Composition First Things First (05-06 - 2014)

Composition: First Things First
Composition:
First Things First

Dr. David F. Maas

(05-06-2014)



Table of Contents

01- Sentence Combining 3
02- The Thesis 13
03- The Example 21
04- The Definition 38
05- Analysis and Classification 50
06- Comparison and Contrast 63
07- The Analogy 73
08- Cause-Effect Relationships 86
09- Logical Fallacies 98
10- The Paraphrase Clinic 118
11- 36 Strategies to Say it in Other Words 127
12- Make Your Essay Plagiarism Proof 150
with a Coat of E-Prime



1

Sentence Combining

(1) The basic English sentence pattern consists of a subject and a verb or a subject verb and
objectsuch as The baby sleeps or I see the baby. These simple Subject Verb (SV) and
Subject Verb Object (SVO) patterns make up the lions share of the English sentence patterns.

(2) We could, I suppose, remain content with confining ourselves to these basic patterns
(sometimes called kernel sentences) or we could grow up linguistically, combining these basic
kernel sentences into larger units.

Suppose we had the following two kernel sentences:

(1) I swung the bat.
(2) I missed the ball.

(3) How would we combine these two basic kernel sentences into a larger more mature unit?
Some students short on grammatical skills might try to fuse these two sentences together without
any punctuation, creating a run-on or a fused sentence.

(4) This mistaken attempt would look like this: I swung the bat I missed the ball. Dr.
Maas would use his numerical symbol #38 (see Appendix I), indicating that the student had
produced a run-on or a fused sentence.

(5) Some students might try the following technique: I swung the bat, I missed the ball. Dr.
Maas would mark a #11, indicating that the student had attempted to put two clauses or
sentences together with a comma or a comma splice. The comma used for connecting two
clauses is analogous to coupling two railroad cars together with wire or twine string, not a strong
enough connector.

(6) Some students may not feel the need to couple these two sentences together, letting them
stand alone as two independent sentences: I swung the bat. I missed the ball. A few short
sentences wont hurt, but if the essay becomes full of them, Dr. Maas might write choppy or
primer style, indicating that the student ought to consider some form of combining.

(7) A few students might consider joining the two clauses by the coordinating conjunction
and or but, such as, I swung the bat, but I missed the ball. Or perhaps, I swung the bat, but I
missed the ball. This method of combining we call coordination, joining like things with like
things by means of coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet and so; note that
semicolon (;) serves the same function as the conjunction and. Consequently, we shouldnt use
the following: I swung the bat; and I missed the ball. If you do, people will think you are
stuttering.

(8) Some students may regard one sentence as more significant than the other and will try to
subordinate (de-emphasize) the other clause, making it less important or emphatic.
Consequently the student will choose a subordinate conjunction such as after, although, as,

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because, before, if, since, that, unless, until, and a whole company of Wh- words such as when,
where, whether, which, while, who, whom, and whose. Consequently the student might try the
construction, Although I swung the bat, I missed the ball. Or he might use, Whenever I
swung the bat, I missed the ball. In both combined sentences, he emphasizes the missing the
ball in the main clause and the other item swinging the bat in a subordinate clause.

(9) Students may also use the technique of using such things as participles (verbs converted
to adjectives by means of an ing ending, such as Swinging the bat, I missed the ball. Other
devices of modification could include appositives (words that are equivalent to or synonyms for
the words they describe or name). Dr. Leon Howard, Vice President of Academic Affairs,
delivered an address to the Rotary Club. Other devices include adjectives (single word
qualifiers) such as: The student was angry. The student tore his book. The angry student tore his
book. The single word qualifier allows the student to use a single word to replace a sentence.

(10) We have learned thus far that basic kernel sentences may become combined or connected
together, using three basic methods: Coordination, Subordination, and Modification.
Hopefully, as you progress through this unit you will have the opportunity to use all three.

(11) One of the main purposes for using sentence combining is to eliminate needless words:
Dr. Maas uses the symbol #58 for excessive wordiness. The main rule of thumb in sentence
combining tells us to say things in the most compact way possible. Think of the following
hierarchy:
Words

Phrases

CLAUSES

(12) Think of this pyramid as an ascending scale of desirability and crispness. If you can say
the same thing in a phrase instead of a clause you have made the writing more compact:

Instead of saying: The man who was sitting in the bleachers caught the ball.
You could say: The man sitting in the bleachers caught the ball.
Or perhaps: The man in the bleachers caught the ball.

If you can get rid of a phrase using a single word qualifier, so much the better.

Instead of saying: The team that wore the uniforms which were purple and gold.
You could say: The team wore purple and gold uniforms.

(13) Sentence combining we could compare to taking aluminum cans to the recycler. The
more you can compact and compress, the more you can cart in one vehicle, and the more you can
profit. Think of sentence combining in your essays as the same process: getting rid of excess air.


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Coordination

(14) The most basic combining technique we call coordination. When we want to couple
items of like or parallel significance together, we link them by coordination.

I like both work and play, leisure and activity.

(15) Coordination draws equal attention to two or more ideas:

How to Coordinate:

(16) 1. Use a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, so, yet) to combine words and
phrases.

Joe burst through the line and forced Laettner to eat the ball.

Laettner cried out for mercy and threw himself at the referees feet.

(17) 2. Use a coordinating conjunction and a comma to coordinate independent clauses
(word groups that can stand alone as sentences).

Laettner was about to receive a technical, so he begged for mercy.
Laettner cried out for mercy, but the referee did not listen.

(18) 3. Use a semicolon to coordinate independent clauses (but be careful not to overuse
the semicolon and never use it with another and).

Laettner cried out for mercy; the referee did not listen.

I swung the bat; I missed the ball.

(19) The first combining pattern a child learns consists of basic coordinational patterns:

I took my fishing pole, and I took Rover, and I took my Daddy, and I went fishing.

(20) Coordination brings like things together. When like grammatical units are brought
together, we suggest that the elements are Parallel. In Parallelism or parallel structure, nouns
must be coupled with nouns (bears, giraffes, and lions). Adjectives must be coupled with
adjectives (The day was cool, breezy, and damp. Verbs must be coupled with verbs (We came
to fish, hunt, and swim). Verbals (nouns or adjectives derived from verbs) must be coupled with
verbals, such as Sally enjoyed singing, hiking, and dancing.

(21) Lack of parallelism (#30) on Dr. Maas chart comes from mixing the grammatical
elements:

*Today a secretary has to be attractive in appearance and a high intelligence

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Today a secretary has to be attractive and intelligent.
The bad sentence combines an adjective and a noun, but the good sentence uses two
adjectives.

*Alice enjoys sewing, cooking, skiing, and exciting dates.

Alice enjoys sewing, cooking, skiing, and dating.

In the bad sentence the writer combines three verbals and a noun, but in the good
sentence the writer uses all verbals.

(22) Sometimes elements which are grammatically parallel may not be logically parallel

*On the first day of class, we visited the Gym, the Cafeteria, the Dormitory, and
President Strickland.

Although all of the items coordinated are nouns, three identify buildings and one
identifies a person. We could improve the sentence by identifying four locations.

On the first day of class, we visited the gym, the cafeteria, the dorm, and the presidents
office (or President Stricklands office.)

(23) We could summarize the requirements for coordination and parallelism as follows:

1. Coordinate elements must usually be in parallel grammatical form: Independent
clauses with independent clauses, subjects with subjects, complements with
complements, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, etc.

2. Coordinate elements must appear in the proper order, usually in a series, with
appropriate punctuation

3. Coordinated elements may need to be joined with signal words (Coordinating
conjunctions - such as and, but, etc.)

4. Sometimes other signal words may also be needed, such as: of, the, in, if, who.

Subordination

(24) As a child matures, he learns that all things dont have the same significance or
importance, but have to be put in levels of priority or importance. A photographer has to
compose his picture carefully, determining what is to be in the foreground and what is to be in
the background.


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(25) To give unequal emphasis to two or more ideas, express the major idea in an
independent clause and place any minor ideas in phrases or subordinate clauses.
Subordinate clauses, which cannot stand alone, typically begin with one of the following words:
after, although, as, because, before, if, since, that, unless, until, when, whether, which, while,
who, whom, whose.

Although Duke is favored to win the championship, they have choked before.

When Duke chokes, we will celebrate.

As Grandmother lost her sight, her hearing sharpened. Though her hearing
sharpened, Grandmother gradually lost her sight.

(26) You need to be careful which subordinating conjunction you use. They are not
interchangeable.

Although she was his wife, she stayed at the hotel.
Because she was his wife, she stayed at the hotel.
Before she was his wife, she stayed at the hotel.
Whenever she was his wife, she stayed at the hotel.

(27) We refer to sentences with the subordinate clause coming first as periodic sentences
because the tension is maintained until the final punctuation. If we put the main clause first and
follow it up by the subordinate clause, we have a loose sentence.

Periodic Sentences generally seem more emphatic.

After Thello entered the game, Texas College gained 20 points.
After the tornado appeared, the farmer lost his grain crop.

(28) Now notice the same sentences written in the loose format.

Texas College gained 20 points after Thello entered the game.
The farmer lost his grain crop after the tornado appeared.

(29) I like to use the archery metaphor for the periodic sentence. Making the reader wait for
the main clause at the end is like creating tension by drawing back on the bow string. The
tension makes the arrow strike its target with more emphasis. Writing a loose sentence
resembles bowling through a cow-yard. After the initial impact, the ball loses momentum as it
picks up qualifiers.

(30) Many Freshman essays do not use Subordination as a technique very well. Some
educators have become annoyed at what they refer to as Primer English because it suggests a
schoolboys reader.


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Symptoms of Inadequate Subordination
(Dr. Maas symbol is #49)

(31) 1. Strings of short choppy sentences

Beechwood is a park. It is in my home town. It is a cool, shady park. I knew it as a
child. Then I went on many picnics there.

Now notice the same set of sentences properly subordinated:

(32) When (subordinating conjunction) I was a child, I went on many picnics to
Beechwood, a cool, shady park (appositive) in (Preposition) my home town.

Notice that subordination combined five choppy clauses into one smooth subordinated
clause.

(33) 2. Excessive use of and and so to join sentences (or to begin sentences.)

*Louise was tired of listening to the concert and it was dark enough that her
grandmother couldnt see her, and so she slipped out into the lobby.

(34) Notice how subordination gets rid of the excessive ands. One part of the sentence is
selected as the main clause as the other elements are subordinated to it.

Since (subordinating conjunction) Louise was tired of listening to the concert, she
slipped past her grandmother in (preposition) the dark, into (preposition) the lobby.

(35) Here is a particularly annoying example from a student essay:

The machine has keys and a tape of ribbon and the pressure on the keys makes them
rise and strike the ribbon and the ribbon strikes the paper and an imprint remains on the
paper and it is that of the key.

(36) Look at how subordination improves the example:

The machine has keys and a tape of carboned ribbon. When (subordinating
conjunction) the keys are struck, they rise, hitting (participle) the ribbon. The impact
carries the ribbon to the paper, leaving (participle) the imprint of (preposition) the key on
(preposition) the paper.

(37) 3. Repeated use of This and That as subjects suggests another symptom of inadequate
subordination.


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(38) One of the most frequent signs of inadequate subordination is the repeated subject,
especially the word This needlessly, often vaguely carrying on as the subject of a new sentence.
Pronouns like This, I t, That, and Which are often used colloquially, to refer to a general idea.
(39) Deciding what to subordinate in what patterns is one of the most complicated and
difficult tasks in writing.

(40) Compare the descriptions of the same phenomenon. It all depends on what you consider
and what you consider the ground.

There is a girl.
She is wearing a green hat.

The girl in the green hat. (The second clause is subordinated to the first clause by
means of a prepositional phrase. I have gotten rid of one clause.)

The girl wearing a green hat. (The second clause is subordinated to the first clause by
means of a participial phrase.)

The girl who wears a green hat. (The second sentence is subordinated to the first
sentence by means of a relative or wh clause.)

The green hat on the girl. (The first clause is subordinated to the second clause by means
of a prepositional phrase.)

The girls green hat. (The first clause is subordinated to the second clause by means of
the apostrophe - a whole clause is wiped out by one little punctuation.)

The green hat which the girl is wearing. (The first sentence is subordinated to the second
by means of a relative or wh clause.)

Notice that in all cases, the choice of subordination depended upon what one wanted to
emphasize as the figure and what one wanted to emphasize as the ground.

(41) At this point I would like you all to perform a little exercise. On a blank sheet of paper,
rewrite the following paragraph, using the sentence combining techniques we have use in this
unit:
Aluminum is a metal. It is abundant. It has many uses. It comes from bauxite. Bauxite
is an ore. Bauxite looks like clay. Bauxite contains aluminum. It contains several other
substances. Workers extract these other substances from the bauxite. They grind the
bauxite. They put it in tanks. Pressure is in the tanks. The other substances form a mass.
They remove the mass. They use filters. A liquid remains. They put it through several
processes. It finally yields a chemical. The chemical is powdery. It is white. The
chemical is aluminum. It is a mixture. It contains aluminum. It contains oxygen.
Workers separate the aluminum from the oxygen. They use electricity. They finally
produce a metal. The metal is light. It has a luster. The luster is bright.. The luster is
silver.

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Roy ODonnell, Ph.D., University of Georgia

Sentence Combining Exercises

The Participle: The participle we define as an adjective made from a verb.

The dog barks.
The dog bites. Barks, bites , and cries are all verbs.
The boy cries.

By adding the ending ing , we can turn the verbs into adjectives called participles,
enabling us to combine the three short choppy sentences. Participles and gerunds (which we
will study shortly) are called verbals because they are made from verbs. Participles are verbs
turned into adjectives, while gerunds are nouns made from verbs. Both use the ing ending.

The barking dog bit the crying boy.

Combine the two or more sentences into one sentence using at least one participle. For
extra practice, combine them again but in a different manner.

Example: John was standing by the road. John saw a car go by.
Standing by the road, John saw a car go by.

1. John forgot his promise. John went to the party without me.
2. John saw his sister. His sister was eating popcorn.
3. John watched the boys. The boys were playing soccer.
4. Cindy plays the piano in the afternoons. Cindy dreams about her boyfriend.
5. My boyfriend ate the whole cake. My mother saw my boyfriend.
6. They have no money. They cant go to the movies.
7. John graduates next Thursday. John has finished his classes.
8. John heard the people in the street. The people in the street were singing.
9. We were really hungry. We made far too much food.
10. Grandmothers like to watch their children. The children open presents.

The Relative Pronoun: Relative pronouns consists of a small group of noun substitutes
(including who, whom, whose, that, which, what, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever)
used to introduce subordinate clauses.

In the following exercises, use the correct relative pronoun to join the sentences together.

Example: I know the boy. The boy stole the car.
I know the boy who stole the car.

1. I will clean my room. I made my room dirty yesterday.

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2. They dont like the rabbits. Rabbits eat the lettuce from the garden.
3. The crazy people all yelled at the moon. The crazy people live in the asylum.
4. Granny will drop the laundry. Granny was carrying the laundry to the washroom.
5. The shoes fit. You bought the shoes at the mall yesterday.
6. Follow the yellow brick road. The road leads to the magic castle.
7. The people live at the house. The people made pizza for dinner.
8. Gorgeous George spilled the beans. Gorgeous George didnt get any dinner.
9. Bob came over to our house. Bobs television is broken.
10. Landslides happen in the mountains. It rains a lot in the mountains.

The Gerund: the gerund is a verb turned into a noun, using the same ending ing as the other
verbal we studied, the participle: the verb turned into an adjective.

John eats hamburgers all day long
John enjoys life when he eats hamburgers.

Eating hamburgers all day long is Johns way of enjoying life.
John says eating is enjoying.

Combine the two or more sentences into one sentence using at least one gerund.

1. I am angry about it. John went to the party without me.
2. He said they would do something at the party. They were playing Go Fish at the party.
3. My uncle likes it. My uncle stays up late to watch old movies.
4. Grownups dont like it. Children throw Jell-O in restaurants.
5. My boyfriend ate the whole cake. My mother was really mad at it.
6. They spent all their money. They will be poor.
7. Johns graduation is next Thursday. His mother is really happy about it.
8. Tommy found the key. It saved us a whole lot of trouble.
9. We didnt eat the bananas. The bananas were old. We made a cake from bananas.
10. Grandmothers never mind it. Grandmothers buy presents for grandchildren.


