribution of water with viscosities, =1 cp in a tube of 1 inch
in diameter and 50 m in length, subjected to a pressure drop of 5 psi. Calculate also the flow
rate, average and maximum velocity, the wall shear stress and shear rate.
Data are: m, 50 m, p=34935Pa, 0.001 Pa-s 0.0127 L R = = =
For 0.001Pa-s = :
2 2 2 2
2
1 34935 0.0127
( ) 1 1
4 4 0.001 50
( ) 28.2 1 ms
z
z
pR r r
v r
L R R
r
v r
R

= =

=











Maximum velocity 3.05ms
m
v =
Volume flowrate:
4 4
3
1 34935 0.0127
0.0071 m s
8 8 0.001 50
p R
Q
L

= = =


Average velocity:
2 2
0.0071
14.1 ms
3.14 0.0127
z
Q
v
R
= = =

Shear rate and shear stress at the wall

-1
8 8 14.1
4437 s
0.0127 2
0.001 4437 4.44 Pa
z
w
w w
v
D

= = =

= = =
&
&









Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 9

-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0 10 20 30
Velocity v
z
, m/s
R
a
d
i
u
s

r
,

m

Fig. 11.3 Velocity distribution for the flow of water in a pipe of 1 inch in
diameter and 50 m long at a pressure of 5 psi.
Friction factor for Newtonian fluids
The friction factor, friction coefficient or resistance coefficient, is defined as the
ratio of the friction at the wall to the dynamic pressure:

( )
2
(1 2)
w z
f v = (11.18)
Since ( ) 12
w
pR L = , equation (11.10), substituting into this equation yields:

2 2
1 12
12
z z
pR p R
f
v L L v


= =
Therefore, the pressure drop can be written in terms of the friction factor as:

2
z
L
p f v
R
= (11.19)
Substituting the value of
z
v from (11.15) into(11.19), we have:

2 2
8 16
z z
p R L
f
L v pR Dv


= =







10 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Using the definition of the Reynolds number Re
z
Dv = , finally yields for laminar
flow of a Newtonian fluid:
16 Re f = (11.20)
Mechanical Energy Balance
The basis to calculate flow in conduits is the mechanical energy balance. This
equation reads:

( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 2 1
1
2
z z L
p
v v z z h
g g

= + + (11.21)
where
2 1
0 p p p = > , p g is the pressure head,
2
2
z
v g is the velocity head and
L
h is the sum of the head loss in the pipe line and pipe line fittings. It is usual to give
the head loss as numbers of velocity heads,
2
2
z
X v g . Table 11.1 gives the head loss
for different fittings.
Table 11.1 Friction head losses
Fitting X
45 elbow 0.3
90 elbow 0.7
90 square elbow 1.2
Exit from leg of T-piece 1.2
Entry into leg of T-piece 1.8
Unions and couplings small
Globe valve fully open 1.2-6.0
Gate valve fully open 0.15
Gate valve 3/4 open 1.0
Globe valve 1/2 open 4.0
Globe valve 1/4 open 16
Sudden expansion
( )
( )
2
2
1 2
1 D D
Discharge into a large tank 1
Sudden contraction
( ) ( ) ( )
6 4 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
0.7867 1.3322 0.1816 0.363 X D D D D D D = + +
Outlet of a large tank 0.5










Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 11

Problem 11.2
Water flows under gravity from reservoir A to reservoir B, both of which are of large
diameters. Estimate the flow rate through a 50 mm diameter and 75 m length pipe. Consider
laminar flow. See figure.

Apply equation (11.21):

( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 2 1
1
2
z z L
p
v v z z h
g g

= + +

2 1
5 40 35 m z z = =
0 p =

1 2 z z
v v =

1 2
35 m
L
h z z = =
Head loss:
(pipe) (2gate valve) (2globe valve) (2elbows) (entrance)+ (outlet)
L L L L L L L
h h h h h h h = + + + +
1
2
Otulet of large tank 0.5
Entrance to large tank 1.0
X
X
=
=

1 globe valve fully open 6.0
1 gate valve fully open 0.15
glove
gate
X
X
=
=

2 elbows 0.7 2 1.4
elbows
X = =
2
2
2
p 4L 16
75 m 50 mm pipe = = ,
g D 2 Re
64
=
2
z
pipe
z
z
v
h f f
g
v L
D v g

=














12 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

2
2
64 0.001 75 1.92
=
1000 0.05 2
z
z z
v
v v g

=

2
2
2
1.92
2 0.15 2 6.0 2 0.15 1 0.5
2
1.92
0.30 12.0 1.4 1 0.5
2
1.92
15.20
2
z
L
z
z
z
z
z
v
h
v g
v
v g
v
v g
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
= +










Then:
2
1.92
15.20 35 6.7 ms
2
z
z
z
v
v
v g
+ = =





1000 6.7 0.05
Re 332928 4000 Turbulent regime
0.001

= = >
The problem must be recalculated with parameters for the turbulent regime.
Transition to turbulent regime
The flow of a Newtonian fluid may occur in laminar or turbulent regimes. The
parameters defining the transition between laminar and turbulent flows are the friction
factor (or coefficient of resistance) f and the Reynolds number Re. The Reynolds
number has different form depending on the rheological model of the suspension. The
friction factor is defined as the ratio of the overall pressure losses to the velocity
pressure
Do to the overriding effect of the viscosity forces in laminar flow of Newtonian
fluids, even flow past surface asperities appear to be smooth. Therefore, the roughness
of the walls, unless it is very significant, does not affect the flow resistance. Under
these conditions of the flow the friction coefficient is always a function of the
Reynolds number alone.
As the Reynolds number increases, the inertia forces, which are proportional to
the velocity squared, begin to dominate. Turbulent motion is initiated, which is
characterized by the development of transverse velocity component giving rise to
agitation of the fluid throughout the entire stream and to momentum exchange between
randomly moving masses of fluid. All this causes a significant increase in the
resistance to the motion in turbulent flow compared with the case of laminar flow.
When the surface of the walls is rough, separation occurs in the flow past
roughness and resistance coefficient becomes a function of the Reynolds number and
the relative roughness :
D = (11.22)








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 13

where is the is the average height of the asperities and D is the tube diameter.
Although for low velocity flows on rough tubes the friction factor decreases with an
increase in Reynolds number, at higher velocities on rough tubes it shows an increase
in the coefficient of friction with an increase in Reynolds number with constant relative
roughness. This effect is explained by the fact that at low flows the viscous sublayer
is larger than the roughness protuberances > and the fluid moves smoothly past
the irregularities, while at higher velocities the sublayer becomes thinner than the
roughness protuberances, < , which enhance the formation of vortices increasing
the friction factor and pressure drop. The tubes may be considered smooth as long as
the heights of the asperities are smaller than the thickness of the laminar sublayer. See
the following figure 11.5.