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Study Questions for Sentence Combining

1. Identify two of the most basic sentence patterns of the English language. 01:01
2. What is another name for a basic sentence pattern? 01:02
3. How does a student mistakenly create a fused sentence or a run on? 01:04
4. How does a student mistakenly create a comma splice? 01:05
5. What analogy or metaphor does Dr. Maas use to indicate the inappropriateness of the
comma splice? 01:05
6. List the seven coordinating conjunctions. 01:07
7. What is the difference between coordination and subordination? 01:07, 08
8. Identify six subordinating conjunctions. 01:08
9. What is a participle? 02:09
10. How is it formed? 02:09
11. What is an appositive? 02:09
12. Give an example of an apposition. 02:09
13. Identify the three basic methods of sentence combining. 02:10
14. What is the main rule of thumb in sentence combining? 02:11
15. In what way can we think of the pyramid as an ascending scale of crispness or
desirability? 02:12
16. Explain the recycling metaphor as applied to sentence combining. 02:13
17. Explain the process of coordination. 02:14
18. For what kind of ideas can we use for coordination? 02:15
19. Explain the three methods we use to coordinate words, clauses and sentences.
03:16,17,18
20. Identify and illustrate the first combining pattern a child learns. 03:19
21. What does it mean when we say grammatical units are parallel? 03:20
22. How does a student mistakenly write something that has lack of parallelism? 03:21
23. Give an illustration of lack of parallelism. 03:21
24. Explain and illustrate how sentence elements can be grammatically parallel but not
logically parallel. 04:22
25. Summarize the four basic requirements for coordination and parallelism. 04:24
26. Why does the writer have to use subordination? 04:25
27. Why does the writer have to exercise care in his selection of a subordinating conjunction?
05:26
28. Explain the difference between a loose and periodic sentence. 05:27
29. Illustrate the difference between a loose and periodic sentence with an example. 05:28
30. Explain the archery and bowling metaphor as applied to periodic and loose sentence?
05:29
31. Explain and illustrate the style called Primer English. 05:30
32. Identify and illustrate the three symptoms of inadequate subordination. 06:31,33,37
33. Using two kernel sentences, combine them by means of a prepositional phrase. 07:40
34. Using two kernel sentences, combine them by means of a participial phrase. 07:40
35. Using two kernel sentences, combine them by means of a relative clause. 07:40
36. Using two kernel sentences, combine them by means of an apostrophe. 07:40


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The Thesis

(01) The most essential part of any composition, whether we refer to the sentence, paragraph,
chapter, or book consists of the thesis and materials of support or materials of amplification.
The relationship between thesis and support we could illustrate by the following example:

Thesis: I had a terrible morning.
Support: I had a headache and a stopped up sinus cavity.

(02) The relationship between thesis and support could also be explained as the relationship
between abstract and concrete as illustrated by the following example:

Abstract: Tyler has received above normal precipitation.
Concrete: It has received four inches of rain.
Concrete: It has received six inches of snow.
Concrete: It has received eight inches of hail.

(03) The relationship between thesis and support could be explained as a relationship
between generalization and example as illustrated by the following example:

Generalization: My first day at Texas College proved a disaster.
Example: In the morning I ran into Dr. Namboodiris car.
Example: At noon the radiator on my truck blew up.
Example: In the afternoon, I misadvised three students, cross-listing them
in conflicting classes.

(04) Nothing proves more important or vital to your composition (sentence, paragraph, essay,
chapter, book) than your thesis. We could compare your thesis to the brain and spinal cord of
an organism.

(05) An organism can function without one or more sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, taste
buds, tactile nerves) but it cannot function without a brain. An essay without a thesis, or a story
without a thesis, or a research paper without a thesis we could consider brain dead.

(06) The terms thesis statement and topic sentence we sometimes use inter-changeably. The
topic sentence in the paragraph serves the same function as the thesis does to the entire essay or
chapter. For example:

Thesis statement: A psychosis can have organic, familial, and environmental
causes.
Topic sentence (Example 1): Organic causes may include chemical or
hormonal imbalances.


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Topic sentence (Example 2): Familial causes may include abuse or co-
dependency.

Topic sentence (Example 3): Environmental causes may include seasonal
affective disorders and the stress of overcrowding.

(07) The structure of the expository essay looks something like this:

Thesis
Example 1 (Topic Sentence)
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3

Example 1
Example 2
Example 3

Example 1
Example 2
Example 3

(08) The usual pattern of the standard expository paragraph begins with a topic sentence,
usually a generalization of some sort, and a series of details that illustrate that topic. Some
paragraphs begin by summarizing the main idea. The remainder of the paragraph lists
particular instances to illustrate and support the opening statement.

Bogus Thesis Statements

(09) Some kinds of sentences sometimes masquerade as thesis statements, but they either
delay or put off the reader or they serve to help the writer arrive at a thesis:

The Question: What causes nightmares?
Why do people get AIDS?

(10) The unprocessed question unfortunately allows the writer to stay non- committal and
tends to delay getting to the subject. A thesis does not ask questions. A thesis answers a
question.

The Purpose Statement: I plan to explain what causes nightmares.
I will explain how people get AIDS.

(11) The purpose statement appears non- committal and tends to put off the reader. The thesis
statement does not put off the reader. It gets to the point.

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The Thesis: The nightmare seems to serve as the nervous systems method of
making the daytime hours less frightening in comparison.

AIDS has become transmitted through perverse lifestyles, drug usage
and tainted blood.

(12) The thesis has an argumentative edge, committing the writer to a certain point of view
or position:

( I would argue that) the nightmare seems to serve as the nervous systems method
of making the daytime hours less frightening in comparison.

(13) The training wheel I would argue that appendage we can eliminate in the final draft of
the thesis.

(14) Professor Gorrell describes the thesis as a topic and comment and Professor Rorabacher
describes the thesis as a topic and attitude. Topic and comment suggest that the writer has to
bring conviction and comment restricting what he or she can say about a topic.

(15) The thesis (or topic sentence) should have the following qualities.

(16) 1. It should be a complete sentence. The statement should not consist of a
wordier version of the title such as: AIDS - an investigation into the causes and
effects.

(17) 2. It should be specific - the more specific the better (even though the thesis will
be the most general part of your paper). Dont hide behind the wimpy vague:
AIDS has a number of causes.

(18) 3. It should be exact; an inexact statement usually results from cloudy or muddy
thinking.
Consider: The campus newspaper provides more opportunities for writing
effectively than all the formal English courses in the college.

(The student would have to investigate all the formal English courses in the
college to make such an evaluation.)

(19) 4. It should make a commitment which the writer can hope to fulfill.

Example: A simple 10 minutes a day Dynamic Tension exercise can bring faster
results in terms of bulk and strength than a month of power lifting
in the gym.

(20) 5. It should have an argumentative edge. If you feel a need to, you may include
the training wheel phrase, I would argue that---

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(21) 6. It should demonstrate a clear topic and attitude or topic and comment.

Example: Electronic calculators have made students mentally lazy.

FUNCTIONS OF THE THESIS

(22) The thesis (or topic sentence) has the following functions:

(23) 1. It provides transition - It opens with a brief restatement of what has gone
before(usually in a subordinate clause) and introduces a new
topic.

Example: Although philosophical and moral questions played a major role
in the war between the states, economic factors did most to
ignite the conflict.

Example: Following the agricultural and industrial waves, our society and
culture has now entered the information wave.

(24) 2. Suggests organization and structure:

Example: Frustration may be self- caused, other-people caused, or event
caused.

Example: Behavior has a physical, psychological, and chemical component.

(25) 3. Presents a subject or presents a proposition for discussion. We may use the
synonyms proposal or proposition. We may classify propositions into the
following categories:

(26) 1. Generalizations - The generalization results from observing a set of facts (over a
period of time) and finding something in common with all of them.

Example: During the past five years, every campaign for student body
president has turned about trivialities rather than issues of
educational policy.

Example: In the past four years every congressional bill designed to reform
the tax system has actually made it worse.


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(27) These thesis (or proposition) statements commit the writer to provide illustrations and
examples.

(28) 2. Definition - The Classical definition places an item in a more general class
and distinguishes it from all other members of that class.

Example: A dictionary is a book which lists a selection of the words of a
language, providing information about their spelling,
pronunciation, meaning and use.

Example: Epicureanism is a philosophical position which holds that
pleasure or the attainment of pleasure reflects the highest goal in life.

(29) We can visualize the structure of the definition with this diagram. The large circle
illustrates the genus or the class and the small circles illustrates the species or the specific
examples. A definition consists of identifying the genus (class) and the characteristics (or
differential) which separates one species from another. For example:

Hammer

Pliers TOOLS Saw

Chisel Screwdriver

Species Genus Differential

A hammer is a tool used for pounding.

An atlas is a book having maps.

(30) 3. Practical Proposition - The practical proposition advocates action, stresses
that something should be done or ought to take place.


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Example: Ministers ought to demonstrate proficiency in counseling and
crisis intervention before they enter the field.

Example: To reduce juvenile delinquency, adult sentences ought to be
meted out in the courts.

(31) 4. Relational Proposition - A relational proposition tells how one thing may
be a part of another - or more importantly, the cause or effect of another.

Example: Princess Dis untimely death was caused by a drunken chauffeur
and some pesky photographers.

Example: Kurtrells low test scores were brought about by irregular
attendance, lack of studying, and inability to pay attention.

(32) Although topic sentences may appear other than the first position in the standard
expository paragraph, most modern carefully constructed prose rests on standard paragraphs,
most of which have topic sentences to open them.

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Exercises Name: ________________________Date: ___________

Identify the following examples as:
A. Generalizations
B. Definitions
C. Practical Propositions
D. Relational Propositions

1.__C Federal health insurance should be made compulsory.
2._D The Hippie phenomenon of the 1960s was a spin-off of future shock.
3.__D The alarming increase in the number of cases of lung cancer could be attributed to
cigarette smoking.
4._B__An entrepreneur is a business person who organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for
business ventures.
5.__C Congress should pass legislation imposing strict limits on campaign spending.
6.___ Corpus Christi generally has milder winters than Tyler.
7.___ Midwestern Congressmen tend to support agricultural legislation.
8.___ The severe shortage of citrus fruit has been related to the drought in Florida.
9.___ Many current terms of college slang describe aspects of academic work.
10.___ Almost every piece of furniture in this room has been constructed out of scraps of
salvaged material.

Provide three examples of generalization topic sentences:

1.
2.
3.

Provide three examples of definition topic sentences:

1.
2.
3.

Provide three examples of practical proposition topic sentences:

1.
2.
3.

Provide three examples of relational propositions topic sentences;

1.
2.
3.


18

Selected Study Questions for COMFTF-02

1. What is the most essential part of any composition? 01:01
2. What metaphor describes the thesis? 01:04
3. What is another word for thesis? 01:06
4. Describe the usual pattern of the standard expository paragraph. 02:08
5. Identify some kinds of sentences which masquerade as thesis statements. 02:09,03:10
6. What training wheel phrase can we add to insure that our thesis has an argumentative
edge? 03:12
7. Identify the six qualities each thesis or topic sentence should have. 03:16-18;04:19-21
8. How do professors Gorrell and Rorabacher describe the thesis? 03:14
9. Both definitions (Gorrell and Rorabacher) insure that the writer brings what essential
element to his topic? 03:14
10. Describe the three functions of the thesis or topic sentence. 04:23-25
11. Define and illustrate the generalization proposition. 05:26
12. Define and illustrate the definition proposition 05:28
13. Diagram the structure of the definition proposition. 05:29
14. Define and illustrate the practical proposition. 05:30
15. Define and illustrate the relational proposition 05:31


19

COMFTF03
Composition
First Things First
The Example

(1) The basic building block of the expository paragraph and the expository essay consists of
the two part unit called the assertion and the support or the thesis and the example. We
may understand this relationship with the following sets of patterns:

Generalization Abstraction Thesis
Specific Concrete Example Example

Assertion
Support

(2) Every basic unit of composition from the expository essay to the book focuses on a
generalization and a specific example.

Generalization: I feel sick today.
Specific example: I have a migraine headache and upset stomach.

Generalization: I had a miserable day at the free-throw line.
Specific example: I made only three baskets out of twenty-four
attempted.

Generalization: I had terrible luck fishing.
Specific example: After three hours from the boat and two hours
at the pier, I caught only one tiny Sunfish too
small to eat.

(3) The abstract statement or generalization made in the thesis or topic sentence leaves out
enough specific details so that it could apply to a number of specific situations. For example:

Paragraph Structure

(4) 1. The greater the speed, the less control the driver has over the car.

2. For example, a man driving at 30 miles an hour needs only 73 feet to bring the
car to a complete stop, but a man driving at 60 miles an hour needs 222 feet.

(5) A standard expository paragraph consists of a thesis or topic sentence represented as (1)
TS follows by a specific example represented by (2) E.

Generalization Abstract

20

(1) TS

(2) E
Specifics Concrete

Thesis (Topic Sentence): East Texas has experienced a great deal of
precipitation in the last twenty-four hours.
Example 1: Marshall has suffered baseball-sized hail.
Example 2: Longview has had over three feet of snow.
Example 3: Kilgore has reported thick pea-soup fog, allowing less than
six inches of visibility.
Example 4: Corsicana has had over twelve inches of rain, causing the
local creeks and rivers to overflow their banks.
Example 5: Rusk has experienced driving sleet and ice, resulting in a
thirty car pile-up.

(6) Words ending in tion, ment, dom, ness, and ity are words of high abstraction,
meaning specific details have been left out. In the following examples, another generalization or
high-level abstraction requires specific concrete examples to help the reader visualize.

Generalization: Fred has acted in a dishonest manner.
Specific Example 1: He claimed he gave $1,000 to his church when in
truth he didnt give one cent.
Specific Example 2: He turned in a research paper claiming it was his
own work, when in truth he downloaded it from the
Internet from an obscure Web Site.

(7) The term abstract comes from two Latin words:

ab (away from)
trahere (to pull or to carry)

(8) If I look around the classroom, I might find someone with blue eyes, a blue shirt, a blue
ink pen, a blue notebook, a pair of blue jeans, a blue color crayon, or a blue piece of chalk, but I
cant ask anyone to go down to Eckerds and buy me a can or bottle of blue because blue is an
abstraction specific characteristics have been left out.

(9) In expository writing, the examples have to be a great deal more specific than the general
thesis statement. In the following paragraph, the examples are just as general and non-specific as
the thesis statement.

Thesis: Mary acts like a brat.
Specific Example 1: She always does bad things.
Specific Example 2: She behaves like a delinquent.
Specific Example 3: She is a pain in the neck to her teachers.

21

(10) The problem we have is that the reader doesnt have clue of an idea as to what Mary did
to earn the title brat or her behavior described as brat-like.

(11) The following example may help clarify the intent of the generalization:

Thesis: Mary behaves like a brat.
Specific Example 1: She squeezed Elmers Glue in the cats nose.
Specific Example 2: She mowed the shag rug with the power mower.
Specific Example 3: She crumbled broken glass in the sugar bowl
Specific Example 4: She flushed the goldfish down the toilet.

(12) The late Alfred Korzybski, the founder of General Semantics, has given us a diagram or
scientific metaphor to help us to understand the abstraction or abstracting process. He calls it
the structural differential because it helps us to differentiate levels of abstraction (or levels of
specificity). For one thing, it differentiates the word we use to talk about things from the things
themselves. The following components make up the diagram:

(13) A parabola with the top broken off an into which
we have drawn many small holes, the number of holes
appears infinite (or indefinite). Breaking a piece of the
parabola makes it more manageable. With the use of
strings we have attached a smaller circle.

_______________________________________________________________

(14) Below the circle we have more geometric figures,
each having fewer strings than the
figures above.
(15) Now lets take the segments one by one, putting it back together when we have all the
pieces.

(16) The first figure, the parabola stands for
everything that takes place outside of our nervous
systems or apart from our sensory organs. It represents
the world of atoms, molecules, electrons, the world of
rays, and wavelengths, etc. The late J.S. Bois referred
to this parabola as W.I.G.O. or What Is Going On.

Non Verbal (17) The holes or circles Korzybski referred to

22

Level (or word) as characteristics. He preferred the non-
of Reality image evoking characteristics rather than atom or
molecule because the latter terms have the tendency
to put notions in our heads.

(18) The strings represent what our nervous systems
(what our sensory organs) abstract from the parabola.
We represent the nervous system or sensory organs by
the circle. The strings connect the characteristics from
the parabola (What Is Going On) to our nervous
system.

(19) The strings, though many, remind us that we
cannot possible abstract (pull from) everything out in
the W.I.G.O. (What Is Going
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - On).

(20) The circle or object of perception has
Verbal Level many holes (but not an infinite or indefinite
(or word) of number of holes as the parabola does whose
Reality sides never end). Together, the parabola and the circle,
along with the strings, represent the non-verbal world
of reality (the region which does not have words).

(21) The next figure on the diagram, looking like a
laundry tag, represents the first level of the verbal
world of reality. This figure represents the specific
label or the specific name such as Phil or Doris.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (22) We may make the statement Here is
Specific Label Verbal Word Doris Smith or Doris Smith took two
wobbly
of Reality steps.

(23) The next level of abstraction in the verbal
Inference world of reality consists of the inference. From the
specific naming or describing on the first level we
make an inference, Doris is a bit tipsy or Doris is
inebriated.

Judgment (24) We could make another level of abstraction (or
generalization) and make the judgment Doris is a no-
good immoral woman. Notice that the more levels of
abstraction we travel, the less probable and less
visual become the proclamations.

23

(25) From this structural differential the late S.I. Hayakawa constructed another diagram
called an abstraction ladder or perhaps a level of specificity ladder. Although the two
diagrams have similarities, they do have different purposes. Hayakawas ladder of abstraction
was designed to demonstrate levels of specificity in expository writing. For this reason,
Hayakawa made the levels go up on certain representations of the diagram.

(26) His first classic example consisted of a cow by the name of Bessie.

Non-Verbal (27) Hayakawa suggested that the Bessie we
World of experience on the process level of reality
Reality consists of a whirling dance of electrons or a
variegated mass of corpuscles a process starting with
a union of sperm and ovum progressing through calf,
heifer, cow and perhaps eventually a tray of ground up
hamburger.

(28) The Bessie we experience on the circle represents
the actual cow we see at a specific moment, the sounds
she makes, the shadows she makes and the specific
shape we see.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(29) Bessie represents the label given to the
Verbal Word cow.
of Reality Specific
Label
(30) The next figure, representing the term cow is
an abstraction, leaving out specific characteristics,
differentiating Bessie the cow from Daisy cow or
Suzie cow or perhaps Guernsey from Jersey from
Holstein.

(31) The next figure represents another level of
abstracting representing the term livestock, leaves
out specific characteristics differentiating cows from
horses from chickens. Notice the fewer strings and the
fewer holes.

abstraction. The term farm asset leaves out specific
characteristics, differentiating cows from silos
generating plants or manure spreaders.

abstraction. The term asset leaves out specific

24

characteristics differentiating cows from stocks and
bonds or oil wells.

(34) These levels of abstraction or specificity move to less specific and more inclusive
categories. Every word or term can be placed on a continuum of abstraction or specificity like
the following:

More Abstract
Less Concrete
Transportation Leaves out specific characteristics
differentiating Chevrolet Lumina from
ship or plane.
Land Transportation Leaves out specific characteristics
differentiating Chevrolet Lumina from
trains, busses, and trucks.
Automobile Leaves out specific characteristics,
differentiating Chevrolet Lumina from Ford
Taurus or Cadillac.
Chevrolet Lumina Leaves out specific characteristics
differentiating gray Chevrolet Lumina from
green, blue, red, or red Lumina.
Gray Chevrolet Lumina Leaves out specific characteristics
differentiating gray Chevrolet with
California tag GFS128 from
Texas tag LPN124.
Gray Chevrolet Lumina
with California Tag GFS128

More Concrete
Less Abstract

(35) The standard expository paragraph consists of levels of abstraction or specificity,
beginning with a generalization thesis or topic sentence supported by specific examples
supported by even more specific details. The levels of specificity we could depict with the
following outline:

More General Thesis (or Topic Sentence)
Example 1:
Specific Detail 1
Specific Detail 2
Specific Detail 3

Example 2:
Specific Detail 1
Specific Detail 2
Specific Detail 3

25

More Concrete

(36) Mary Morain has constructed a diagram illustrating (without the parabola circle, tags and
strings) the levels of abstraction. The composition student can look at the top portion of the
diagram at the verbal level of reality to look at still another schematic diagram of an expository
paragraph with the generalizations followed by specifics in the standard deductive expository
paragraph and the specifics leading to generalizations in the standard inductive expository
paragraph.


26

EXTENSIONAL-INTENSIONAL LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION

LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION
1

I Generalizations D

N Judgments E

D V Assumptions INTENSIONAL D
E ORIENTATION
U R Opinions U
B
C A More Inferences C
L
T Inferences T

I Descriptions I

V Statistics EXTENSIONAL V
ORIENTATION
E Names E

____________

N
O Perception and
N Sensation

V
E
R Macroscopic
B
A
L Submicroscopic


27

(37) Examine the following two lists of words:

A B
bread democracy
pencil love
sweater hate
land generosity

(38) Can anyone see a basic similarity in all of these words? We could conclude that they all
belong to the classification noun.

(39) Can anyone see a basic difference between the nouns in column A and the words in
column B? Column A words we can visualize, touch, smell, eat, etc., but column B words refer
to ideas, emotions, which we cannot feel, touch, taste smell, etc.

(40) We refer to the words in column A concrete nouns words which evoke sensory
impressions.

(41) Column B words, we refer to as abstract nounswords that leave out specific sensory
details. Procrastination, laziness, or anger cannot be bottled or boxed while bread and pencil
can.

(42) The terms concrete and abstract do not represent absolute mutually exclusive categories.
For example the term bread we consider more abstract than wheat bread. Wheat bread
we consider more abstract than moldy piece of wheat bread lying on the counter since
Tuesday. Words become relatively more abstract and concrete as we delete or add specific
details.

(43) S.I. Hayakawa, in his metaphor of the abstraction process (which he terms an abstraction
ladder) encourages students to move through levels of abstraction or specificity.

(44) Taking the word tea rose, lets move up the level of abstraction, leaving out more and
more specific details until the term becomes more inclusive but less precise.

MORE ABSTRACT MATTER ETC
ENTITY MATTER
ORGANIC MASS
GROWTH ORGANISM
PLANT HOME SAPIENS
FLOWER STUDENT
ROSE MALE
MORE CONCRETE TEA ROSE JOHNNY SMITH

(45) Now lets move down the levels of abstraction to more specific and concrete terms.


28

MORE ABSTRACT MINERAL LIVING THING
METAL INSECT
IRON FLY
HAMMERHEAD HORSE FLY ON WINDOWPANE
MORE CONCRETE ETC. ETC.
(or specific)

(46) When we move up levels of abstraction, we leave out specific characteristics. As we
concretize, we add specific details.

MORE ABSTRACT TEA ROSE
A DEAD TEA ROSE
A DEAD TEA ROSE, USA
A DEAD TEA ROSE IN A PARK, USA
A DEAD TEA ROSE IN A TYLER PARK, USA
A DEAD TEA ROSE IN A HOTHOUSE IN A TYLER
PARK, USA
A DEAD TEA ROSE IN THE CALDWELL PARK
HOTHOUSE IN TYLER, TEXAS USA
MORE CONCRETE
SPECIFICS

JOHNNY SMITH IS A STUDENT
JOHNNY SMITH IS A STUDENT, USA
JOHNNY SMITH IS A TEXAS STUDENT, USA
JOHNNY SMITH IS A COLLEGE STUDENT, TYLER, TEXAS USA
JOHNNY SMITH ATTENDS TEXAS COLLEGE, TYLER, TEXAS USA
JOHNNY SMITH IS IN DR. MAAS ENGLISH 1 CLASS AT TEXAS
COLLEGE, TYLER, TEXAS USA

(47) Notice as we descend down the levels of abstraction, we get closer and closer to the
specific object. As we ascend the levels of abstraction, we leave out many specific details.

(48) In expository writing, the writer illustrates his or her assertions by moving up and down
levels of abstraction and specificity.

(49) Let us read together this magazine article by Elaine Morgan on The Murderous
Species.

29

The Murderous Species

by Elaine Morgan

Reprinted from The Descent of Woman (1972)

(01) Scores of books and articles have been written recently on [the problem of human
aggression], and the question usually posed is something like: Why has the species Homo
sapiens been cursed from its earliest beginnings with a propensity for murder and violence
unparalleled in the whole of the animal kingdom?
(02) Anthony Storr states clearly: The somber fact is that we are the cruelest and most
ruthless species that has ever walked the earth. And when his book On Human Aggression
went into paperback his publishers picked out this sentence to print in large letters on the front
cover, in the belief (justified, I dont doubt) that this is the kind of stuff people like to read about
themselves.
(03) If you read these books and articles with close attention you will find they dont seem to
be talking about the species as a whole. They are talking only about the subsection Homo
sapiens. They are saying that human males are more aggressive than the males of any other
species.
(04) Suppose we try to define this allegation a little more closely. Is a man more bloodthirsty
than a shark? Or a piranha? Obviously not: so the claim probably refers only to mammals. Is
he fiercer than a wolverine? Is he more murderous than a rat? no, hes not. Perhaps the
comparison had better be confined to primates. Speaking frankly, then, which would you be
more chary of annoying, a man or a gorilla? Or, if we withdraw the gorilla because hes bigger,
compare the aggressiveness of a man with that of some of the smaller primates for instance,
the charming and cuddly-looking woolly monkey of South America, who, if he takes offense,
will hurtle from a treetop onto your shoulders, get a stranglehold on your throat with his
prehensile tail, and claw at your face and eyes while hammering his sharp canine teeth repeatedly
into the top of your skull. How exactly has man become more maniacally aggressive than all of
these?
(05) Or has he?
(06) Try a bit of fieldwork. Go out of your front door and try to spot some live specimens of
Homo sapiens in his natural habitat. It shouldnt be difficult because the species I protected by
law and in no immediate danger of extinction. Observe closely the behavior and interactions of
the first twenty you encounter at random. Then, next time you read a sonorous statement about
man, try mentally replacing the collective noun by the image of those twenty faces.
(07) That window cleaner is one of the most sophisticated predators the world has ever
seen.
(08) The weapon is my grocers principal means of expression, and his only means of
resolving differences.
(09) The postmans aggressive drive has acquired a paranoid potential because his young
remain dependent for a prolonged period.
(10) You will instantly suspect that the writers are not thinking about people like that at all,
and that you have foolishly been watching the wrong species. But if youre going to be any good
as an ethnologist, you must learn to trust the evidence of your own senses above that of the

30

printed word and the television image. Remember, you have been living among thousands of
these large carnivores all your life, on more intimate terms than those on which Jane Goodall
lived among the chimpanzees or Phyllis Jay among the langurs.
(11) Some observers, watching small bands of primates over periods of up to one thousand
hours, have carefully recorded the number of agnostic encounters involving physical contact
that took place per baboon-hour or per chimpanzee-hour. You are well placed to compile a
similar logbook dealing with the naked ape. If it more than six months since you saw one of
them fling himself on another and inflict grievous bodily harm, then you are qualified to bring
the good news from Ghent to Aix
1

that as far as uncontrollable aggressiveness is concerned, this
species is nowhere in the top ten.
(12) You may say: What about Vietnam? This, of course, is why the statements about
mans aggressiveness are so frequently whole. The writers are thinking about war. War is a
special case and . . . I want to make four points about it.
(13) 1. It is by no means an activity common to the whole species, or even to the male
half of it.
Most men have always lived and died without ever being involved in war. The wars
that dominate the history books were waged by a small mobile minority, while the
rest of the population carried on with plowing and milking and making wheels and
feeding the pigs. Even in the terrible years of the two world wars, the
overwhelming majority of extant males never at any time destroyed another human
life. This is not to minimize the horrors of war; but lately men have been so
obsessed by the experience of the last two holocausts that they tend to write of war
as an ineradicable species - specific behavior pattern, or a biological imperative like
breathing and eating, and this is absurd.

(14) 2. Neither is it a primitive heritage we are trying vainly to outgrow In most of the
remaining Stone Age cultures warfare is unknown. For instance, the African
Bushmen, as Marshall Sanlins has pointed out, find the idea of war
incomprehensible.

(15) 3. We are sometimes told that man is the only animal which has ever been observed
to behave
in this way, slaughtering its own kind. This isnt true, either. Rats will fight and kill
not only rats of another species, but those from a different group of the same species.
And there was one terrible day in London Zoo when fighting broke out among
hamadryad baboons on Monkey Hill with such ferocity that no keeper dared to
intervene, and when it was over the battlefield was littered with the maimed and
dismembered bodies of the dying and the dead.

(16) Ethologists will quickly point out that animals behave in this way only under
unnatural and
pathological conditions, and that the Monkey Hill debacle is now known to have
been due to human ignorance and mismanagement. I accept this unreservedly. Only
I would say the same about the Somme.
2


31

(17) 4. If you had visited the Somme, and walked behind the lines among the British and
German
soldiers, and picked out twenty at random, and stuck electrodes on their temples and
measured their blood pressure and skin temperature and adrenaline level, you
wouldnt have found them all seething with ungovernable hate and rage, as those
baboons undoubtedly were. youd have found the window cleaner and the grocer
and the postman, cold and wet and fed up to the teeth and sick for home. Something
had gone badly wrong for those creatures or they wouldnt have been there; but it
wasnt a paranoid level of violence and aggression.

_____________________________________
1
From the Robert Browning poem, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aiz. (Editorss note)

2
River in northern France and the scene of violent battles in both world wars. (Editors note)


32

Study Questions
for The Example

1. What generalization does Elaine Morgan make in paragraph one?

2. Does she follow her generalizations with a specific example in paragraph one?

3. Does she get more specific in paragraph 3, citing a particular example?

4. Does Elaine Morgan make an attempt to get more specific in paragraph 3, adding some
qualifiers?

5. Illustrate some specific examples she uses to refute Storrs thesis in paragraph 4.

6. How is the example the cuddly-looking woolly monkey of South America different from
the other examples (shark, piranha, gorilla, rat, etc.)?

7. What point does Elaine Morgan make in paragraphs 7-9?

8. What method of investigation does she ask the reader to employ?

9. What significant insight does Elaine Morgan make in paragraph 11 about the observing the
behavior of primates?

10. What kind of a qualification (or level of specificity) does Morgan make in paragraph 12?

11. Illustrate how Morgan adds more qualifiers to the special case of war in paragraph 13.

12. Illustrate from one concrete specific example how Morgan torpedoes the notion about a
primitive heritage which we are trying vainly to outgrow.

13. What sentimental myth does Elaine Morgan deflate in paragraph #15?

14. What commentary about the aggressiveness of human nature does Morgan make in
paragraph 17?
15. What do the strings in the diagram remind us of? 04:19


33

COMFTF03
The Example
Example Essay Pre-writing

Profile: My Life and Goals

1. List ten adjectives which describe yourself with respect to your career.
Share the list with your group.

2. List ten adjectives which describe yourself in regard to your personal relationship with
family and friends. Share the list with your group.

3. List ten adjectives which describe yourself in regard to your personal development. Share
the list with your group.

4. What are your career goals? List ten; use your imagination. What would be the ultimate
successes in your career? Example: I want to be the president of a large university.
Share these goals with your group.

5. What goals do you have for yourself in regard to your relationships with family and friends
maybe even with people you regard as enemies? List ten and remember these are ideal
successes, so be free in your selection of goals. Example: I hope to establish complete
mutual trust with my parents. Share these goals with your group.

6. What goals do you have for your personal development? Again, these should be ideals.
List ten below in summary form. Example: I want to be the best amateur golfer in the
city. Share these goals with your group.


34

Goal Essay

The third stop is to develop a real desire for the things you want from life.

Desire is based on a powerful emotion generated by crystallized thinking and vivid imaging.

Desire can be tested exactly and accurately by answering these seven question:

1. What do I want? (Analyzed from previous procedure under goals.)

2. Where do I stand now?

3. What are the obstacles and road blocks? (Whats between me and what I want?)

4. How can I overcome these obstacles? (Plan)

5. Target dates for overcoming obstacle?

6. What are the rewards?

7. IS IT REALLY WORTH IT TO ME?


35

Selected Study Questions
COMFTF-03

1. What is the basic building block of every expository paragraph and every expository essay?
01:01
2. What is the most abstract or general part of the expository paragraph? 01:02
3. Illustrate a typical generalization + support example. 01:03
4. What do words which end in dom, ment and ,tion signify? 02:16
5. What is the etymology of the word abstract? 02:17
6. What is the basic difference between the examples in Paragraphs 9 and 11 on page 3? 03:09
and 11.
7. What is the purpose of the structural differential? 03:12
8.What are the first two geometric figures in this structural differential diagram? 03:14
9. What does the parabola stand for? 04:16
10. What do the holes on the diagram stand for? 04:17
11. What does the circle stand for on this diagram? 04:20
12.What region is represented by the parabola and circle? 04:20
13. What does the first laundry tag symbol stand for on this diagram? 04: 21,22
14. What does the second laundry tag symbol stand for on the diagram? 05:23
15. What does the third laundry tag symbol stand for on the diagram? 05:24
16. What was the purpose of Hayakawas ladder of abstraction? 05: 25
17. What does the parabola stand for on Hayakawas Ladder of Abstraction? 05:27
18. What does the circle stand for on Hayakawas Ladder of Abstraction? 05:28
19. What happens as we move from one laundry tag symbol to another in this diagram? 06:29-
33.
20. Illustrate from the example in paragraph 34 that abstract and concrete are not absolute
categories.05:34.
21. What does Mary Morains diagram illustrate? 08:38
22. What is the difference between the words in Column A and column B in paragraph 37? 09:37
23. Illustrate that the terms concrete and abstract do not represent mutually exclusive
categories.09:42
24. Take the word tea rose and move it up and down the ladder of abstraction or specificity.
09,10:45,46


36

#COMFTF04

The Definition
By Dr. David F. Maas

Instructional Goal: The student will demonstrate understanding of different methods of
definition.