Fig. 11.5 Flow past rough tube walls for different ratio of viscous sublayer
to roughness asperities.
The friction factor was defined in the form:
2
4
12
w
z
f
v

= , where
w
is the friction
at the wall and
z
v is the average flow velocity. Experience show that the dependence
of the friction factor f on the Reynolds number and the roughness of tubes, as
determined experimentally by Nikuradse (1933), are given in three flow regimes, (1)
laminar flow, (2) transition to turbulence and (3) rough walls regime.
First regime. In the first regime, with Reynolds numbers lower than 2100, f is
independent of the roughness of the tube and is given by:
16 Re f = (11.23)
Second regime. The second regime, called transition regime, consists of three
segments of the resistance curve for uniform roughness and 2100 Re 4000 < < :
(1) In the first segment, the friction factor increases rapidly with Re but remains
independent of the roughness and is given by:

0.25
0.0791 Re f = (11.24)
(2) The second segment includes friction factors for the lower values of
Reynolds numbers for different relative roughness. In this region the friction
factor is given by Blasius equation or all roughness, equation (11.24).
(3) In the third segment, the friction factor starts form the Blasius curve and
increases with the Reynolds number and diverging to different lines for different







14 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

constant relative roughness, and ends when the friction factor becomes a
constant. See figure 11.6
Third regime. In the third regime, for Re 4000 > , called quadratic regime, the friction
factor become a different constant for each relative roughness, independent of the
Reynolds number.
Nikuradse (1933) proposed the following equation for the resistance coefficient,
defined as 4 f = , in terms of the Reynolds number with the relative roughness as
parameter:
( ) 1 1 1
1 log Re lg a b c = + + (11.25)
For
1 1 1
3.6 Re 10 0.8 2.0 0 a b c = = + = (11.26)
For
1 1 1
10 Re 20 0.068 1.13 0.87 a b c = + = + = (11.27)
For
1 1 1
20 Re 40 1.538 0 2.0 a b c = + = = (11.28)
For
1 1 1
40 Re 191.2 2.471 0.588 2.566 a b c = + = = (11.29)
For
1 1 1
Re >191.2 1.138 0 2.0 a b c = + = = (11.30)
These equations are represented graphically in the following figure 11.6
proposed by Nikuradse.

Fig. 11.6 Friction factor versus Reynolds number Re for tubes
with uniform roughness, according to Nikuradse (1933).
Problem 11.3
Water flows under gravity from reservoir A to reservoir B, both of which are of large
diameters. Estimate the flow rate through a 50 mm diameter and 75 m length pipe considering
the flow as turbulent. See figure 11.4.
From problem 11.2:

( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 2 1
1
2
z z L
p
v v z z h
g g

= + +








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 15


2 1
5 40 35 m z z = =
0 p =

1 2 z z
v v =

1 2
35 m
L
h z z = =
Head loss:
1
2
Otulet of large tank 0.5
Entrance to large tank 1.00
2 globe valve fully open 12.0
2 gate valve fully open 0.30
glove
gate
X
X
X
X
=
=
=
=

2 elbows 1.40
elbows
X =
( )
2
2
2 2
2 p 1
75 m 50 mm pipe = = , 0.4 log 2Re
g
4
=
2
4 75
= 6000
0.05 2 2
z
pipe
z
z z
Lv
h f f
Dg f
v L
f
D g
v v
f f
g g

= +

( )
( )
2
2
0.30 12.00 1.40 1.00 0.050 6000
2
15.20 6000
2
z
L
z
L
v
h f
g
v
h f
g
= + + + + +
= +







Entonces, ( )
2
15.20 6000 35
2
z
L
v
h f
g
= + =





( )
1
0.4 log 2Re f
f
= +
Assuming a value of Re=100.000 and using solver of Excel to obtain
L
h and then, using
the new values of Re and f to calculate a new value of f, the velocity and iterating, we get the
following values:
Re 68.228 , 0.05893 , 1.36 m/s
z
f v = = =









16 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

11.3 TRANSPORT OF SUSPENSIONS IN PIPELINES
The flow patterns of suspensions in tubes depend on the transport velocity. At
low velocities, the particles form a bed at the bottom of the tube and are not transported
by the fluid. As the velocity increases, particles at the surface of the bed start moving.
At higher velocities, the sediment moves as a cloud in saltationary motion, and some
particles will be suspended and carried away with the fluid. In these conditions the
suspension receives de name of settling suspensions and the flow regime is called
heterogeneous. Increasing the velocity further, all particles will be suspended and
particles and fluid will behave as a homogeneous mixture. In this condition the
suspension is called non-settling and the flow regime is called homogeneous. To each
one of these behaviors correspond a pressure drop and the type of motion can be
controlled by the pressure gradient.
When a pressure is applied to the fluid in a pipe filled with sediment, the pressure
drop diminishes slightly as the particles begin to be suspended and move. Between the
initiation of the particle motion and the complete suspension of the particles, a range of
velocities exist, for each feed concentration
F
, for which the pressure drop is a
minimum and after which it increases. This range of velocities receives the name of
critical transport velocities.
As discussed above, the flow pattern in the transport of suspensions in a tube is
closely related to the feed suspension concentration. When particles begin to move
above a stationary bed, the fraction of the feed concentration
F
, is
F
with values
0 0.2
F
< < . Motion of the bed yield fraction of concentrations in the range
0.2 0.7
F
< < . Partial suspension gives fraction of concentration 0.7 1
F
< <
and complete suspensions of particles give 1
F
= .

Table 11.1 Concentration ratio for different flow patterns
Mixture
velocity
Mi
v
Flow pattern Fraction of
concentration
F

1 M
v
Homogeneous suspension 1.0
2 M
v
Asymmetric suspension 0.7 1.0
3 M
v
living bed with asymmetric suspension 0.2 0.7
4 M
v
Stationary bed with some particles in suspension 0 0.2









Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 17


Fig. 11.7 Particle behavior in the flow in a tube.
A heterogeneous regime occurs when some of the particles in the suspension are
bigger than those that would give a homogeneous regime and will settle. Nevertheless
they will not form a bed at the bottom of the conduct but rather a concentration
gradient will be established. Since the segregating particles are the coarser ones, the
fluid will not change its rheological characteristics. This is the usual regime in
industrial applications. Here only experience counts.
Figure 11.7 shows that a minimum pressure drop exists at a certain flow
velocities for each feed suspension concentration. These are the velocities that just
prevent the formation of a bed. If the minimum for each concentration are connected, a
curve of the limiting deposit velocity ( )
L
v is obtained (see figure 11.8). The optimum
velocity of a heterogeneous flow is that producing the minimum pressure drop without
bed formation and that is just to the right of the limiting velocity.
Since the limiting deposit velocity is a function of the suspension concentration,
the first step in their calculation is to obtain the settling velocity as a function of
concentration.
Limiting deposit velocity
The limiting deposit velocity is related to the settling velocity at the transport
concentration. Therefore it is important to know the settling velocity of the particles at
several concentrations. This may be obtained from laboratory experiments or by








18 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


Fig. 11.8 Head loss versus average transport velocity for 0.44 mm fine
sand (Condolios and Chapus 1963).
calculations from sedimentation models. A convenient such model was proposed by
Concha and Almendra (1979a) and was discussed in chapter 4 of this book.
The settling velocity of suspensions can be expressed in the form:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
12
3 2 3 2
2052
1 00921 1
p q p
.
u* f f . f d *
d *


= + (11.31)