Performance Objectives:

1. Outside of class, the student will write seven individual paragraphs. Each paragraph is to
contain from 75 to 125 words. In each paragraph the student will set forth an idea and
develop it in terms of seven of the following:

1. A logical or formal definition (mandatory for every essay)
2. A definition by description
3. A definition by example
4. A definition by synonym
5. An analogical or metaphorical definition
6. A definition by contrast or negation
7. A definition by etymology (origin, process, or growth)
8. A definition by authority
9. A definition by exemplification
10. A definition by explication

The student will use the same idea or concept for each type of definition.

2. Given a list of sentences exemplifying different types of definitions, the student will
distinguish one type of definition from another, basing his choice upon the list
enumerated in objective one.

3. Given an essay from a rhetoric reader, the student will identify the different
methods of definitions found within the essay.

4. Given a series of paragraphs, the student will identify the method of paragraph
development used.

Further qualifying criteria for the definition essay:

1. The definition will include explanation of the meaning of a word or phrase in the
context of the discussion in progress.


37

2. The paragraph should include all pertinent identifying characteristics of the object
or concept defined such as what it is used for, made of, or what it produces.

3. The word will be defined formally or informally: To define something informally
is to develop the term by means of its distinguishing characteristics from the
writers point of view. To define something formally consists of assigning the term to
a general classification with additional statements describing the terms distinguishing
characteristics. Sometimes called a logical definition, a formal definition seeks to
assign something to a genus or class and then differentiate it from the other members of
the class. Sometimes more than one differentiating characteristic is needed.

4. The student may not:

A. Use a circular definition (e.g. A washing machine is a machine that
washes. Or, A linguist is a person who specializes in
linguistics.

B. Explain a technical or commonly unfamiliar term with equally unfamiliar
terms.

(01) The etymology (origin) of the word Definition comes from the Latin Definere
to set limits. We can break it down into the root words.

The preposition de with relation to
The noun finis fine the end

(02) A definition sets the limits or bounds within which we can use a term or word.
According to Professor Robert Gorrell, the Romans were great extenders of borders or
boundaries. They realized that boundaries have at least two uses:

1. To keep something out
2. To provide an area for development from within

(03) We have adopted the Latin word for setting up limits Definere a definition
sets limits to an idea.

The Formal Definition
(04) The traditional formal, logical, or classical definition goes back to Aristotle. The
structure of the formal or classical definition we describe as follows:


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(05) A Logical/Formal, or Classical Definition locates its subject in a more general
class and then proceeds to point out the characteristics which make it differ from
the other members in that class, and therefore, allow us to define it as a subclass.
(06) We locate the term to be defined as a species in relation to a group (genus) that
includes several different species and then try to say what quality or qualities
(differentia) that distinguish the item to be defined from the other species.
Definition = The Genus + Differentia
(07) We borrow a metaphor from Zoology
(Genus) Felis-Cat
Felis Domestica (housecat) Felis Tigris (Tiger) Felis Leo (Lion) Felis Concolor (Cougar)

(Class) for study
billiards

Table (Species)

meals sewing

(08) Sometimes we distinguish between necessary and supportive characteristics.
For instance, the dictionary definition of hammer reads: A tool used for
pounding, usually consisting of a metal head and handle.

(09) We must remember that the lexicographers (dictionary makers) aim does not
consist of giving a universal definition but merely to provide a helpful
description of a common type of modern hammer one that most people have
seen.

Hammer - A tool used for pounding (Necessary Characteristics)
(Species) (Genus) (Differentia)

(10) Some Supportive Characteristics we could include consists of:

Having a claw on one end
Having a metal head
Having a magnetized head to pick up tacks


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(11) Supportive characteristics indicate specific subgroups under the species extending
the classification and broadening the base of information. We must remember that we dont
need any of these characteristics for the basic quality of hammerness.

(12) If a writer does not know the genus, we must go back up the levels of abstraction
to a more inclusive group, a group including our genus as a subgroup and try to have a more
general common (or abstract) group.

Shelter

Manmade Shelter Natural Shelter
House Teepee I gloo Cave Hollow Log
Bungalow Ranch House

(13) When we use a formal definition, we always run the risk of using the circular definition or
repeating the word itself in the definition:

A machine is a machine that washes.
A statistician is a person who makes a profession out of using statistics.
The causes of war are the several factors that result in armed conflict.
(note that armed conflict and war are synonyms.)

Definition By Description

(14) In description, we extend the formal definition by pointing out a terms physical
qualities how they look, where they are, what they are made of, how big they are, what color
they are, etc.

Martin Hall is the large three story red building on the east side of the campus having the
Presidents office, the academic office, the registrar, and the auditorium.

A fire truck has ladders and hoses on it and is fairly large and painted red or yellow.

A circle consists of a figure covered by a line fixed at one end and moving in a plane.

Definition By Example

(15) The definition by example consists of identifying species or subspecies of the
genus. Children learn the meanings of words by repeated examples.

Nouns are words like horse, typewriter, disease, or happiness.
Religion is what is involved in Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism.


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(16) We must remember that the definition by example could have scientific validity
only by listing all the thousands of examples in the class. We cant do that very often:

The Great Plains states consist of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma and Texas.

Definition By Synonym

(17) Because English has both a Latin and a Germanic Tributary, we can readily find
words of the same approximate meaning:

To kill means to murder or to mortify.
To buy means to purchase or to acquire.
To define means to distinguish.
To kiss means to osculate.
To spit means to expectorate.

(18) To define by synonym has its limitations since no two synonyms ever have the
same meaning. We can do no more than approximate.

Metaphorical Definition

(19) We define a metaphor as a comparison in which the characteristics, properties and
structure of something we can see are projected upon something we cant see. Figures of speech
such as metaphors, similes, or analogies may help definition, but they should never be used in
place of formal or logical definitions. Though comparisons can never be exact, they may be
revealing.

(20) If we say a girl is catty we may suggest that she has some of the characteristics
of a cat (sneakiness, mercurial temperament, etc.) but we do not suggest she has four legs and
whiskers.

(21) Metaphors are used for their picture making qualities, not for their scientific
accuracy.

Slang is language that takes off its coat, spits on its hands, and goes to work.
Poetry is the lava of the imagination.
Some have described marriage as a long, dull meal with the dessert coming first.
God, You are my rock and my shield.
I am the vine, you are the branches.

(22) We have to remember that we use definitions to limit the meaning of language but
we use metaphor to extend language. Use metaphor only for extended definition and never as a
substitute for formal or classical definition.


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Definition By Negation Or Contrast

(23) To define a term by contrast or negation consists of telling what a word or term is
not. It can never be exact because it can never be exhaustive. Usually the items that are negated
are those which are misconceptions.

Love is not making out in the baseball dugout.
Depression is not being abnormal or crazy. It does not consist of having just
any bad or upsetting feeling.
Depression does not consist of just feeling anxious or nervous.

(24) The Definition by Negation cannot stand alone but must become coupled with an
affirmative descriptive statement such as:

Depression refers to a specific set of behaviors which include:
1. An unpleasant feeling or state called dysphoria characterized by feeling sad,
hopeless, or down much of the time.
2. Characterized as sitting around and doing nothing or mostly passive solitary
activities like watching TV or napping.
3. Characterized by loss of energy. Even going to work may seem
overwhelming.

(25) Defining something by telling what it is not can seldom be exact because it cannot
be exhaustive:

Music is neither silence nor is it noise, but a harmonic arrangement of sounds on a
background of silence.

Communism in not a political party, nor a military organization, nor an ideological crusade,
but a gigantic conspiracy to enslave mankind.

Definition By Etymology

(26) Defining by etymology consists of defining something by telling how it came to
be where it originated from. Consider:

Sincere has an interesting etymology. Over the years I have heard two stories
which illustrate the term. Two Latin terms: sin, meaning without and cerus, meaning wax
make up the composite term.

(27) One story illustrating the concept involves a pottery vendor who seals up the
cracks with cerus or wax to cover up the flaws. The other story involves marble columns whose
flaws became masked with resin, pitch, or a type of wax. In both examples, the artisan intended
to deceive by concealing the cracks or fissures with cerus, wax, or paraffin. Sincere, on the
other hand, means having nothing to hide pure from the inside out. Insincere suggests that

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someone has attempted to cover up or conceal a flaw, making something appear quality when
in truth, has abundant flaws.

Definition By Authority

(28) Definition by authority consists of quoting a noted personality or father of a
brainchild:

According to Freud, the ego consists of the arbitrator between the demands of the Id and the
restrictions of the Superego.

According to Dewey, education consists of providing people experiences that help them take
charge of themselves and cope with their environment.

Definition By Exemplification

(29) Definition by exemplification consists of taking an individual case to represent
the whole.

When the prisoners of war came home from Vietnam, the news networks could not
possibly report on every single case history, but concentrated on one or two cases, such
as Leo Thorsness or Senator McCane.

When doing a biblical study on patience, the student might want to concentrate on the
example of Job.

Definition By Explication

(30) Definition by explication consists of enlarging upon bare statements and attempts
to clarify a term by explaining it. For example, Barbara Lawrence tried to explicate what she
meant by the sadistic aspects of pornographic words by the following example:

Not all obscene words, of course, are as implicitly sadistic or denigrating to women as
these, but all that I know seem to serve a similar purpose: to reduce the human organism
(especially the female organism) and human functions (especially sexual and procreative) to
their least organic, most mechanical dimension; to substitute a trivializing or deforming
resemblance for the complex human reality of what is being described.


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Study Questions for COMFTF-04
The Definition

1. What is the etymology (or origin) of the word definition? 02:01
2. What two things should boundaries, borders, or definitions do? 02:02
3. How does a logical, formal, or classical definition work? 02:05
4. Using the metaphor from zoology, illustrate how a classical definition is formed. 03:07
5. Explain the difference between necessary and supportive characteristics. 03:08
6. What does a writer need to do if he does not know the genus? 04:12
7. What exactly do we mean by circular definition? 04:13
8. Explain and illustrate the definition by description. 04:14
9. Explain and illustrate the definition by example. 04:15
10. Explain how a definition by example can attain scientific validity. 04:16
11. What limitations do definitions by synonyms have? 05:18
12. Define and illustrate the metaphor. 05:19
13. What exactly is the function of a metaphor? 05:21
14. What are the best kinds of terms to use for negations? 06:23
15. Explain and illustrate the definition by etymology. 06:26
16. Explain and illustrate the definition by authority. 07:28
17. Explain and illustrate the definition by exemplification. 07:29
18. Explain and illustrate the definition by explication. 07:30


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The following is a professional definition essay. As you read the paragraphs, identify each
paragraph with the appropriate type of definition (explication, metaphor, negation, description,
etc.).

Four-Letter Words Can Hurt You
by Barbara Lawrence

(01) Why should any words be called obscene? Dont they all describe natural human
functions? Am I trying to tell them, my students demand, that the strong, earthy, gut-honest
or, if they are fans of Norman Mailer, the rich, liberating, existential
language they use to describe sexual activity isnt preferable to phony-sounding, middle-class
words like intercourse and copulate? Coup You Late! they say with fancy infections and
gagging grimaces. Now, what is that supposed to mean?
(02) Well, what is it supposed to mean? And why indeed should one group of words
describing human functions and human organs be acceptable in ordinary conversation and
another, describing presumably the same organs and functions, be tabooed so much so, in
fact, that some of these words still cannot appear in print in many parts of the English-speaking
world?
(03) The argument that these taboos exist only because of sexual hang-ups (middle-
class, middle-age, feminist), or even that they are a result of class oppression (the contempt of
the Norman conquerors for the language of their Anglo-Saxon serfs), ignores a much more likely
explanation, it seems to me, and that is the sources and functions of the words themselves.
(04) The best known of the tabooed sexual verbs, for example, come from the German
ficken, meaning to strike combined according to Partridges etymological dictionary Origins,
with the Latin sexual verb futuere: associated in turn with the Latin fustis, a staff or cudgel:
the Celtic buc, a point, hence to pierce; the Irish bot, the male member; the Latin battuere,
to beat: the Gaelic batair, a cudgeller; the Early Irish bualaim, I strike: and so forth. It is
one of what etymologists sometimes called the sadistic group of words for the mans part in
copulation.
(05) The brutality of this word, then, and its equivalents (screw, bang, etc.), is not
an illusion of the middle class or a crotchet of Womens Liberation. In their origins and imagery
these words carry undeniably painful, if not sadistic, implications, the objet of which is almost a
female. Consider, for example, what a screw actually does to the wood it penetrates; what a
painful, even mutilating activity this kind of analogy suggests. Screw is a particularly
interesting in this context, since the noun, according to Partridge, comes from words meaning
groove, nut, ditch, breeding sow, scrofula, and swelling, while the verb beside its
explicit imagery, has antecedent associations to write on, scratch, scarify, and so forth a
revealing fusion of a mechanical or painful action with an obviously denigrated object.
(06) Not all obscene words, of course, are as implicitly sadistic or denigrating to
women as these, but all that I know seem to serve a similar purpose: to reduce the human
organism (especially the female organism) and human functions (especially sexual and
procreative) toe their least organic, most mechanical dimension; to substitute a trivializing or
deforming resemblance for the complex human reality of what is being described.
(07) Tabooed male descriptives, when they are not openly denigrating to women, often
serve to divorce a male organ or function from any significant interaction with the female. Take
the word testes, for example, suggesting witnesses (from the Latin testis

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to the sexual and procreative strengths of the male organ; and the obscene counterpart of this
word, which suggests little more than a mechanical shape. Or compare almost any of the rich,
liberating sexual verbs, so fashionable today among male writers, with that much-derided
Latin word copulate (to bind or join together) or even that Anglo-Saxon phrase (which
seems to have had no trouble surviving the Norman conquest) make love.
(08) How arrogantly self-involved the tabooed words seem in comparison to either of
the other terms, and how contemptuous of the female partner. Understandably so, of course, if
she is only a skirt, a broad, a chick, a pussycat or a piece. If she is, in other words, no
more than her skirt, or what her skirt conceals; nor more than a breeder, or the broadest part of
her; no more than a piece of a human being or a piece of tail.
(09) The most severely tabooed of all the female descriptives, incidentally, are those
like a piece of tail, which suggests (either explicitly or through antecedents) that there is no
significant difference between the female channel through which we are all conceived and born
and the anal outlet common to both sexes a distinction that pornographers have always
enjoyed obscuring.
(10) This effort to deny women their biological identify, their individuality, their
humanness, is such an important aspect of obscene language that one can only marvel at how
seldom, in an era preoccupied with definitions of obscenity, this fact is brought to our attention.
One problem, of course, is that many of the people in the best position to do this (critics,
teachers, writers) are so reluctant today to admit that they are angered or shocked by obscenity.
Bored, maybe, unimpressed, aesthetically displeased, but no matter how brutal or denigrating
the material never angered, never shocked.
(11) And yet how eloquently angered, how piously shocked many of these same
people become if denigrating language is used about any minority group other than women; if
the obscenities are racial or ethnic, that is, rather than sexual. Words like coon, kike, spic,
wop, after all, deform identity, denote individuality and humanness in almost exactly the same
way that sexual vulgarisms and obscenities do.
(12) No one that I know, least of all my students, would fail to question the values of a
society whose literature and entertainment rested heavily on racial or ethnic perjoratives. Are the
values of a society whose literature and entertainment rest as heavily as ours on sexual
pejoratives any less questionable?


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I received the following student essay on Deep several years ago. The format the student and I
sued is the one I want you to use in your essay.

Seven Layers of Deep

Example: Deep applies to the description of a downward dimension of space. The well was
so deep that there was a long pause every time a pebble was dropped into it. From
the snow-capped mountain the earth cut deep into the valley below. The word deep
has also been used in an abstract sense to show a feeling or involvement. The man
gambled with his wealth and was now deep in debt. Deep down she knew what
had to be done. People have defined deep as something physical, concrete, and
visual to something abstract, vague, and emotional.