* *
and
d u
d u
P Q
= = (11.32)

13 13
2
2
3 4
4 3
f f
f f
g
P y Q
g



= =

(11.33)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2033 0167
1 1
. .
p q
f , f

= = (11.34)
where and d u are the diameter and settling velocity of the particle in the suspension,
and P Q are parameters of the solid-liquid system and ( ) and ( )
p q
f f are the
correction factor for concentration.
Correlations for the limiting deposit velocity
The simplest criterion to avoid a heterogeneous flow regime (Faddick 1986) is to
require the flow to be turbulent and that the coarser particles of the system are in








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 19

Newtons drag regime. These requirements are obeyed if the flow Reynolds number
Re and the particle Reynolds number Re
p
are:

p
Re 2100 and Re 1000
f
z
du
Dv

= > = > (11.35)
where and
f
are the water density and viscosity, and are the fluid density and
viscosity (if slurry behaving as Newtonian fluid), and D d are diameters of the pipe
and the particle respectively and and
z
v u are the average flow velocity and the
particle settling velocity respectively.
Problem 11.4
Design a pipe for the flow of 600 tph of magnetite mineral slurry which behaves as a
Newtonian fluid with density 1667 kg/m
3
and viscosity 5 mPa-s. The magnetite density is 5000
kg/m
3
ant its maximum particle size is 5mm. Make sure that the flow regime is heterogeneous.
Volume flow is
3
600 1000
0.100 m s
1667
F
Q

= = =
Particle size: 0.005 m d =
Magnetite density
3
5000 kg m
s
=
Water density
3
1000 kg m
f
=
% solids: 50% solid by weight
100 ( )
100 5000 (1667 1000)
( ) 1667 (5000 1000)
s f
s f
w


=


= =


Pulp concentration:
0.167
1000 50
(100 ) 5000 (100 50) 1000 50
f
s f
w
w w

= = =

+ +


(1/ 3)
2
5 1 3
1 3
2
3 0.001
2.674 10 m
4 (5000 1000) 1000 9.81
3
4
f
f
P
g

= =










( )
(1/ 3)
1 3
2
1 3
2
4 (5000 1000) 0.001 9.81
0.0374 ( m s)
3 1000
4
3
f
f
Q
g

= =

=






*
5
0.005
187.01
2.674 10
d
d
P

= = =

20 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
1 2 1 2
* *3 2 *3 2
*
20.52 20.52
1 0.0921 1 1 0.0921 187 1
187
22.698
u d
d
= + = +
=


*
0.849 22.689 0.03740 ms u u Q = = =
Re 4243.0 >1000
f
p
ud

= =
Select an average transport velocity: 2.0 ms
z
v =

12
4 4 0.100
0.2524 ms
3.14 0.304
10.0 inches
z
Q
v
D
D

= = =

=


5
Re
1667 2.00 0.2524
1.6827 10
0.005
>2100
z f
v D

= =

=
Both Reynolds numbers fulfill the conditions for a heterogeneous flow.
It has not been possible to establish the limiting deposition velocity from
fundamentals, but many empirical correlations have been proposed for particles in the
range of 50 m to 5 mm in pipes from 50 mm (2 in) to 300 mm (12 in) and
concentrations from 6 to 44% solid by volume, by Durand (1953), Spell (1955), Newitt
et al. (1955), Cairns et al. (1960), Govier (1961), Schulz (1962), Sinclair (1962),
Condolios and Chapus (1963), Yufin and Lopasin (1966), Zandi and Govatos (1967),
Babcock (1968), Shook (1969), Bain and Bonnington (1970),Charles (1970), Wasp et
al. (1977), Wilson (1979), Thomas (1979), Oroskar and Turian (1980), Gillies and
Shook (1991), Chien (1993).
The values of the limiting deposition velocity predicted by these many
correlations are so widely scattered that it is difficult to choose one as the best. We
suggest using the correlation of Condolios and Chapus (1963) due to it simplicity:

0.149
3.0
L
v gD = (11.36)
Figure 11.8 shows the limiting deposition velocity versus the pulp concentration
with pipe diameter as parameter and figure 11.9 shows the correlation versus pipe
diameter with concentration as parameter.












Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 21

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Volume fraction of solids
L
i
m
i
t
i
n
g

d
e
p
o
s
i
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

v
L

i
n

m
/
s
D=2 inches
4 inches
6 inches
8 inches
10 inches
12 inches

Fig. 11.9 Correlations for the limiting deposition velocity versus concentration for
a copper tailing of an average particle size of 75 mm with the pipe diameter as a
parameter, according to Condolios and Chapus (1963).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
Pipeline diameter D in inches
L
i
m
i
t
i
n
g

d
e
p
o
s
i
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

v
L

m
/
s
"FI=0.1"
" =0.2"
" =0.3"
" =0.4"
" =0.6"
" =0.7"

Fig 11.10. Critical velocity for the transport of a copper tailings with an average
particle size of 75m and suspension concentration as a parameter, according to
Condolios and Chapus (1963).







22 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Scale-up of limiting deposition velocity
If the limiting deposit velocity
Lo
v is known for a pipe of diameter
o
D , the
limiting deposit velocity
L
v for a diameter D may be calculated from Roco (1977) for
pipes from 3 to 6 inches and % solids by volume of 0.1 to 60%:

0.4
L
Lo o
v D
v D

=



Problem 11.5
Design a pipeline for transporting 50 tph of a copper concentrates, with density
3
3800 kg m
s
= at 55% solid. Calculate the liming deposit velocity if the maximum
particle size of the concentrate is 100 m. Calculate what would be the limiting velocity in a
similar pipeline but for a 3 inch pipe.
Particle size:
4
1.00 10 m d

=
Magnetite density
3
3800 kg m
s
=
Water density
3
1000 kg m
f
=
% solids: 55.0% solid by weight w =
Pulp density:

3
100
100 3800 1000
1681.4 kg m
(100 ) 3800 (100 55) 1000 55
s f
s f
w w

= = =
+ +

Pulp concentration:
0.243
1000 55
(100 ) 3800 (100 55) 1000 55
f
s f
w
w w

= = =

+ +


Volume flow is
3
220 1000
0.03635 m s
1681.4
F
Q

= = =
Select an average transport velocity: 2.0 ms
z
v =

12
4 4 0.03635
0.1522
3.14 2.0
m
6.0 inches
z
Q
v
D
D

= = =

=

( ) ( )
0.4 0.4
3.0 6 3 2.5 ms
L Lo o
v v D D = = =








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 23

11.3.1 Flow of homogeneous suspensions
Homogeneous suspensions may be treated as non-Newtonian fluids, therefore we
will consider the flow of Bingham, Potential-law and Herschel-Bulckley fluids in a
tube.
Bingham Fluid
A Bingham fluid has the following constitutive equation for the shear stress in
cylindrical coordinates:

0
0
for 0
( )
for 0
z
E
rz
z
z
v r
T r
v
K v r
r

=

+ <

(11.37)
where 0 K > is a constant called plastic viscosity and ( ) 0
E
rz
T r < . Defining the shear
stress
E
rz
T = , the yield stress
0 y
= and the shear rate
z
v r = & , we can write
(11.37) in the usual form:

for 0
for 0
y
y
K

=
=

+ >

&
& &
(11.38)
For any fluid:

1
2
z
y
v p
K r
r L

+ =

(11.39)
Calling
y
R the radius for which the stress is
y
, we have:

1
2
y y
p
R
L

= (11.40)
From (11.10), the stress at the wall is given by
1
2
w
p
R
L

= , therefore the relationship
between the yield stress
y
and the wall shear stress
w
is:

y y
w
R
R

= (11.41)
Velocity distribution
For ( )
y
r > , from (11.39) we have:







24 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


1
2
y
z
v p
r
r KL K

=

and using (11.40) for
y
, results in:

( )
1
2
z
y
v p
R r
r KL

=

(11.42)
Integrating this expression yields:

2
1 1
2 2
z y
p
v R r r C
KL

= +



For , ( ) 0
z
r R v R = = , therefore:

2
1 1
2 2
y
p
C R R R
KL

=



and
2 2
1 1 1 1
( )
2 2 2 2
z y y
p p
v r R r r R R R
KL KL

=



Then,
2
2
1 1
( ) 1 1 , for
2 2
y
z y
R
pR r r
v r R r R
KL R R R


=




(11.43)
Introducing (11.41), we have the alternative expression:

2
2
1 1
( ) 1 1 , for
2 2
y
z y
w
pR r r
v r R r R
KL R R

=




(11.44)
For ( )
y
r
2
2
1 1
( ) 1 1
2 2
y y y
z
R R R
pR
v r
KL R R R


=






2
2
1
( ) 1 , for 0
4
y
z y
R
pR
v r r R
KL R

=


(11.45)
Using (11.41) we obtain the alternative expression:

2
2
1
( ) 1 , for 0
4
y
z y
w
pR
v r r R
KL

=


(11.46)










Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 25

Volume flow rate
The volume flow rate is given by
0
2 ( )
R
z
Q v r rdr =

, then:
2
2
2
0
1 1
1 1 1
2 2
y
y
R R
y y
R
R R
pR r r
Q rdr rdr
KL R R R R

= +








1
2
2
4
0
1 1
1 1 1
2 2
y
y
R R
y y
R R
R R
pR r r r r r r
d d
KL R R R R R R R R

= +








4
4
4 1
1
8 3 3
y y
R R
pR
Q
KL R R

= +




or
4
4
4 1
1
8 3 3
y y
w w
pR
Q
KL

= +




(11.47)
Average velocity
The average velocity is given by
2
/
z
v Q R = , then:

4
2
1 4 1
1
8 3 3
y y
z
R R
pR
v
KL R R


= +




(11.48)

4
2
1 4 1
1
8 3 3
y y
z
W W
pR
v
KL




= +




(11.49)
Using a similar procedure than in the case of Newtonian fluids, we have:

4
8 1 4 1
1
4 3 3
y y
z
R R
v pD
D KL R R


= +




(11.50)

4
8 4 1
1
3 3
y y
w z
w w
v
D K

= +




(11.51)
Maximum velocity
From (11.45) the maximum velocity is that for 0
y
r R

2
1
1 2
4
y
m
R
pR
v
KL R

=


or
2
1
1 2
4
y
m
w
pR
v
KL

=


(11.52)









26 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Pressure drop

1
4
4
8 4 1
1
3 3
y y
w w
K L Q
p
R

= +





Problem 11.7
For three different homogeneous clay suspensions, which may be represented by the
Bingham model in the range
-1
10 100s & < < with 5, 10y15 Pa
y
= respectively and a
plastic viscosity of 150 mPa-s = , flowing in a cylindrical tube of 4 cm in diameter and 200
m in length. Calculate the pressure drop necessary to transport 100 liter per minute of a
suspension with a plastic viscosity of 150 mPa-s.
The shear stress versus shear rate for this material is given in figure 11.11.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Shear rate , s
-1
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

,

P
a
5 Pa
10 Pa
15 Pa

Fig. 11.11 Shear stress versus shear rate for a Bingham model of clays
with plastic viscosity of 150 mPa-s and Yield stresses of 5, 10 y 15 Pa.
3
100 (60*1000) 0.001666m s Q = =
1
4
4
8 4 1
1
3 3
y y
w w
K L Q
p
R

= +





The velocity distribution is given by:
4
2
1 4 1
1
8 3 3
y y
z
R R
pR
v
KL R R


= +




, then:








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 27

K(Pa-s)=
0.15 0.15 0.15
L(m)= 200 200 200

y
(Pa)= 5 10 15
R (m)= 0.02 0.02 0.02
Q(m3/s)= 0.001666667 0.00166667 0.00166667
v
zav
(m/s)= 1.327 1.327 1.327

w
(Pa)= 22.85 36.05 47.62
p(Pa)= 1.580E+06 1.981E+06 2.317E+06
R
y
(m)= 0.0044 0.0055 0.0063
R
y
(inch)=
0.1723 0.2184 0.2480

-0.025
-0.020
-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Velocity v
z
(r ) m/s
P
i
p
e

r
a
d
i
u
s

r
,

m
5 Pa
10 Pa
15 Pa

Fig. 11.12 Velocity distributions for a Bingham model of clays with plastic
viscosity of 150 mPa-s and Yield stresses of 5, 10 y 15 Pa.

Power Law Fluids
The constitutive equation for the shear stress of power low fluids flowing in a
circular tube is:

1
( )
n
E z z
rz
v v
T r m
r r

=

(11.53)
where m is the consistency index and n is the power index. Note that
E
rz
T has the sign
of
z
v z .







28 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Velocity distribution
Replacing (11.53) in (11.39) we have:

1
1
2
n
z z
v v p
m r
r r L

=


Since 0 m > , 0
z
v r < and 0 p > , we can write
z
v r in the form:

1
2
n
z
v p
r
r mL

=

(11.54)
Integrating and using the condition ( ) 0
z
v R = , yields

1 ( 1)
( ) 1
1 2
n n n
z
nR pR r
v r
n mL R
+


=


+


(11.55)
Problem 11.8
Calculate the velocity distribution for a power law fluid with consistency index
n
3.0 Pa-s m = and power law index of 0.20; 0.33; 0.50; 1.0 and 3.0 n = . Figure 11.13 shows
the result.
-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Velocity distribution v
z
(r) m/s
P
i
p
e

r
a
d
i
u
s

r
,

m
n=0.20
n=0.33 n=0.50
n=1.00
n=2.00

Fig. 11.13 Velocity distribution of power low fluids with consistency index
n
3 Pa-s m = and power low indices 0.20; 0.33; 0.50; 1 and 3.









Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 29

Volume flow rate
The volume flow rate is given by
0
2
R
z
Q v rdr =

, then substituting (11.55) and

integrating:
1 ( 1)
0
2 1
1 2
R
n n n
nR pR r
Q rdr
n mL R

+


=


+

1 1
1 (2 1)
3
0 0
2
1 2
n n n
nR pR r r r r
Q d d
n mL R R R R

+



=

+





( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
1 2 2 1 1
3
0
1 1
2
1 2 2 2 1 1
n n n
n pR r r
Q R
n mL R R n n

+ +




=


+ + +





( )
1
1
2
3 1 2
n
n
n pR
Q R
n mL

+

=

+

(11.56)
Average velocity
The average velocity is given by
2
z
v Q R = , then:

( )
1
1
3 1 2
n
n
z
n pR
v
n mL
+

=

+

(11.57)

( )
1
8 4
3 1 2
n
z
v n pR
D n mL

=

+

(11.58)
Using (11.54) for r R = :

1
2
n
z
w
r R
v pR
r mL

=

= =

&

( ) 3 1 8
4
z
w
n v
n D

+
= & (11.59)
Maximum velocity
The maximum velocity is obtained from (11.55) for 0 r = , then:

1
1
1 2
n
n n
m
n pR
v
n mL
+

=

+

(11.60)







30 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Pressure drop
From (11.56)

( )
1 2
3 1
2
n
n
n
mL Q
p
R n R
+
+
=


(11.61)
Wall shear stress and Reynolds number
Defining the friction coefficient in the same way as for Newtonian fluids in
laminar flow, 16 Re
D
f = , we can define a Plastic Reynolds number Re
PL
for a Power
Law fluid, where
w
is the wall shear stress. Then we have:

w
2
16 1
,
12 Re 2
D w
z PL
p
f R
v L

= = = (11.62)

2
16
Re
z
PL
Lv
pR

( )
1
2 1
1
2 3 1

3 1 2
n
n
n
z z n
n pR mL n
v p v
n mL R n
+
+
+
= =

+



Substituting in the previous equation gives:

( )
2
16
Re
3 1
2
n n
z
PL n
R v
n
m
n

=
+




2
1
Re
3 1
8
4
n n
z
PL n
n
v D
n
m
n

=
+


(11.63)
This definition of the Reynolds number was given by Metzner and Reed (1959).
Problem 11.9
A polyacrilamide solution of
3
1.074 kg m = in density is to be pumped through a
2.54 cm diameter and 10 m length tube at a rate of 2.500 kg h. Measurement in the laboratory
showed that the fluid may be represented with the power law model with
0.5
3 Pa-s y 0.5 m n = = . Calculate the necessary pressure to maintain the flow and calculate the
velocity distribution, average and maximum velocity.










Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 31

Volume flow
4 3
2500
6.466 10 m s
3600 1074 3600
F
Q

= = =


Pressure drop:
1 2 0.5 1) 2 (
2 3 1 2 3 10 3 0.5 1 0.0006466
105.920Pa
0.0127 0.5 3.14 0.0127
n
n
mL n Q
p
R n R
+ +
+ +
= = =

Velocity distribution:
2 ( 1) ( 1)
0.5 0.0127 105920 0.0127
( ) 1 1
1.5 2 3 10
2.12787
n n n n
z
r r
v r
R R
+ +

=



=




Average velocity
2 2
0.0006466
1.277 ms
3.14 0.0127
z
Q
v
R
= = =

Maximum velocity:
(0) 2.13 ms
z m
v v = =
-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Velocity distribution v
z
(r ), m/s
P
i
p
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

r
,

m

Fig. 11.14 Velocity distribution for a polyacrylamides solution
with a power low model:
0.5
3 Pa-s y 0.5 m n = = .







32 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Transition to turbulent regime
As in the case of Newtonian fluids, the friction factor gives the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow. The following figure shows the friction factor as a function
of Metzners Reynolds number for different values of the power function n.

Fig. 11.15 Friction factor as a function of Metzners Reynolds number
for different values of the power function n (Chabra and Richardson
200x).

Problem 11.10
A non-Newtonian fluid with density equal to that of water, flows in a 300 mm diameter
and 50 m long tube at a rate of 300 kg/s. Rheological measurements yield the following power
law parameters:
0.3
2.74 Pa-s and =0.30 m n = . Determine the necessary power of a pump and
the wall shear stress.
Average velocity:
2 2
300 1000
4.24 ms
3.14 (0.15)
z
Q
v
R
= = =

The transitional, or critical, Reynolds number is Re 2100 .

2
1
Re 2100
3 1
8
4
n n
c
MRc n
n
v D
n
m
n

= =
+




then, the critical velocity, that is, the velocity at which the flow changers from laminar to
turbulent is:

1/( 2)
1
0.627 m s
3 1
8 2100
4
n
c
n
n n
v
n
m D
n

= =
+













Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 33

Since the average velocity 4.1 m/s is greater than the critical velocity 0.627 m/s, the
regime is turbulent. The actual Reynolds number is:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 0.3 0.3 2
0.3 1
1
1000 4.24 0.3
Re 89.324
3 1 8 2.74
8
4
(3 0.3 1)/4 0.3
n n
z
MR n
n
v D
n
m
n

= = =
+ +




With
MR
Re 7740.5 and 0.3 n = = , from figure 11.15, we get a friction factor 0.0029 f = . The
value of the pressure drop necessary to to produce the flow is obtained from the friction factor
by definition:
1
w
;
2 2
2
1 2
p p R
f R f
w
L L
v v
z z

= = = ;
therefore: ( )
50
2 2
2 2 1000 4.27 0.0029 17.412 Pa
0.3
L
p v f
z
D
= = = .
and, the pump power Po is: 0.30 17.412 5.224 W Po Q P = = = .
The wall shear stress is
1 17.412 0.15
26.1 Pa
2 2 50
p
R
w
L

= = =

.
Herschel-Bulckley Fluid
For the flow in circular pipes, Herschel-Bulckley fluids have a constitutive
equation of the form:

0
1
0
for 0
( )
for 0
z
E
n rz
z z z
v
r
T r
v v v
m
r r r

+ <

(11.64)
or:
for 0
( )
for 0
y
n
y
r
m

+ >

&
& &
(11.65)
Velocity distribution
For ( ) ; :
y y
r R r R

1
1
2
n
z z
y
v v p
m r
r r L

=




Since 0, p>0, 0 and 0
y z
m v r > > < , The parenthesis is positive and this
equation may be written in the form:







34 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


( )
1
1
2 2
n
n
y
z
y
v p p
r r R
r mL m mL

= =

(11.66)
Integrating with boundary condition ( ) 0
z
v R =

( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
( 1)
1
1
( 1)
1
( )
2
( ) 0
2 1
C
2 1
n
n
z y
n
n n
z y
n
n n
y
p
v r r R dr
mL
p n
v R R R C
mL n
p n
R R
mL n
+
+

=



= + =

+


=

+

( )
1
1
( )
2
n
n
z y
p
v r r R dr
mL

=




( ) ( )
1 1
( 1) ( 1)
( )
2 1 2 1
n n
n n n n
z y y
p n p n
v r r R R R
mL n mL n
+ +
=

+ +



( 1) ( 1)
1
( ) 1
2 1
n n n n
n
y y
z
R R
pR nR r
v r
mL n R R R
+ +


=


+



(11.67)
For
( )
( ) ; 0 , where :
y y y y
r r R R < < < =

( )
0 ( )
z
z z y
v
v r v R
r

= =

(11.68)
From (11.67),
( 1)
1
( ) 1
2 1
n n
n
y
z y
R
pR nR
v R
mL n R
+

=

+


for 0
y
r R (11.69)
Problem 11.11
Determine the velocity distribution of Herschel-Bulkley fluids with yield stresses of
5, 10 and 15 Pa
y
= , consistency index m=3 Pa-s
n
and power low indices 0.50.
The result is given in figure 11.16.
Problem 11.12
Determine the velocity distribution of Herschel-Bulkley fluids with yield stress of
15 Pa
y
= , consistency index m=3 Pa-s
n
and power low indices 0.20, 0.33 add 0.50.
The result is given in figure 11.17.