Negation: Deep is not shallow like a puddle or a person who has little regard for others. Deep
is not superficial like a small cut or the obvious circumstances in solving a case.
Deep is not any of these things. Rather deep has intensity like the ocean or some
literary composition a person has written with much feeling and emotion. Deep is
crucial like a severe wound or the factor that ties everything together in a criminal
case.

Explication: Deep is the relationship between a man and a woman in love. Deep is the crevasse
that the skillful mountain climber climbs over on his journey up the mountain to its
peak. Deep is the rich, ruby, red lipstick that Cleopatra wore for Marc Antony.
Deep is the trouble one little boy is going to be in when his mother sees that he
said, Yes when his pals asked if he wanted to play in the mud after school.

Etymology: The adjective form of deep meant hollow, whence dip and dump. In the adjective
form deep in Middle English was written d-e-p, which is derived from the Old
English version, d-e-o-p. The Old English version is akin to the German written t-
i-e-f, and the Gothic written d-i-u-p-s. The Gothic version was derived from the
Indo-European base (possibly) written d-h-e-u-b. In the noun form, deep was
written the same as the adjective form. In the adverb form deep in Middle-English
was written d-e-p-e, which is derived from the Old English version d-e-o-p-e.

Synonym: Deep can mean serious; young Tom had a serious infatuation for Doris, o young
Tom had a deep infatuation for Doris. Deep can also mean profound; the mayors
speech was very profound, or the mayors speech was very deep. Deep has been
used to mean intense; the man sat with a look of intense concentration on his face,
or the man sat with a look of deep concentration on his face. Deep also means
abstruse; everyone who read the book felt the plot was very abstruse, or everyone
who read the book felt the plot was very deep.

Authority: As someone once said, Still waters run deep. What is seen on the surface might
just be an illusion to what in actuality is something far greater. Scientifically
speaking waters that are still go to extreme depths, because the current, or rapid
movement dissipates through its depths. Somebody else said, Beauty is only skin-

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deep. Deep in this sense could mean the surface may be judged as beautiful or
ugly, but physically speaking people are all pretty much the same on the inside.
Also the mental and personal aspect cannot be ignored. The mental aspect pertains
to intelligent, or ignorant, whereas the personal pertains to anything from angry and
emotional to shy and timid.

Explication: The word deep has many different meanings. For example a deep cut or a deep
lake is referring to extending far downward from the top, or far from the sides or
edge. Another is the deep past referring to far off in time or space. A deep
discussion refers to intellectually profound. Often deep refers to carefully guarded
as in a deep secret. Deep love refers to strongly felt. The meanings of the
word deep go to endless depths. The size of a word has nothing to do with its use
in society.

The best kind of definition essay would use an abstract word like optimism, truth,
understanding, attention, treachery, happiness, wisdom, education, laziness, authority,
forgiveness, quality, love, lust, diligence, common sense, honesty, loyalty, courage, despair,
despondency, terror, dejection, etc.


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COMFTF05

Analysis & Classification

(01) The twin processes of analysis and classification are valuable expository techniques as
well as reasoning tools. The first part of the twin process, analysis, also called division can be
traced back to two Greek words, ana (back) and luein (to loosen). The intent of the
compound word ana luein is more at undo, such as unraveling a knot. Analysis connotes a
loosening, and untying, or a releasing. Analysis is the process of breaking something down into
elemental parts. Usually the purpose of using analysis is to separate objects or concepts into
small enough units making it possible to group like things with like things. This is also know as
classification.

(02) The process may be illustrated with the assorted mess in this picture consisting of paper
clips, rubber bands, nails, screws and other miscellaneous items. To lump them all together in
the miscellaneous knick-knack tray leads to chaos and disorder, but analysis and classification
can put order into an otherwise chaotic situation.

(03) After analysis rubber bands may be grouped with rubber bands, paper clips with paper
clips, and nails with nails. Classification is simply a sorting process finding what objects have in
common. Semanticist I. A. Richard suggested that All thinking is sorting.

(04) After a Saturday night bash in the dorm, analysis and classification may be used to clean
up this mess. Through analysis we break down the jumbled up mess into dirty dishes, food,
books and papers, clothing, beer and soft drink cans, records, and trash.

(05) By using classification we could put the records back in their jackets and into the record
cabinet. If the records were checked out from a public library, the Record Librarian would have
even a more sophisticated way to sort the records so they could be found again.

(06) If the clothes from the floor are clean they can be hung up in the closet. If the clothes are
dirty the y should be classified, like things with like things, white with white, color with color,
knits with knits, polyester with polyester.

(07) The classification process must be carefully followed so that the correct wash
temperature may be selected. The dishes can be gathered together to be washed and put away.
Classification enables a person to group like items with like items. Without classification, chaos
would turn a tranquil home environment into anarchy. If the classification system is violated, the
simplest behavior such as locating a spoon or fork would become complicated.

(08) With classification harmony is restored as every item has a specific location or seemingly
belong somewhere. Even the trash, after analysis and classification are applied to it, belong
somewhere. Some ecology-minded individuals prefer to continue analyzing and classifying

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trash. Since aluminum beer cans are worth money they can be rushed and placed into trash bags
until it becomes cost effective to drive to the recycling plant.

(09) Collecting papers can be profitable too for the person with a large storage area and a
pickup truck. Before the newspaper is recycled the reader may notice that the paper itself is a
prime example of the classification process. The news is found in one section; help wanted in
another section; stock quotations in another place; television programs in another section;
cultural events in still another section. Classification enables home owners to determine the
worth of their belongings.

(10) Supermarkets use classification to help shoppers find broad categories of groceries and
produce with the minimum of effort. The dairy section contains milk, cottage cheese and butter.
It would be absurd to find motor oil in this section, or anti-freeze. A shopper expects to find
steak, hamburger, or other fresh meats in the meat section and fresh produce in the produce
section. One would not expect to find a cleaning agent with nectarines.

(11) Most businesses could not function without the process of classification. Hardware
stores group like items with like items: bolts with bolts, nails with nails, and lumber with
lumber.

(12) An old Dean of Academic Affairs used to complain to this harried Professor that a
cluttered up desk is a sign of a cluttered up mind. The Professor took the Deans words to heart
and began to use the twin processes of analysis and classification to put his life into order. The
piles of handouts were neatly arranged by a numerical classification system and placed on
shelves for easy access. The periodicals were put away neatly in the order in which they arrived.
The books were classified according to the Library of Congress system and stacked in the
bookcase. An alternate way he could have classified the books was by the Dewey Decimal
classification.

(13) Within a few months the English Professor, by using analysis and classification, reformed
from being a slob into a model of organization and efficiency. He intends to carry the war on
chaos in to other areas of his life as well.

(14) Through classification the human being has converted chaos into order. Colors are
divided into primary and secondary. Through classification the human being has carved up
space into longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates. These imaginary lines are imposed upon the
planet to make navigation and weather predicting possible.

(15) Classification schemes are imaginary and they are imposed upon the environment from
inside the human nervous system.

(16) Beside sensory phenomena certain abstractions pertaining to human behavior can also
be analyzed and classified. Motivation has been analyzed or divided by psychologists and
educators into extrinsic and intrinsic factors.


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(17) Extrinsic motivation (behavior motivated by rewards and punishment) is easiest to
demonstrate. If the only reason this cyclist stops at the traffic light is a fear of getting a ticket he
is extrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation is harder to analyze and classify, but Jerome
Bruner did establish a classification scheme for intrinsic motivation in his Theory of
Instruction. The first factor Bruner isolated was curiosity. He states that No student ever
needed to be bribed by grades to satisfy his curiosity.

(18) The second factor in intrinsic motivation is confidence. The weight lifter, bolstered by
his ability to press 160 pounds, now is motivated to press 200 pounds. He doesnt need to be
bribed with a reward or threat.

(19) The third factor Bruner recognized was reciprocity. He observed the tendency of some
discussion groups to literally move forward by their own enthusiasm. No one has to bribe this
group with grades in order to keep this group learning.

(20) The fourth factor in intrinsic motivation Bruner recognized was imitation. He realized
that people consciously and unconsciously imitate heroes or role models. The biggest reason
why I find myself teaching English was a desire to emulate my mentor freshman English
Instructor, Dr. Calvin Israel.

(21) Anything from concrete objects to abstract concepts can be classified. Classification
systems can be placed on a continuum moving from relatively formal, or scientific, classification
to informal, or literary, classification.

(22) The scientific classification schemes such as the Periodic Table of Elements are not as apt
to cross divide categories but there are no foolproof systems. In 1729, a Swedish botanist by the
name of Lineus attempted to classify the flora and the fauna on a supertaxonomy. Lineus
identified family, genus and species.

(23) Usually the categories were relative air tight. But occasionally the unifying principle
would break down. The euglina, for example, has characteristics of both plants and animals
like the plant it manufactures food by photosynthesis; like the animal, it is self-propelled.

(24) All classification systems from the formal, or scientific to the informal, or literary,
establish coordinate and subordinate relationships. Coordinate relationships are those
identifying equal rank or importance. Subordinate relationships identify sub-categories or
levels or specificity. Orange juice and tomato juice are coordinated to each other, but
subordinated to juice or beverage.

(25) Calcium chloride and sodium chloride are coordinated to each other, but subordinated to
chloride and compounds. The descending levels of specificity form a ladder of abstraction. The
basis of classification relies on similarities and differences.

(26) It is necessary for the human nervous system to do both to see similarities and
differences. We generalize (abstract) or see similarities when we look at a parking lot and make

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a generalization automobile to all the different vehicles in the lot. Otherwise it would be
necessary to find a separate classification system for Grand Prix, Subaru, or VW Dune Buggy.

The ladder of abstraction within the human nervous system enables the individual to form
categories.

(27) The categories are formed on the basis of a unifying principle. The unifying principle
identifies the means by which two or more items are found to be alike.

(28) Within this group of students an observer may notice several different unifying
principles. One unifying principle could be formed on the basis of gender. Another unifying
principle could be based upon clothing. An obvious differentiation here could be based upon
formal or informal. Glasses or no glasses provides another unifying principle. Hair color is the
basis for another unifying principle. Another obvious system of classification uses skin
pigmentation for a unifying principle.

(29) The same items may be grouped in a number of ways by using different points of
similarities as a basis for classification. On your worksheet identify the unifying principle in this
pair or words:
Meadowlarks, Orioles

Birds would be the logical unifying principle here.

(30) What is the basis of classification here?
Congressmen, Senators

Politicians or statesmen.

(31) What is the unifying principle in this set of items?
Elephants, Tigers

Jungle animals would be the logical choice.

(32) What is the unifying principle in this pair of words?
Fairies, Angels

Perhaps celestial beings.

(33) What is the unifying principle in this set of items?
Wigwams, Indians

Things pertaining to Indian culture would probably be the best answer.

(34) And finally, what is the unifying principle in the bottom set of words?
Triplets, Twins


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Multiple births would be the best choice.
(35) Now consider these items in the vertical column.
Orioles
Senators
Tigers
Angels
Indians
Twins

Baseball teams provide the unifying principle in this set.

(36) On your worksheet, identify the word, item or concept which violates the unifying
principle in this list:
Books into novels, Collection of Poems, Collections of Short Stories,
Leather-bound books, Collection of Plays, Histories, Textbooks

Leather bound books is out of place because the type of cover is cross divided with kinds
of literature.

(37) Identify the item which violates the unifying principle in this list.
Shoes into leather shoes, canvas shoes, horseshoes

The first two refer to human shoes while the last one pertains to animal. That one is out
of place. An easy one to keep up the morale.

(38) Identify the item which violates the unifying principle in this list:
Dresses into evening dresses, afternoon dresses, sports dresses,
cotton dresses, dinner dresses

Cotton dresses referring to a unifying principle based on fabric is out of place with a set
of dresses classified according to occasion.

(39) To summarize, analysis and classification are fundamental processes in reasoning and
expository writing.

1. Its purpose is to separate items into small enough units to allow grouping into similar
categories.
2. Classification establishes coordinate and subordinate relationships.
3. Classification schemes can be arranged on a formal to informal continuum.
4. The basis of classification relies on similarities and differences forming a ladder of
abstraction.
5. Items are classified on the basis of the unifying principle which should not be violated.
6. And most importantly, through analysis and classification, chaos can be defeated and
order can be put back into ones life.


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Study Questions
for Analysis & Classification

1. What is the etymology of the term analysis? (01)

2. What is the purpose of analysis? (01)

3. What is another way to describe the classification process? (03)

4. How can analysis and classification help to clean up a mess? (04)

5. How can a newspaper be a prime example of a classification process? (09)

6. How does a supermarket illustrate examples of classification systems? (10)

7. How do businesses use the process of classification? (11)

8. Identify some classification systems imposed on the environment by human beings. (14)

9. Identify an abstract concept which can be analyzed and classified. (16)

10. What is the difference between a formal or scientific and an informal or literary
classification system? (22) (24)

11. What is the difference between a subordinate and coordinate relationship? (24)

12. Why do we need to generalize or abstract? (26)

13. What does the ladder of abstraction within our nervous system enable us to do? (26)

14. What exactly is a unifying principle? (27)

15. What are the six major concepts in this unit on analysis and classification? (39)


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Writing Suggestions for
Analysis and Classification

Use analysis and classification (into at least three categories) as your basic method of analyzing
one of the following subjects from an interesting point of view. (Your instructor may have good
reason to place limitations on your choice of subject.) Narrow the topic as necessary to enable
you to do a thorough job.

1. College students
2. College teachers
3. Athletes
4. Coaches
5. Salespeople
6. Hunters (or fishers)
7. Parents
8. Drug users
9. Police officers
10. Summer (or part-time) jobs
11. Sailing vessels
12. Game show hosts
13. Friends
14. Careers
15. Horses (or other animals)
16. Television programs
17. Motivations for study
18. Methods of studying for exams
19. Lies
20. Selling techniques
21. Tastes in clothes
22. Contemporary music or films
23. Love
24. Ways to spend money
25. Attitudes toward life
26. Fast foods (or junk foods)
27. Smokers
28. Investments
29. Actors
30. Books or magazines


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Can People Be Judged by Their Appearance?
By Eric Berne

(01) Everyone knows that a human being, like a chicken, comes from an egg. At a very early
stage, the human embryo forms a three-layered tube, the inside layer of which grows into the
stomach and lungs, the middle layer into bones, muscles, joints, and blood vessels, and the
outside layer into the skin and nervous system.
(02) Usually these three grow about equally, so that the average human being is a fair mixture
of brains, muscles, and inward organs. In some eggs, however, one layer grows more than the
others, and when the angels have finished putting the child together, he may have more gut than
brain, or more brain than muscle. When this happens, the individuals activities will often be
mostly with the overgrown layer.
(03) We can thus say that while the average human being is a mixture, some people are
mainly digestion-minded, some muscle-minded, and some brain-minded, and
correspondingly digestion-bodies, muscle-bodied people look wide; and the brain-bodied people
look long. This does not mean the taller a man is the brainier he will be. It means, that is a man,
even a short man, looks long rather than wide or think, he will often be more concerned about
what goes on in hi mind than about what he does or what he eats; but the key factor is
slenderness and not height. On the other hand, a man who gives the impression of being thick
rather than long or wide will usually be more interested in a good steak than in a good idea or a
good long walk.
(04) Medical men use Greek words to describe these types of body-build. For the man whose
body shape mostly depends on the inside layer of the egg, they sue the word endomorph. If it
depends mostly upon the middle layer, they call him a mesomorph. If it depends mostly upon
the outside layer, they call him an ectomorph. We can see the same roots in our English words
enter, medium, and exit, which might just as easily have been spelled ender, mesium,
and ectit.
(05) Since the inside skin of the human egg, or endoderm, forms the inner organs of the belly,
the viscera, the endomorph is usually belly-minded; since the middle skin forms the body
tissues, or soma, the mesomorph is usually muscle-minded; and since the outside skin forms the
brain, or cerebrum, the ectomorph is usually brain minded. Translating this into Greek, we have
the viscerotonic endomorph, the somatotonic mesomorph, and the cerebrotonic ectomorph.
(06) Words are beautiful things to a cerebrotonic, but a viscerotonic knows you cannot eat a
menu no matter what language it is printed in, and somatotonic knows you cannot increase your
chest expansion by reading a dictionary. So it is advisable to leave these words and see what
kinds of people they actually apply to, remembering again that most individuals are fairly equal
mixtures and that what we have to say concerns only the extremes. Up to the present, these types
have been thoroughly studied only in the male sex.