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 35

-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Velocity distribution v
z
(r), m/s
P
i
p
e

r
a
d
i
u
s

r
,

m
ty=15, m=3, n=0.5
ty=10, m=3, n=0.5
ty=15, m=3, n=0.5

Fig. 11.16 Velocity distribution of Herschel-Bulkley fluids with yield stresses

y
=5; 10 and 15; Pa, consistency index m=3 Pa-s
n
and power low index 0.50.
-0.015
-0.010
-0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Velocity distribution v
z
(r ), m/s
P
i
p
e

r
a
d
i
u
s

r
,

m
n=0.5
n=0.33
n=0.20

Fig. 11.17 Velocity distribution of Herschel-Bulkley fluids with yield stress
15
y
= , consistency index m=3 Pa-s
n
and power index 0.20,0.33 and 0.5 n = .







36 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Volume Flow rate
The volume flow rate is given by
0
2
R
z
Q v rdr =

, then
substituting (11.67) and (11.69) into this equation and integrating yields:

( 1)
1
( 1) 0
2
( 1) ( 1)
1
1
2
2 1
1
y
y
n n
R R
y
n
n
n n n n
y y
R R
R
r
d
R R
pR n
Q R
mL n
R R
r r
d
R R R R

+
+
+ +







=

+


+

( )
( 1) 2
1
1
( 1)
2
( 1) 2
1
1
2
2
2 1
1
1
2
y
n n
m y y
n
n
R R
n n
y y
R R
a bx xdx
R R
pR n
Q R
mL n
R R
R R

+
+
+


+ +





=

+



+

If we make , , 1, ( 1)
y
x r R a R R b m n n = = = = +
( )
1
( 1) 1
2
2
2 1
y
n
n
m
R R
pR n
Q R a bx xdx
mL n

+

= + +

+

Using the Dwight Table of Integrals and other mathematical functions (MacMillan Co,
New York, 1966), results in: Dwight,
( )
1
1 1
( 1)
2
2
2 1 ( 1)
y
n m
n
R R
a bx
pR n
Q R
mL n b m

+
+

+
=

+ +




1
(2 1)
1
( 1)
2
2
2 1
2 1
y
n n
y
n
n
R R
R
r
R R pR n
R
n
mL n
n

+
+

=

+
+






( )( )
(2 1) 1
( 1) 2
2
2 1
2 1 2 1
n n n
n
y
R
pR n
Q R
mL n n R

+
+

=

+ +

(11.70)










Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 37

Average velocity
The average velocity is given by
2
z
v Q R = , then:
( )( )
(2 1) 1
( 1) 2
2 1
2 1 2 1
n n n
n
y
z
R
pR n
v
mL n n R
+
+

=

+ +

(11.71)
Maximum velocity
The maximum velocity is obtained for 0 r = , then:

( 1)
1
1
2 1
n n
n
y
m
R
pR nR
v
mL n R
+

=

+


(11.72)

11.3.2 Flow in a heterogeneous regime
In a heterogeneous regime the head loss
m
J may be composed of two
contributions, one to maintain the turbulent flow of the fluid
L
J and another to
maintain the particles in suspension
s
J .

m L s
J J J = + (1.73)
where
L
J and
s
J are measured in meters of liquid column per meter of pipe length
( ) J h L p gL = = evaluated at the mixture average velocity.
Several empirical correlations have been proposed: Durand (1953), Condolios
and Chapus (1963), Newitt (1955), Zandi y Govatos (1967) and Wasp (1977), but
unfortunately they again give different results. We will suggest using Newitt
relationship (1955) because it was extended for all regime, as we will see later:
Newitt (1955) ( )
13
3
1 1100 , for 17 1800
m L z
z f
gDu
J J u v gDu
v

= + < <



(1.74)
Problem 11.13
Calculate the head loss in a 8 inch pipeline carrying copper concentrates, with density of
3800 kg/m
3
at 60% solids with an average particle size of 75m at 2.5 m/s.
From problem 11.3 The head loss with water is:
2 2
2 2
4
64 64 0.001
2 1000 0.2032 2.5 2 9.81
1.975 10
2.5
z
L pipe
z
v
J h L
D v g

= = =

=











38 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation


( )
1000 60
0.283
100 3800(100 60) 1000 60
f
s f
w
w w

= = =
+ +


6
* *
5 2
75 10
2.49,
3.0123 10 3.3198 10
d u u
d u
P Q

= = = = =



( )
( )
( )
( )
3 2 3 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
* *
*
*
20.52 20.52
1 0.0921 1 0.0921 2.49 0.2297
2.49
0.2297 0.0332 0.00763 ms
u d
d
u u Q
= + = + =
= = =


( )
1 3
17 1800
0.130 2.5 3.014
z
u v gDu < <
< <


3
4
3
1 1100
1 1100 0.283 9.81 0.3032
1.975 10 0.0003651
0.00763 2800/(2.5 1000)
m L
z f
gDu
J J
v

= + =
+
= =








Beside the head loss in the pipe, the total head loss in a piping system results
from the friction, change of direction and obstructions on the flow path and sudden of
gradual changes in cross section and shape of the duct. Turian and Selim (1983)
demonstrated that the head loss in fittings, such as elbows and valves, for pulps with
concentrations between 0 and 50% by weight and sizes of 25 and 50 m in pipes of 1
and 2 inches could be represented by the expression for water if the pulp density is
used instead of the density of the water. We will use this results for any piped
diameter.

11.3.3 Flow in Mixed Regime
The coexistence of homogeneous and heterogeneous suspensions gives rise to a
new regime where the fine particles form a homogeneous mixture while the big
particles present a concentration distribution in the vertical direction. This regime is
very frequently encountered in industrial applications.
The limiting deposit velocity for the mixed regime is smaller than for the
heterogeneous regime due to the hindered effect of the homogeneous phase on the
settling of the bigger particles. No explicit equation is known for the limiting deposit
velocity in intermediary regime. The most common way to get around this problem is
to use the same equations than for heterogeneous regimes but using the properties
(density) of the homogeneous suspension instead of that of the fluid.










Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 39

11.3.4 Correlations for all Flow Regimes
The lack of fundamental knowledge and the numerous proposed correlations for
the limiting deposition velocity and the pressure drop calculations has induced the
search for one empirical correlation that would give the pressure drop for flows in all
regimes. This unique correlation is based on the work of Newitt (1955):
( )
( )
( )
13
13
2
2
0.60 for 1800 Homogeneous regime
1 1100 for 1800 17 Heterogeneous regime
66 for 17 Mixed regime
z
L
s f z
L z z
z
z
v gDu
J J gD u
gDu v u
J v v
gD
u v
v

In this expression, u is the terminal settling velocity of the big particles
11.3.5 Effect of the inclination of the pipeline
The effect of the inclination of the pipeline is taken into account with the
following coefficient due to Wilson and Tse (Shook and Roco 1991):
( ) 1
inclined
J J D = + (11.75)
where
( ) ( )
inclined horizontal
6 3 5 2
1 1
- 3 10 6.0 10 0.0146 0.0022
z z
s f s f
v v
D
gD gD

=

= + +

D =-3E-06
3
- 6E-05
2
+0.0146 +0.0022
R
2
=0.9951
-1.50
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Angle of inclination , Degree
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o

D
Experimental points

Fig. 11.18 Correction factor for the pressure drop for inclined pipes.







40 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

11.4 TRANSPORT OF SUSPENSIONS IN OPEN CHANNELS
Due to the natural slopes of the land around mines, it is often convenient to use
channels instead of pipelines to transport tailings. From a fundamental point of view,
the problem of channel flow is more complex than their counterpart in tube flow,
because the flow area is not known in advance and it may change while the flow is
developing. The case is simplified if the flow is uniform.
Steady open channel flow may be classified as uniform or non-uniform. A
uniform flow is one for which the fluid depth h above the channel bed is constant.
Non-uniform flows can be further classified into gradually varied flows, where the
curvature of the free surface is small compared to the depth of the fluid, and rapidly
varied flows, where the curvature is comparable to the fluid depth.
In studying the flow in open channel we seek a relationship between the flow
rate Q, the fluid depth h and the channel geometry: width b and slope / in % x ;
( ) , ( ), ( ), ( ) Q h x b x x , see figure 11.16.

Fig. 11.19 Uniform and non-uniform channel flows.
The flow of copper tailings in channels has more favorable conditions than the
flow in pipelines. For example, in channels the concentration of the pulp has no
influence in the speed of the flow and, if the flow is turbulent, (velocities above 0.8 m/s
will yield turbulent flow), the viscosity has no influence in the transport velocity but
has an influence in the limiting deposit velocity. On the other hand, the pressure drop
can be calculated using the methods for water with similar wall conditions, 0.014 = .
These simplifications are not valid for pipe flow.
The slope of the channel is important. Small slopes, such as 0.3%, need transport
velocities greater than 1.2 m/s to avoid embankment. Velocities of 1.5 m/s are
recommended (Kleiman 1960). If water is added to a developed flow with high solid
content, such as 45% by weight, in a channel with a small slope and slow transport








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 41

velocity, particle will settle. This is due to the fact that the water dilutes de pulp and
bigger particles may segregate. Once a bed is formed in this condition, it cannot be
eliminated by washing with water. A flow with high % solid at velocities higher than
1.0 m/s will eventually remove de bed.
Channels with slopes greater than 0.6% and flows with high solid concentration
will not segregate particles if water is added, and channels with slopes greater than
0.9% will not embank even with low flows.
11.3.1 Uniform flow
Consider the flow in a rectangular channel, as shown in figure 11.19. At some
distance from the gate the balance of viscous forces and the gravitational force will
lead to a uniform flow.
Mass balance
The macroscopic mass balance indicates that the volume flow Q is constant,
then:

2 1
2 2 1 1
Q Q
A v Av
=
=
(11.76)
where A is the wetted area and v is the average velocity. Since
2 1
A A = , we have:

2 1
v v = (11.77)
Momentum balance
The macroscopic momentum balance at steady state is given by:

Convectiveforce ody force Surfaceforce
S V S
B
dA dV dA = +

vv n g T n
14243 14243 14243

(11.78)
Since the velocity and the areas are constant, the first term of (11.78) vanishes and the
other two terms become:
( )
w
AL LP = g i
sen
w
g AL LP = (11.79)
where ( ) 2 ) S L b h = + is the wetted channel surface, L is its length, 2 P b h = + is the
wetted perimeter and
w
is the average wall shear stress, defined by:

( )
1
w
S
dA
S
=

E
T n i (11.80)







42 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

where i is unit vector in the direction of the flow.
Writing (11.79) in dimensionless from, and defining f :

{
( )
2 2
Friction
factor
Dimensionless Dimensionless
body force wall shear stress
4 8 sen
12
w h
x x
g R
f
v v

= =
14243 14243
(11.81)
where
cross sectional area

Wetted perimeter
h
bh
R
P
= .
The most popular expression for the Fanning friction f factor is:

2
13
116
h
f
R

= (11.82)
where is the roughness coefficient. Table 11.2 shows friction factors f for several
channels of uniform cross sections.
Table 11.2 Friction factors for channels
Type of channel of uniform cross section
16
, ft
16
, m
Sides and bottom lined with wood 0.009 0.0074
Neat cement plaster; Smoothest pipes 0.010 0.0082
Cement plaster; Smooth iron pipes 0.011 0.0090
Un-planed timber evenly laid; Ordinary iron pipes 0.012 0.098
Best brick work; Well-laid sewer pipes 0.013 0.0170
Average brick work; Foul iron pipes 0.015 0.0123
Good rubble masonry; Concrete laid in rough form 0.017 0.0139
Flow rate
Substituting the value of the corresponding friction factor in equation (11.81)
yields the average velocity and multiplying this value with the cross sectional area
gives the volume flow rate:

4 3
2
8 sen
116
h
g R
Q bh

= (11.83)
This equation is valid for rectangular channels.










Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 43

Fluid depth
If the volume flow rate is given, we can obtain the fluid depth h substituting the
value of the hydraulic radius
h
R into equation (11.83):

4 3
2 4 3
8 sen ( )
116 ( 2 )
g bh
Q bh
b h

=
+


2
3
5
2 2
4
1 116
( 2 )
8 sen
Q
h b h
b g

= +




(11.84)
The height h may be obtained from (11.84) by iteration.
Faddick (1986) propose an empirical equation to calculate the height of the flow:

2 3
h
Qn
h
b J R
= (1.85)
where and h b are the height and width of the channel, Q is the volume flow rate, n
is Mannings rugosity coefficient, J is the mixture pressure head and 2
h
R bh h b = +
is the hydraulic radius of the channel.
To make sure that particle will not settle, several equations have been proposed.
For copper tailings Dominguez et al. (1989) proposed the following limiting deposit
velocity:
( ) ( )
0.342 0.386
0.5
85 99
85
85
0.6505 8 1
4
L s
h
d d
v g d
R d


=


(1.86)
where is the pulp density and
i
d is the size where i% of the material passes and
h
R
is the hydraulic radius.