(07) Viscerotonic Endomorph. If a man is definitely a thick type rather than a broad or long
type, he is likely to be round and soft, with a big chest but a bigger belly. He would rather eat
than breathe comfortably. He is likely to have a wide face, short, thick neck, big thighs and
upper arms, and small hands and feet. he has overdeveloped breasts and looks as though he
were blown up a little like a balloon. His skin is soft and smooth, and when he gets bald, as he
does usually quite early, he loses his hair in the middle of his head first.

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(08) The short, jolly, thickset, red-faced politician with a cigar in his mouth, who always looks
as though he were about to have a stroke, is the best example of this type. The reason he often
makes a good politician is that he likes people, banquets, baths, and sleep; he is easygoing,
soothing, and his feelings are easy to understand.
(09) His abdomen is big because he has lots of intestines. He likes to take in things. He likes
to take in food, and affection and approval as well. Going to a banquet with people who like him
is his idea of a fine time. It is important for a psychiatrist to understand the natures of such men
when they come to him for advice.

(10) Somototonic Mesomorph. If a man definitely a broad type rather than a thick or long
type, he is likely to be rugged and have lots of muscle. He is apt to have big forearms and legs,
and his chest and belly are well formed and firm, with the chest bigger than the belly. He would
rather breathe than eat. He has a bony head, big shoulders, and a square jaw. His skin is thick ,
coarse, and elastic, and tans easily. If he gets bald, it usually starts on the front of the head.
(11) Dick Tracy, Lil Abner, and other men of action belong to this type. Such people make
good lifeguards and construction workers. They like to put out energy. They have lots of
muscles and they like to use them up. They go in for adventure, exercise, fighting, and getting
the upper hand. They are bold and unrestrained, and love to master the people and things around
them. If the psychiatrist knows the things which give such people satisfaction, he is able to
understand why they may be unhappy in certain situations.

(12) Cerebrotonic Ectomorph. The man who is definitely a long type is likely to have thin
bones and muscles. His shoulders re apt to sag and he has a flat belly with a dropped stomach,
and long, weak legs. His neck and fingers re long, and his fact is shaped like a long egg. His
skin is thin, dry, and pale, and he rarely gets bald. He looks like an absent-minded professor and
often is one.
(13) Though such people are jumpy, they like to keep their energy and dont fancy moving
around much. They would rather sit quietly by themselves and keep out of difficulties. Trouble
upsets them, and they run away from it. Their friends dont understand them very well. They
move jerkily and feel jerkily. The psychiatrist who understands how easily they become anxious
is often able to help them get along better in the sociable and aggressive world of endomorphs
and mesomorphs.

(14) In the special cases where people definitely belong to one type or another, then, one can
tell a good deal about their personalities from their appearance. When the human mind is
engaged in one of its struggles with itself or with the world outside, the individuals way of
handling the struggle will be partly determined by his type. If he is viscerotonic he will of ten
want to go to a party where he can eat and drink and be in good company at a time when he
might be better off attending to business; the somatotonic will want to go out and do something
about it, master the situation, even if what he does if foolish and not properly figured out, while
the cerebrotonic will go off by himself and think it over, when perhaps he would be better off
doing something about it and seeking good company to try to forget it.
(15) Since these personality characteristics depend on the growth of the layers of the little egg
from which the person developed, they are very difficult to change. Nevertheless, it is important
for the individual to know about these types, so that he can have at least an inkling of what to
expect from those around him, and can make allowances for the different kinds of human nature,

57

and so that he can become aware of and learn to control his own natural tendencies, which may
sometimes guide him into making the same mistakes over and over again in handling his
difficulties.


58

(Viscerotonic) (Somatotoic) (Cerebrotonic)
Endomorph Mesomorph Ectomorph

General Appearance Fat Muscular Skinny
(Slender)

How Look Thick Wide Long

How Minded Digestion-minded Muscle-minded Brain-minded

Motivation Concerned about Concerned about Concerned about
(pg. 5) what he eats lifting weights what he reads

Which layer of Inside layer Middle layer Outside layer
egg developed from (Yolk) (Egg White) (Shell)

Orientation Would rather Would rather
eat than breathe breathe than eat

Physical Big belly Big forearms Thin bones
Characteristics Wide face legs shoulder sags
Looks blown up Bony head Flat belly/dropped
like a balloon Square jaw long egg
Skin smooth, soft skin thick, coarse skin thin, dry, pale
tans easily

Where goes bald Loses hair Balding starts Rarely gets bald
middle of head on front of head

Character Short/jolly/thickset Dick Tracy Wally Cox
Politician Lil Abner Barney Fife

What he likes People, banquets

Professions Politician Construction Librarian
Sales Policeman Scientists, etc.


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William Sheldons theory of Constitutional Psychology; body structure influences temperament
and behavior. Individual are thought to have a combination of all three types but one type
predominates.

1. Endomorph
usually fat, soft in shape
large stomachs, large livers
love of physical comfort and relaxation
loves people
loves good food
tolerant, lives and lets live
sleeps easily, deeply and long

school children: Usually good natured, friendly, sociable
not particularly competitive
do not care about being outstanding
do not try as hard to get good grades as their parents
and teachers think they should

2. Mesomorph
big bones, well-developed heart and circulatory system
heavy muscles, hard, firm
relatively strong
energetic; need for and enjoyment of exercise; athletic
competitive
loves to dominate

EXTREME MESOMORPH: RUTHLESS

school children: Usually get along well with other children but as
leader, not a follower
tend to be highly competitive; good at and much interested
in competitive sports
good posture
discipline may be a problem in school since, especially in the
earlier
grades, he finds it hart to sit still for long periods of time

3. Ectomorph
think, fragile looking, linear
poorly muscled arms and legs
flat chest
extrasensitive to noise and people
introvert; works best alone
tightness in movement
apprehensive; uncomfortable in large crowds

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school children: immature for his age compared to other children
not too sociable or athletic
shrinks from ordinary school functions
attentive; overly fast reactions
often interested in and good at academic activities
(strong possibility that this type may be placed in school too early)


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#COMFTF06
Comparison and Contract

(01) In the comparison and contrast essay, the writer cites similarities and differences,
showing for instance how: two places, two person, two ideas, and two situations resemble or
differ from each other. The comparison and contrast essay differs from the analogy in that the
comparison is literal and not figurative. (Oranges are compared to oranges rather than the sun or
to gold.)
(02) Generally the writer recognizes three kinds of purposes for which the comparison and
contrast may be made:
(03) 1. We may wish to present information about one item and may attempt to do so by
relating it to another item which our audience is familiar. A high school graduate should have a
fair knowledge of the United Sates Congress, but may feel unsure about the British or Canadian
parliament, or the Israeli Knesset. Our knowledge of the American Congress will help us to
understand the more unfamiliar characteristics of the British Parliament. We may have some
knowledge about the domesticated hog, but very little knowledge of the Arkansas Razorback or
the South American Peccary. Again, we use the familiar to help us explain the unfamiliar.
(04) 2. We may wish to inform about both items proceeding to do so by treating them in
relationship to some general unifying principle which would apply to both and with our
audience is familiar. For example, we could take two novels: Conrads The Secret Sharer and
Baldwins Go Tell It On the Mountain, comparing the two novels to a principle or principles of
fiction, such as theme, plot, imagery, character, etc.
(05) 3. We may compare and contrast items with which our audience is familiar for the
purpose of informing about some general principle. If you wanted to compare Christianity and
Buddhism or perhaps Islam, you might want to set up the following structure:

Belief in Deity
A. Islam
B. Christianity

Belief in Afterlife
A. Islam
B. Christianity

Approach to God
A. Islam
B. Christianity

Beliefs about punishment and retribution
A. Islam
B. Christianity

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(06) We can only have significance in comparison and contrast if we recognize some common
ground between the things contrasted. A writer must explain what the elements have in common
and how they differ.

Four Ways of Presenting Material Using Comparison and Contrast

(07) 1. The writer may fully present one item and then fully present the other, making
continuous references to the points of comparison and contrast. When the two points are fairly
obvious (such as the contrast between the Pharisee and Publican) this method is appropriate. The
organizational structure shows a simple A/B pattern.
(08) 2. In the second pattern, we present a part of one item and then a part of the second in
relation to the corresponding part of the first item, until we have touched on all the relevant parts.
This method is most useful when a great many details are involved.

Communism/Capitalism
A1/B1
A2/B2
A3/B3
A4/B4

(09) 3. We may present one item fully, and then, in presenting the second, refer, part by part,
to the first item which has been fully developed. In the Bruce Catton story Grant and Lee, this
method of organization seems to predominate:

A/
B1
B2
B3
B4

(10) 4. In the fourth method, when general principles re involved, the writer can move from a
statement of principle to the process of comparison and contrast, or reversing the method, move
through the process toward the principle. In Cattons story, paragraphs 14 and 15 illustrate this
process.

X
A/B
Y
A/B
Z
A/B

Four Guides for Writing a Paragraph of Comparison

(11) 1. Select as subjects for comparison two or more members of the same general class. If
your purpose is to explain something unfamiliar, compare it to a well-known thing of its kind.

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Example: Well known - U. S. Congress
Less knows - British Parliament

(12) 2. Select for specific comparisons the main features (the main unifying principles) which
the two subjects have in common:
A. Number of Houses
U.S. - 2 Senate / House of Representatives
British - 2 House of Lords / House of Commons
B. Membership
U.S. Senate: Geographical Region
House of Representatives: Population Density
British: House of Lords: Nobility
House of Commons: Population Density
C. Number of Parties - generally 2 major ones:
U.S. Republican / Democrat
British: Conservative / Labor
(13) It is to the writers advantage to integrate the discussion by comparing the features one by
one. Dont describe the British Parliament as one topic and the U.S. Congress as another topic.
(14) 3. Point out any characteristics that are unique in one or the other of the subjects being
compared. For example, in the House of Lords, the members (aristocrats) receive the
appointments for life, but they do not have the power that the U.S. Senate has.
(15) 4. Select the arrangement that will provide the highest degree of coherence and the most
appropriate emphasis. Common alternatives include:
A. Grouping together the features that have the greatest similarities.
B. Then grouping those which have the greatest differences.
C. Reversing A and B.
D. Discussing those features in climatic order (from greatest to the least or from least to
the greatest) regardless of the amount of resemblance or difference.

(16) Possible Topics for Comparison/Contrast Essay

Magna Carta/Constitution
Catholicism/Protestantism
Two People you know
Poor relatives/Rich relatives
Jack Uptight/Joe Downloose
Schools for Men (or Women) only/Coed Schools
A students life at home and in a dormitory
My mothers temperament / my fathers temperament
Nicotine/Alcohol
Liberal Arts Education/Scientific Education

Comparison/Contrast Guidelines & Lesson Plan
(16) Keep in mind that with a Comparison/Contrast essay you may either focus on comparing
your chosen topic, contrasting them, or both. The choice is yours.

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(17) Comparison/Contrast essays can answer several questions.
Is X better than Y?
How are X and Y similar or alike?
How are X and Y different?
How are X and Y both similar and different?
(18) Be sure your essay attempts to answer the above four questions. It is a good idea to
summarily express the answer to the questions of your choice as your thesis statement.

(19) Keep These Points in Mind
Only similar items can be compared or contrasted.
The Comparison/Contrast must rest on a clear definite basis which his best expressed in the
thesis.
The Comparison/Contrast must show likenesses and difference in order to make a point.
Both parts of comparison contrast receive roughly equal treatment-within and among the
separate points.
The comparison/contrast must be supported and clarified through examples.
The comparison/contrast must follow either a block or point-by-point pattern. The key is to
be consistent with the pattern of development.
With Point-by-Point Pattern of Development, you have the choice of each point being a
separate paragraph or having each compared/contrasted point combined into a paragraph
With the Block Pattern of Development, again each separate point may be its own paragraph,
or all of the points on each side of the comparison/contrast may be a single paragraph.

(20) Comparison/Contrast Planning Sheet

1. What two items are being compared and contrasted in this paper?

2. Who is the audience for this paper?

3. List three to five similarities and three to five differences in the two items being
compared and contrasted.

Similarities:

Differences


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4. Write down the order in which the similarities and differences will be discussed.
5. Choose one of the two basic outlining patterns which follows

Comparison/Contrast Outlining Formats

(21) Block Format

I. Introduction (Introduce to your audience the two subjects being discussed in this piece,
giving any necessary description of the items. Include in your introduction the bases of
comparison/contrast (the unifying principle) by which the items will be analyzed.

II. Body
A. Subject 1
1. Point A
2. Point B
3. Point C

B. Subject 2
1. Point A
2. Point B
3. Point C

III. Conclusion (The conclusion comments on the findings of the analysis, summarizing the
main points and sometimes insinuating the writers bias based on the findings.)

(22) Alternating Block (Point-by-Point)

I. Introduction (Sam as Block Style)

II. Body
A. Point A
1. Subject A
2. Subject B
B. Point B
1. Subject A
2. Subject B
C. Point C
1. Subject A
2. Subject B

III. Conclusion (Same as Block Style)


67

Selected Study Questions for the Comparison / Contrast Unit
Dr. David F. Maas

1. What exactly does the writer do in the comparison/contrast essay? (01)
2. In what respect does the comparison/contrast essay differ from the analogy essay? (01)
3. Identify and describe three kinds of purposes for which comparison/contrast may be
made.
(03) (04) (05)
4. How can comparison and contrast have any use as an exercise? (06)
5. When is the appropriate time to use the simple A/B pattern? (07)
6. When is the A1/B1 pattern most appropriate? (08)
7. How does the A/B 1 pattern different from the A1B1 pattern? (09)
8. When does the writer select the X/a/b pattern? (10)
9. If the writer selects two objects for comparison, what must he do to make the message
clear for the reader? (11)
10. What should the writer select as the main features of comparison between the two items?
(12)
11. What technique should the writer sue to gain the maximum advantage?
12. In what context can the uniqueness be discussed in the comparison/contrast essay? (14)
13. Identify three possible alternatives of emphasis in a comparison/contrast essay? (15)
14. Identify four questions comparison/contrast essays can answer. (17)
15. How is the Point by Point pattern of development different from the Block pattern of
development? (19)

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Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts

Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts was written as a chapter of The American Story, a
collection of essays by noted historians. In this study, as in most of his other writing, Catton
does more than recount the facts of history: he shows the significance within them. It is a
carefully constructed essay, using contrast and comparison as the entire framework for his
explanation.

1 When Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in the parlor of a modest house at
Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865, to work out the terms for the surrender of
Lees army of Northern Virginia, a great chapter in American life came to a close, and a great
new chapter began.

2 These men were bringing the Civil War to its virtual finish. To be sure, other armies had
yet to surrender, and for a few days the fugitive Confederate government would struggle
desperately and vainly, trying to find some way to go on living now that its chief support was
gone. But in effect it was all over when Grant and Lee signed the papers. And the little room
where they wrote out the terms was the scene of one of the poignant, dramatic contrasts in
American History.

3 They were two strong men, these oddly different generals, and they represented the
strengths of two conflicting currents that, through them, had come into final collision.

4 Back of Robert E. Lee was the notion that the old aristocratic concept might somehow
survive and be dominant in American life.

5 Lee was tidewter Virginia, and in his background were family, culture, and tradition . . .
the age of chivalry transplanted to a New World which was making its own legends and its own
myths. He embodied a way of life that had come down through the age of knighthood and the
English country squire. America was a land that was beginning all over again, dedicated to
nothing much more complicated than the rather hazy belief that all men had equal rights and
should have an equal chance in the world. In such a land Lee stood for the feeling that it was
somehow of advantage to human society to have a pronounced inequality in the social structure.
There should be a leisure class, backed by ownership of land; in turn, society itself should be
keyed to the land as the chief source of wealth and influence. It would bring forth (according to
this ideal) a class of men with a strong sense of obligation to the community; men who lived not
to gain advantage for themselves, but to meet the solemn obligations which had been laid on
them by the very fact that they were privileged. From them the country would get its leadership;
to them it could look for the higher values - of thought, of conduct, of personal deportment - to
give it strength and virtue.

6 Lee embodied the noblest elements of this aristocratic idea. Through him the landed
nobility justified itself. For four years, the Southern states had fought a desperate war to uphold
the ideals for which Lee stood. In the end, it almost seemed as if the Confederacy fought for
Lee; as if he himself was the Confederacy . . . the best thing that the way of life for which the
Confederacy stood could ever have to offer. He had passed into legend before Appomattox.

69

Thousands of tired, underfed, poorly clothed Confederate soldiers, long since past the simple
enthusiasm of the early days of the struggle, somehow considered Lee the symbol of everything
for which they had been willing to die. But they could not quite put this feeling into words. If
the Lost Cause, sanctified by so much heroism and so many deaths, had a living justification, its
justification was General Lee.