Mechanical energy balance
The mechanical energy balance is:

( )
( )
2
2
1 2
12
x v
S S S
x v
S S S
v dA dA dA E
v dA p dA dA E


=
=


v n v T n v n
v n v n v n
&

&











44 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Since
( )
( )
( ) cos
cos
g x z
p g h z


= +
=


( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
12 12 cos cos
v
v A v A g h v A h v A E = + +
&

but
2 2
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
, , , v A v A v A v A p v A p v A z v A z v A = = = = , so that this equation
reduces to:

( )
1 2 v
E gQ =
&

Since:
1 2
sen L = and
( )
f v
h E gQ =
&

sen
f
h L = (11.87)
Thus, the viscous dissipation, or head loss, is just equal to the decrease in potential
energy for uniform flow.
Problem 11.14
A uniform flow of tailings takes place in a rectangular channel constructed of concrete. If
the angle between the channel and the horizontal is 1.0 and the channel is 0.9 m wide and
water is 0.50 m deep, calculate the velocity and the volume flow rate.

1 6
0.0139 m =
4 3 4 3
3
2 4 3 2 4 3
8 sen ( ) 8 9.8 sen(1 /180) (0.9 0.5)
0.9 0.5 1.347 m s
116 ( 2 ) 116 0.0139 (0.9 2 0.5)
g bh
Q bh
b h

= = =
+ +

1.346
2.99
0.9 0.5
ms
Q
v
b h
= = =


Problem11.15
A channel 0.9 m wide and 1 m height with a slope of 1.0, carries 1.346 m
3
/s of water.
Calculate the height of the water in the channel. Using solver from Excel:
2
3 2 5
5
2 2
4
3 4
2 2
1 116 1
( 2 ) (0.9 2 )
8 sen 0.9
116 0.0139 1.346
8 9.8 sen(1.0 /180)
0.236 m
Q
h b h h
b g

= + = +












=

Problem 11.16
Design a channel of rectangular cross section to transport a volume flow rate of 0.3 m
3
/s
of copper tailings. The channel should have a slope of tan 0.0157 = and a height to width
ratio of 0.5 h d = .








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 45

Using solver from Excel we get:
2
3 2 5
5 3 4
2 2
4
2 2
1 116 0.5
( 2 ) ( 2 ) 0.275 m
8 sen 0.5
116 0.0139 0.3
8 9.8 sen(1.02 /180)
Q h
h b h h
b g h

= + = + =











0.551 m
0.5
h
b = =
Problem 11.17
For a smooth concrete channel 4.572 m wide with a slope of 0.001 has a volume flow
rate of 1.0 m
3
/s, determine the wall shear stress per unit length.
Using the solver of Excel we obtain:
2
3
5
2 5
2 2 2 2 3 4
4
1 116 1 116 0.0139 0.3 )
( 2 ) (4.572 2 ) ( 0.182 m
8 sen 4.572 8 9.8 sen(0.001 /180)
Q
h b h h
b g

= + = + =









sen (2 ) 1000 9.81 0.001 (2 0.182 4.572)
5.2 Pa m
2 4.572 2 0.182
w
g h b
L b h
+ +
= = =
+ +


11.5 REFERENCES
Babcock, H.A. 1968. Heterogeneous flow of heterogeneous solids, International
Symposium on solid-liquid flow in pipes, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Bain, A.G. and Bonnington, S.T. 1970. The hydraulic transport of solids by pipelines,
Pergamon Press, First edition, 125-148.
Cairns, R.C., Lawther, K.R. and Turner, K.S. 1960. Flow characteristics of dilute small
particles suspensions, British Chemical Engineering, 5, 849-856.
Chhabra, R.P. and Richardson, J .F., Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process Industries,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1999.
Charles, M.E.. 1970. Transport of solids by pipelines, Proc. Hydrotransport-1, British
Hydromechanics Research Association, Warwick, Paper A3, 25-26.
Chien, A.F. 1994. Critical velocity of sand-fluid mixtures in horizontal pipe flow,
ASME, FED-189, 231-246.
Condolios, E. and Chapus, E.E., 1963. Designing solids handling pipelines, Chem.
Eng., 70, 131-138.
Condolios, E. and Chapus, E.E., 1967. New trends in solid pipelines, Chem. Eng., 74,
131-138.







46 Textbook of Solid-liquid Separation

Dominguez, Sourys and Harambour. 1989.???????
Durand, R. 1953. Basic relationships of the transportation of solids in pipes;
Experimental research, Proceedings of >Minnesota International Hydraulics
Convention, 89-103.
Fadick, R.R. (1986), Slurry Flume Design, Hydrotransport 10, BHRA Fluid
Engineering, pp. 143-147.
Gillies, R.G. and Shook, C.A. 1991. A deposition velocity correlation for water
slurries, Canadian J . Chem Eng., 69, 1225-1227.
Govier, G.W. and Aziz, K. 1961. The flow of complex solid-liquid mixtures,
Engineering Jpurnal (Canada), 44, 50-57.
Idelchik, I.E., Malyavskaya, G.R., Martynenko, O.G and Fried, E., Hanbook of
Hydraulic Resistance, 2
nd
. Ed. Hemisphere Pub. Corp., n New York, 1986.
King, R.P., Practical Fluid Flow, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2002.
Metzner, A.B. and Reed, J .C. 1959. AIChEJ . 1,434.
Newitt, D.M., Richardson, J .F. and Gliddon, B.J . 1955. Hydraulic conveying of solids
in horizontal pipes, Trans. IChE, London, 33, 93-110.
Nikuradse, J ., Srmungsgesetze in rauhen Rhren (1933).
Oroskar, A.R. and Turian, R.M. 1980. The critical velocity in pipeline flow of slurries,
AIChE J ., 26(4), 550-558.
Schulz, L. 1962. Experiences of the Soviet Union in Hydromechanization,
Bergbautechnik, 12, 353-361.
Sinclair, C.G. 1962. The limit deposit velocity of heterogeneous suspensions,
Proceedings of Symposium on interaction between fluid and particles, IChE, London,
A68-A76.
Shook, C.A. 1969. Piplining solids: The design of short-distance pipelines, Symposium
on pipeline transport of solids, Canadian Societey for Chemical Engineering.
Spells, K.E. 1955,. Correlations for use in transport of aqueous suspensions of fine
solids through pipes, Trans. IChE, London, 33, 79-82.
Thomas, A.D. 1979. Predicting the deposit velocity for horizontal turbulent pipe flow
of slurries, Int. J . Multiphase flow, 5, 113-129.
Turian, R.M. and Selim, M.S. 1983. Friction losses for flow of slurries in pipeline
bends, fittings and valves, Patrticulate Sience and technology, 1, 365-392.
Wasp, E.J ., Kenney, J .P. and Gandhi, R.L. 1977. Solid-liquid flow slurry pipeline
transportation, Trans. Tech. Pub., First Ed., Clausthal, Germany.
Withaker, S., 1968. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J .








Chapter 11 Transport of Tailings and Concentrates 47

Wilson, K.C. 1979. Deposition limit nomograms for particles of various densities in
pipeline flow, Proc. Hydrotranspoirt-6, British Hydromechanics Research Association,
Warwick, 1-12.
Yufin, A.P. and Lopasin, N.A., 1966. A summary and comparison of known
correlations of critical velocity of solid-water mixtures ans some aspects of the
optimization of pipelines, Proceedings Hydrotransport-2, British Hydromechanics
Research Assosiation, Warwick, UK.
Zandi, I and Govatos, G. 1967. Heterogeneous flow of solids in pipelines, ASCE Proc,
Hyd. Div., 93, HY3, 145-159.