7 Grant, the son of a tanner on the Western frontier, was everything Lee was not. He had
come up the hard way and embodied nothing in particular except the eternal toughness and
sinewy fiber of the men who grew up beyond the mountains. He was one of a body of men who
owned reverence and obeisance to no one, who were self-reliant to a fault, who cared hardly
anything for the past but who had a sharp eye for the future.

8 These frontier men were the precise opposites of the tidewater aristocrats. Back of them,
in the great surge that had taken people over the Alleghenies and into the opening Western
country, there was a deep implicit dissatisfaction with a past that had settled into groves. They
stood for democracy, not from any reasoned conclusion about the proper ordering of human
society, but simply because they had grown up in the middle of democracy and knew how it
worked. Their society might have privileges, but they would be privileges each man had won for
himself. Forms and patterns meant nothing. No man was born to anything, except perhaps to a
change to show how far he could rise. Life was competition.

9 Yet along with this feeling had come a deep sense of belonging to a national community.
The Westerner who developed a far, opened a shop, or set up in business as a trader, could hope
to prosper only as his own community prospered -- and his community ran from the Atlantic to
the Pacific and from Canada down to Mexico. If the land was settled, with towns and highways
and accessible markets, he could better himself. He saw his fate in terms of the nations own
destiny. As its horizons expanded, so did his. He had, in other words, an acute dollars-and-cents
stake in the continued growth and development of his country.

10 An that, perhaps, is where the contrast between Grant and Lee becomes most striking.
The Virginia aristocrat, inevitably, saw himself in relations to his own region. He lived in a
static society which could endure almost anything except change. Instinctively, his first loyalty
would go to the locality in which that society existed. He would fight to the limit of endurance
to defend it, because in defending it he was defending everything that gave his own life its
deepest meaning.

11 The Westerner, on the other hand, would fight with an equal tenacity for the broader
concept of society. He fought so because everything he lived by was tied to growth, expansion,
and a constantly widening horizon. What he lived by would survive or fall with the nation itself.
He could not possibly stand by unmoved in the face of an attempt to destroy the Union. He
would combat it with everything he had, because he could only see it as an effort to cut the
ground out from under his feet.

12 So Grant and Lee were in complete contrast, representing two diametrically opposed
elements in American life. Grant was the modern man emerging; beyond him ready to come on
the stage, was the great age of steel and machinery, of crowded cities and a restless burgeoning

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vitality. Lee might have ridden down from the old age of chivalry, lance in hand, silken banner
fluttering over his head. Each man was the perfect champion of his cause, drawing both his
strengths and weaknesses from the people he led.

13 Yet it was not all contrast, after all. Different as they were - in background, in
personality, in under lying aspiration - these two great soldiers had much in common. Under
everything else, they were marvelous fighters. Furthermore, their fighting qualities were really
very much alike.

14 Each man had, to begin with, the great virtue of utter tenacity and fidelity. Grant fought
his way down the Mississippi Valley in spite of acute personal discouragement and profound
military handicaps. Lee hung on in the trenches at Petersburg after hope itself had died. In each
man there was an indomitable quality . . . the born fighters refusal to give up as long as he can
still remain on his feet and lift his two fists.

15 Daring and resourcefulness they had, too; the ability to think faster and move faster than
the enemy. These were the qualities which gave Lee the dazzling campaigns of Second
Manassas and Chancellorsville and won Vicksburg for Grant.

16 Lastly, and perhaps greatest of all, there was the ability, at the end, to turn quickly from
war to peace once the fighting was over. Out of the way these two men behaved at Appomattox
came the possibility of a peace of reconciliation. It was a possibility not wholly realized, in the
years to come, but which did, in the end, help the two sections to become one nation again . .
.after a war whose bitterness might have seemed to make such a reunion wholly impossible. No
part of either mans life became him more than the part he played in their brief meeting in the
McLean house at Appomattox. Their behavior there put all succeeding generations of
Americans in their debt. Two great Americans, Grant and Lee - very different, yet under
everything very much alike. Their encounter at Appomattox was one of the great moments of
American history.


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COMFTF-07
Composition : First Things First
The Analogy
Dr. David F. Maas

(01) The analogy is a special version of the Comparison or Comparison/Contrast
essay. The analogy is a variety of metaphoractually a metaphor which teaches a
lesson. Dr. Maas defines a metaphor as a comparison in which the characteristics,
properties, and structure of something we can see become projected upon
something we cant see. The metaphor or analogy is a figurative comparison in
which two things being compared are not of the same general class.
(02) A person, for example, could be compared to a mechanical device, a plant,
or an animal. A storm is not compared to another storm, but rather a war or a wild
party. The Psalmist David compares God to a rock, a fortress, or a shield.
(03) One way to understand the analogy is to consider that invariably two things
are being compared in structure of form and function. Two things in some respect
look alike or two things in some respect work alike. The human being and a
gorilla, or the human being and the chicken share certain physiological similarities.
The human heart and the clock share certain mechanical similarities.
(04) I. A. Richards has suggested that every analogical expression or metaphor has
two components. The tenorwhich is the content of the message, and the
vehiclethe device which conveys the content. The relationship between tenor
and vehicle can be explained by these parallels:
(05) Tenor: Vehicle
Underling message: Image or picture used to explain
Intangible: Tangible
Abstract: Concrete
Spiritual: Physical
Invisible: Visible

He only is my rock and salvation. (Psalm 62:2)
Tenor= permanence, strength: Vehicle= Rock
(06) One should remember that we do not use the analogy to prove anything, but
only to clarify or help the reader form a picture.
(07) Here are a few reminders for writing a sustained analogy:
1. The student should select from a different general class a second subject
with which the reader is already familiar, having enough real similarities to make a
logical analogy or figurative comparison possible.


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2. As in the comparison/ contrast essay, the student will explain one by one
the strange or complex features of the unfamiliar subject by stating or clearly
implying how they resemble the corresponding but well-known or simple features
of the familiar subject.

3. The student should arrange the points in the sequence that is best suited to
the subject matter. (Notice that in the following analogy between the
economic system and the stagecoach, the author moves from driver to team
to passengers and then back and forth several times between passenger and
team, a logical arrangement since the driver, hunger, is permanently situated
but the passengers and the team, the rich and the poor are not.) ( From
Ralph Bellamy Looking Backward)

(08) By way of attempting to give the reader some general impression of the way
people lived together in those days (in 1887), and especially of the relations of the
rich and poor to one another, perhaps I cannot do better than to compare society as
it then was to a prodigious coach which the masses of humanity were harnessed
to and dragged toilsomely along a very hilly and sandy road. The driver was
hunger, and permitted no lagging, though the pace was necessarily slow. Despite
the difficulty of drawing the coach at al along so hard a road, the top was covered
with passengers who never got down, even at the steepest ascents.
(09) These seats on the top were very breezy and comfortable. Well up out of the
dust, their occupants could enjoy the scenery at their leisure, or critically
discuss the merits of the straining team. Naturally such places were in great
demand and the competition was keen, every one seeking as the first end in life to
secure a seat on the coach for himself and to leave it to his child after him. By the
rule of the coach a man could leave his seat to whom he wished,but on the other
hand, there were many accidents by which it might at any time be wholly lost. For
all that they were so easy, the seats were very insecure, and at every sudden
jolt of the coach persons were slipping out of them and falling to the ground, where
they were instantly compelled to take hold of the rope and help to drag the coach
on which they had before ridden so pleasantly> It was naturally regarded as a
terrible misfortune to lose ones seat, and the apprehension that this might
happen to them or their friends was a constant cloud upon the happiness of those
who rode.

Baseballs Versus Basketballs

(10) Dr. Donald Ward, former president of Ambassador University, often used
the analogy of the baseball as compared to as a basketball. The baseball, which

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resembles the character ethic, has a firm core, a hard rubber center, which he
compared to Gods Law. Upon this foundational core, layer upon layer of
string (representing the curriculum) became wrapped around the core in 15 week
semester strips. The horsehide cover he compares to the personalitywhich
comes on last and is firmly stitched to the curriculum and the essential core which
represents Gods Moral and Ethical law.
(11) The personality ethic he represents as a basketballinflated, vain, and
ostentatious, supported by nothing but hot air. Contrasting the results of the
personality ethic with the character ethic with the character ethic, Stephen
Covey warns, If our words and actions come from superficial human relations
techniques (the personality ethic) rather than from our core (the character ethic)
others will sense that duplicity.

Etymology of Sincere

(12) Sometimes we use the term sincere as a synonym for the words
goodness or genuine. Sincere has an interesting etymology. Over the years
I have heard two stories which illustrate the term. Two Latin words: sin,
meaning without and cerus, meaning wax make up the composite terms.

(13) One story illustrating the concept involves a pottery vendor who seals up the
cracks with cerus or wax to cover up the flaws. The other story involves
marble columns whose flaws became masked with resin, pitch, or a type of
wax. In both examples, the artisan intended to deceive by concealing the cracks or
fissures with cerus, wax, or paraffin. Sincere, on the other hand, means having
nothing to hidepure from the inside out. Insincere suggests that someone has
attempted to cover up or conceal a flaw, making something appear quality when
it, in truth, has abundant flaws.

How to Read a Book
Mortimer Adler

(14) Let me use the example of baseball. Catching the ball is just as much an
activity as pitching or hitting it. The pitcher or batter is the giver here in the sense
that his activity initiates the motion of the ball. The catcher or fielder is the
receiver in the sense that his activity terminates it. Both are equally active, though
the activities are distinctly different. If anything is passive here, it is the ball; it is
pitched and caught. It is the inert thing which is put in motion and stopped,
whereas the living men are active, moving to pitch, hit, or catch. The analogy with
writing and reading is almost perfect. The thing which is read, like the ball, is the

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passive object in some way common to the two activities which begin and
terminate the process.

Writing Assignment

(15) Select an analogy-symbol from the following list and fashion a worthwhile
theme that it can illustrate. Develop your essay on the same type of outline as the
comparison/contrast essay in COMFTF-05.

1. A freeway at commuting time
2. Building a road through a wilderness
3. Building a bridge across a river.
4. A merry-go-round
5. A wedding
6. A car-wash
7. Flood destruction of a levee
8. The tending of a young orchard
9. An animal stalking prey
10. A medical clinic
11. A juggling act
12. An oasis

(16) This list is only given as a suggestion of the kinds of topics that could work
as analogy essays. You may use any analogical symbol you desire.

Study Questions for COMFTF-06 (The Analogy Essay)
Dr. David F. Maas

1. How can we describe an analogy? (01)
2. Define the term Metaphor. (01)
3. What kind of items may be compared in an analogy? (02)
4. How does an analogy work? (03)
5. Identify the two components which I. A. Richards suggest compromise every
analogy. (04)
6. Define the term tenor as applied to metaphor or analogy. (04)
7. Define the term vehicle as applied to metaphor or analogy. (04)
8. Using the tenor: vehicle relationship, finding other relationships which could be
used to explain the tenor: vehicle relationship. (05)
9. Illustrate tenor: vehicle relationships in the Psalms. (05)

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10. What is the purpose of a metaphor or analogy? (06)
11. Identify and describe three reminders for writing a sustained analogy. (07)
12. Locate the tenor and vehicle in the stagecoach analogy in paragraphs 08-09.
13. Locate the tenor and vehicle in the baseball/basketball analogy in paragraphs
10-11.
14. Locate the tenor and vehicle in the etymology for the word sincere in
paragraphs 12-13
15. Identify the tenor and vehicle in the pitcher/catcher analogy in paragraph 14

Metaphor Analysis Worksheet
By David F. Maas

In the following passages of poetry, locate the:
Vehicle (Image)
Tenor (Underlying Message)
Grounds of Comparison

1. Psalm 1:3 - He is like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its
fruit in season.

Vehicle:
Tenor:
Grounds of Comparison:

2. Psalm 1:4 Not so are the wicked! They are like chaff that the wind blows
away.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

3. Psalm 2:12-for his wrath can flare up in a moment.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

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4. Psalm 3:3- But you are a shield around me, o Lord;

Vehicle:
Tenor:

5. Psalm 4:6- But let the light of your face shine upon us, O Lord.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

6. Psalm 5:9- Their throat is an open grave; with their tongue they speak deceit.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

7. Psalm 7:2- or they will tear me like a lion and rip me to pieces with no one
to rescue me.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

8. Psalm 7:15- He who digs a hole and scoops it out, falls into the pit he has
made.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

9. Psalm 8:5- You made him a little lower than the heavenly beings, and
crowned him with glory and honor.

Vehicle:
Tenor:
Vehicle:


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10. Psalm 9:6- You have uprooted their cities, even the memory of them has
perished.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

11. Psalm 9:9- The Lord is a refuge for the oppressed, a stronghold in times of
trouble.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

12. Psalm 9:13- Have mercy and lift me up from the gates of death.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

13. Psalm 9:15(a) - The nations have fallen into the pit they have dug.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

14. Psalm 9:15(b)-their feet are caught in the net they have hidden.

Vehicle:
Tenor:

15. Psalm 9:16- The wicked are ensnared by the work of their hands.

Vehicle:
Tenor:


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O Rotten Gotham-
Sliding Down into the Behavioral Sink
Tom Wolfe
O Rotten Gotham- Sliding into the Behavioral Sink, as used here, is excerpted
from a longer selection by that title in Wolfes book The Pump House Gang
(1968). Here, as he frequently does, the author investigates an important aspect of
modern life, seriously, but in his characteristic and seemingly freewheeling style. It
is a style that is sometimes ridiculed by scholars but is far more often admired.
(Wolfe, as the serious student can discover for himself, is always in complete
control of his materials and methods, using them to create certain effects, to
reinforce his ideas.) In this piece, his analogy is particularly noteworthy for the
extensive usage he is able to get from it.

1. I just spent two days with Edward T. Hall, an anthropologist, watching
thousands of my fellow New Yorkers short-circuiting themselves into hot little
twitching death balls with jolts of their adrenaline. Dr. Hall says it is overcrowding
that does it. Overcrowding gets the adrenaline going, and the adrenaline gets them
queer, autistic, sadistic, barren, batty, sloppy, hot-in-the-pants, chance red-on-the-
flankers, leering, puling, numb the usual in New York, in other words, and God
knows what else. Dr. Hall has the theory that overcrowding has already thrown
New York into a state of behavioral sink. Behavioral sink is a term from ethology,
which is the study of how animals relate to their environment. Among animals, the
sink winds up with a population collapse or massive die-off. O rotten Gotham.

2. It got to be easy to look at New Yorkers as animals, especially looking down
from some place like a balcony at Grand Central at the rush hour Friday afternoon.
The floor was filled with the poor white humans, running around, dodging,
blinking their eyes, making a sound like a pen full of starlings or rats or something.

3. Listen to them skid, say Dr. Hall.

4. He was right. The poor old etiolate animals were out there skidding on their
rubber soles. You could hear it once he pointed it out. They stop short to keep from
hitting somebody or because they are disoriented and they suddenly stop and look
around, and they skid on their rubber-soled shoes, and a screech goes up. They
pour out onto the floor down the escalators from the Pan-Am Building, from 42
nd

Street, from Lexington Avenue, up out of subways, railroad trains, up into
helicopters.


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5. You can also hear the helicopters all the way down here, says Dr. Hall.
The sound of the helicopters using the roof of the Pan Am Building nearly fifty
stories up beats right through. If it werent for this ceiling, he is referring to the
high ceiling in grand Central-this place would be unbearable with this kind of
crowding. And yet theyll probably never waste space like this.

6. They screech! And the adrenal glands in all those poor white animals
enlarge, micrometer by micrometer, to the size of cantaloupes. Dr. Hall pulls a
Minox camera out of holster he has on his belt and starts shooting away at the
human scurry. The Sink!

7. Dr. Hall has the Minox up to his eye- he is a slender man, calm, 52 years
old, young-looking, an anthropologist who has worked with Navajos, Hopis,
Spanish-Americans, Negroes, Trukese. He was the most important anthropologist
in the government during the crucial years of the foreign aid program, the 1950s.
He directed both the Point four training program and the Human Relations Area
Files. He wrote The Silent Language and The Hidden Dimension , two books that
are picking up a kind of underground following his friend Marshall Mc Luhan
started picking up about five years ago. He teaches at the Illinois Institute of
technology, with his wife, Mildred, in a high ceilinged town house on one of the
last great residential streets in downtown Chicago, Astor Street; he has a grown
son and daughter, loves good food, good wine, the relaxed, civilized life- but
comes to New York with a Minox at his eye to record! - perfect-The Sink.

8. We really got down in there by walking down into the Lexington Avenue
line subway stop under Grand Central. We inhaled those nice big fluffy fumes of
human sweat, urine, effluvia, and sebaceous secretions. One old female human was
already stroked out on the upper level, on a stretcher, with two policemen standing
by. The other humans barely looked at her. They rushed into line. They bellied
each other, haunch to paunch, down the stairs. Human heads shone through the
gratings. The species North European tried to create bubbles of space around
themselves, about a foot and a half in diameter-

9. See, hes reacting against the line, says Dr. Hall.

10. - but the species Mediterranean presses on in. the hell with bubbles of space.
The species North European resents that, this male human being behind him
presses forward toward the booth---breathing on him, hes disgusted, he pulls out
of the line entirely, the species Mediterranean resents him for resenting it, and

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neither of them realizes what the hell they are getting irritable about exactly. And
in all of them the old adrenals grow another micrometer.

11. Dr. Hall whips out the Minox. Too perfect! The bottom of The Sink.

12. It is the sheer overcrowding, such as occurs in the business sections of
Manhattan five days a week and in Harlem, Bedford-Stuyvesant, southeast Bronx
every day-sheer overcrowding is converting New Yorkers into animals in a sink
pen. Dr. Halls argument runs as follows: all animals, including birds, seem to have
a built-in inherited requirement to have a certain amount of territory, space, to lead
their lives in. Even if they all have the food they need, and there are no predatory
animals threatening them, they cannot tolerate crowding beyond a certain point. No
more than two hundred wild Norway rats can survive on a quarter of ground, for
example, even when they are given all the food they can eat. They just die off.

13. But why? To find out, ethologists have run experiments on all sorts of
animals, from stickleback crabs to Sika deer. In one major experiment, an
ethologist named John Calhoun put some domesticated white Norway rats in a pen
with four sections to it, connected by ramps. Calhoun knew from previous
experiments that the rats tend to split up into groups of ten to twelve and that the
pen, therefore, would hold forty to forty-eight rats comfortably, assuming they
formed four equal groups. He allowed them to reproduce until there were eighty
rats, balanced between male and female, but did not let it get any more crowded.
He kept them supplied with plenty of food, water, and nesting materials. In other
words, all their more obvious needs were taken care of. A less obvious need-
space- was not. To the human eye, the pen did not even look especially crowded.
But to the rats, it was crowded beyond endurance.

14. The entire colony was soon plunged into a profound behavioral sink. The
sink, said Calhoun, is the outcome of any behavioral process that collects
animals together in unusually great numbers, The unhealthy connotations of the
term are not accidental: a behavioral sink does act to aggravate all forms of
pathology that can be found within a group.

15. For a start, long before the rat population reached eighty, a status hierarchy
had developed in the pen. Two dominant male rats took over the two end sections,
acquired harems of eight to ten females each, and forced the rest of the rats into the
two middle pens. All the overcrowding took place in the middle pens. That was
where the sink hit. The aristocrat rats at the end grew bigger, sleeker, healthier,
and more secure the whole time.

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16. In the Sink, meanwhile, nest building, courting, sex behavior, reproduction,
social organization, health- all of it went to pieces. Normally, Norway rats have a
mating ritual in which the male chases the female, the female ducks down into a
burrow and sticks her head up to watch the male. He performs a little dance outside
the burrow, then she comes out, and he mounts her, usually for a few seconds.
When the Sink set in, however, no more than three males- the dominant males in
the middle section- kept up the old customs. The rest tried everything from
satyrism to homosexuality or else gave up on sex altogether. Some of the
subordinate males spent all their time chasing females. Three or four might chase
one female at the same time and instead of stopping at the burrow entrance for the
ritual, they would charge right in. Once mounted, they would hold on for minutes
instead of the usual seconds.

17. Homosexuality rose sharply. So did bisexuality. Some males would mount
anything- males, females, babies, senescent rats, anything. Some other males
dropped sexual activity altogether, wouldnt fight and, in fact, would hardly move
except when the other rats slept. Occasionally a female from the aristocrat rats
harems would come over the ramps and into the middle sections to sample life in
The Sink. When she had had enough, she would run back up the ramp. Sink males
would give chases up to the top of the ramp, which is to say, the very edge of the
aristocratic preserve. But one glance from one of the king rats would stop them
cold and they would return to The Sink.

18. The slumming females from the harems had their adventures and then
returned to a placid, healthy life. The females in The Sink, however, were ravaged,
physically and psychologically. Pregnant rats had trouble continuing pregnancy.
The rate of miscarriages increased significantly, and females started dying from
tumors and other disorders of the mammary glands, sex organs, uterus, ovaries,
and Fallopian tubes. Typically, their kidneys, livers, and adrenals were also
enlarged or diseased or showed other signs associated with stress.

19. Child-rearing became totally disorganized. The females lost the interest or
the stamina to build nests and did not keep them up if they did build them. In the
general filth and confusion, they would not put themselves out to save offspring
they were momentarily separated from. Frantic, even sadistic competition among
the males was going on all around them and rendering their lives chaotic. The
males began unprovoked and senseless assaults upon one another, often in the form
of tail-biting. Ordinarily, rats will suppress this kind of behavior when it crops up.
In The Sink, male rats gave up all policing and just looked out for themselves. The

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pecking order among males in The Sink was never stable. Normally, male rats
set up a three-class structure. Under the pressure of overcrowding, however, they
broke up into all sorts of unstable subclasses, cliques, packs- and constantly
pushed, probed, explored, tested one anothers power. Anyone was fair game,
except for the aristocrats in the end pens.

20. Calhoun kept the population down to eighty, so that the next stage,
population collapse or massive die-off did not occur. But the autopsies showed
that the pattern- as in the diseases among the female rats- was already there.

21. The classic study of die-off was John J. Christians study of Sika deer on
James Island in the Chesapeake Bay, wet of Cambridge Maryland. Four or five of
the deer had been released on the island which was 280 acres and uninhabited, in
1916. By 1955 they had bred freely into a herd of 280to 300. The population
density was only about one deer per acre at this point, but Christian knew that this
was already too high for the Sikas inborn space requirements, and something
would give before long. For two years the number of deer remained 280 to 300.
But suddenly, in 1958, over half the deer died: 161 carcasses were recovered. In
1959 more deer died and the population steadied about 80.

22. In two years, two thirds of the herd had died. Why? It was not starvation. In
fact, all the deer collected were in excellent condition, with well-developed
muscles, shining coats, and fat deposits between the muscles. In practically all the
deer, however, the adrenal glands had enlarged by 50 percent. Christian concluded
that the die-off was due to shock following severe metabolic disturbance,
probably as a result of prolonged adrenocortical hyperactivityThere was no
evidence of infection, starvation, or other obvious cause to explain the mass
mortality. In other words, the constant stress of overpopulation, plus the normal
stress of the cold of the winter, had kept the adrenaline flowing so constantly in the
deer that their systems were depleted of blood sugar and they died of shock.

23. Well, the white humans are still skidding and darting across the floor at
Grand Central. Dr. Hall listens a moment to the skidding and the darting noises,
and then says, You know, Ive been on commuter trains here after everyone has
been through one of these rushes, and Ill tell you, there is enough acid flowing in
the stomachs in each car to dissolve the rails underneath.

24. Just a little invisible acid bath for the linings to round off the day. The ulcers
the acids cause, of course, are the one disease people have already been taught to
associate with the stress of city life. But overcrowding, as Dr. Hall sees it, raises a

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lot more hell with the body than just ulcers. In everyday life in New York- just the
usual, getting to work, working in massively congested areas like 42
nd
Street
between Fifth Avenue and Lexington, especially now in that Pan Am Building is
set there, working in cubicles such as those in the editorial offices of Time-Life,
Inc., which Dr. Hall cites as typical of New Yorks poor construction crews all
over Manhattan drive everybody up the Masonite all with air-pressure generators
with noises up to the boil-a-brain decibel level, then rushing to get home, piling
into subways and trains, fighting for time and space, the usual day in New York-
the whole now-normal thing keep shooting daddy human animal stroked out at the
breakfast table with his head apoplexed like a cauliflower out of his $6.95 semi-
spread Pima-cotton shirt, and nosed over a plate of No-Kloresto egg substitute,
signing off with the black thrombosis, cancer, kidney, liver, or stomach failure, and
the adrenals ooze to a halt, the size of eggplants in July.

25. One of the people whose work Dr. Hall is interested in on this score is Rene
Dubos at the Rockefeller Institute. Dubos work indicates that specific organisms,
such as the tuberculosis bacillus or a pneumonia virus, can seldom be considered
The cause of a disease. The germ or virus, apparently, has to work in
combination with other things that have already broken the body down in some
way- such as the old adrenal hyperactivity. Dr. Hall would like to see some
autopsy studies made to record the size of adrenal glands in New York, especially
of people crowded into slums and people who go through the full rush-hour-rush-
cycle every day. He is afraid that until there is some clinical, statistical data on how
overcrowding actually ravages the human body, no one will be willing to do
anything about it. Even in so obvious a thing as air pollution, the pattern is
familiar. Until people can actually see the smoke or smel the sulfur or feel the sting
in their eyes, politicians will not get excited about it, even though it is well known
that many of the lethal substances polluting the air are invisible and odorless. For
one thing, most politicians are like the aristocrat rats. They are insulated from The
Sink by practically sultanic buffers- limousines, chauffers, secretaries, aides-de-
camp, doormen, shuttered houses, high-floor apartments. They almost never ride
subways, fight rush hours, much less live in the slums or work in the Pan Am
Building.


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COMFTF08
Composition
First Things First
Causal Relationships
Dr. David F. Maas

______________________________________________________________________________
_______
Key Terms
Adequacy of causes for
effects
Mistaking cause for the
effect
Predicting contradictory
effects
Capacity to produce effect Mistaking effect for the
cause
Rationalization
Cause/Effect Chain Multiple causes Single cause fallacy
Concurrent Fallacy Necessary cause Stages in causal reasoning
Contributory Cause Nullification of predicted
effects
Sufficient cause
Errors in causal reasoning Post hoc ergo propter hoc
________________________________________________________________________

(01) Perhaps the most important of the logical relationships is the cause and effect. We want
to know not only what happens but why it happens. We want to know why the national debt
cant be brought under control. We want to know why we have unemployment, why we have
inflation, why we have recession, why the stock market plunges 300 points. We want to know
why our cities decay from the inside out. We want to know the effects of using pesticides and
herbicides in large quantities for both the immediate and long range consequences. We want to
know the cause of our young people taking LSD and Crack.. We want to know the short and
long range effects of their acquired habit. We want to know why gang violence is on the
increase in the affluent suburbs. GM, Ford, and Chrysler want to know why the Japanese and
German car manufacturers are bearing the pants off from them.

(02) Divorced people want to know why their marriages fell apart. The student wants to know
why he failed the exam.

(03) Causal reasoning may move in either direction from the cause to the effect or the effect to
the cause. As a matter of fact, the effect may become another cause. Consider the following
example:
Work piles up.
I feel under stress because of the work piling up.
I sip three glasses of Vodka to relieve stress.
I become mellow and allow work to pile up.
I feel anxiety because while I became inebriated more work piled up.
I down myself for letting work pile up.
I feel guilty in so doing.
The guilt leads to stress.
I sip three glasses of Vodka to relieve stress..

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(04) Dr. Albert Ellis in his book Overcoming Procrastination illustrates how an effect can
become a further cause:

Consider Debbies problem of doing the dishes:
Activating Event- observing dirty dishes in the sink.
Beliefs- How annoying to clean them, but Id better. (rational).
I cant stand this mess. It looks too tough to tackle. (irrational)
Consequence- frustration.(rational)
Reaction- do the dishes.(rational)
or--avoid doing the dishes. (irrational) (Ellis, Overcoming Procrastination, p29-
30)

(05) Ellis gives us another example of a cause producing an effect which later becomes
another cause:

Thirteen-year-old Paul keeps thinking he would like to clean up part of the cellar at his
parents house in order to make a game room. He has contemplated this for the past three
years and, rather than getting started, he tries not to think about the long-delayed
project because when he reminds himself to do some work he lambasts himself for the
time he already has wasted. (Ellis, Overcoming Procrastination, P.9)

(06) Since cause/effect relationships are complex, we will need to adopt certain analytical
procedures. The causes of effects and the effects do not always become immediately apparent.
The next portion of this lesson we will stress terminology, stages in causal reasoning, and a list
of problems that frequently occur in causal analysis.

Types of Causes

(07) We can classify causes as Necessary, Sufficient, or Contributory .

(08) We can picture this arrangement as a hierarchy ranging from the May Cause to Must
Cause. Contributory causes are far more numerous than sufficient or necessary.

Necessary

Sufficient

Contributory

Necessary Causes

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(09) The necessary cause must be present in order for the effect to occur.
For example, the Flu virus must be present in order for the effect (the disease) to occur.

A person may make himself more susceptible by staying up until 4:00 AM.
A person may make himself more susceptible by a haphazard diet of junk food.
A person may make himself more susceptible by walking around in the rain with no shoes.
A person may make himself more susceptible by sitting in a draft.

(10) But we can consider none of these items as the necessary cause of the Flu. The Flu Bug
has to attack before the willfully derelict individual gets the Flu.

Example: Necessary Cause: A spark is necessary to ignite a gasoline engine.
The HIV virus must be present for AIDS to occur.

Sufficient Causes

(11) A Sufficient Cause has the capability of producing an effect unaided. More than one
sufficient cause may produce the same effect.

Example: A cough can be produced by a cold virus, pneumonia, emphysema, lung
cancer, tuberculosis, an abscess on the larynx, smog, tobacco juice, Tabasco sauce,
or chalk dust.

Example: A dead battery can prevent a car from starting, but so can a faulty spark-
plug, water in the distributor, or no gasoline.

(12) A number of years ago the idea of sufficient causes became very clear to me when I took
my car into a mechanic when it started to sputter and falter I asked in desperation, Harry, what
could be causing this problem?
Harry replied, Could be fuel filter. A fuel filter at that time cost $15.
When he replaced the filter, I asked, Harry, are you sure it is the fuel filter thats causing
the problem?
He pointed to the dirty old filter, exclaiming, Look how dirty this is. No wonder the car
wouldnt run.
Happily I took the car down the street, only to have the sputtering symptoms return I
immediately drove back to Harrys shop.
Harry, I shouted, I thought we had the problem solved. What could be the cause of
this?
Harry reflectively replied, Could be fuel pump - that would run around $75.
Are you sure Harry?, I asked. Thats a lot of money.
I will check it on my computerized diagnostic gauge.
The gauge revealed that the fuel pump was defective.
Reluctantly I agreed to have him replace the fuel pump and again I drove on my way.
After a few moments the symptoms returned again.

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I drove back to Harrys garage in anger, yelling, I thought you fixed the problem. What
else could it possibly be?
Harry looked pensively at the car, and said, Could be dirty carburetor.
Oh sure, I retorted . You were so sure that it was the fuel filter and the fuel pump.
Both were defective, he said, either one of those things could have produced the
symptoms alone.
OK, I sighed, perhaps we should look at the carburetor.
Harry took it apart, showing me the gummed up parts.
Look here, he exclaimed, Carburetor is filthy. No wonder the car sputtered and
complained. I bit the bullet and put the $150 expense on my credit card. On my way out of
Harrys lot, the car started to cough and sputter again. This time I was on the verge of tears.
Harry , I sobbed, What is wrong with my car?
Could be water in gas tank.
We siphoned out the gasoline, draining the water, refilling the tank with fresh gasoline. The car
worked like a charm.
We had isolated all the potential causes, finding that they all could have produced the
effect unaided.

Contributory Causes

(13) A contributory cause can help to produce an effect, but cannot do so by itself.
.
Example: Running through a red light may cause an accident.
Example: Skipping class may cause a failing grade when linked with other causes.
Example: Smoking may contribute to lung cancer, but it is not necessarily the major
cause or the sole cause.( The body can withstand remarkable abuse).

Stages in Causal Reasoning

(14) James Mc Crimmon has identified three stages in causal reasoning:

1. Whatever the cause, it must exist in the situation and must be sufficient to produce
the effect.

This step requires the investigator to identify all of the possible causes, isolating which of
the possible causes could be sufficient to produce the effect.

Example: The cold water in the Dorm shower could be cause from:
a defective fuse
power company failure
burned out element
excessive use of shower by room mate

Any one of these (with the possible exception of the last one) could bring about the effect
unaided.


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2. If a sufficient cause is eliminated from the situation, the effect will be eliminated
unless there are other causes. If the effect ceases when we remove the possible cause,
the possible cause is the cause.

Example: If we suspect that a faulty bulb is the cause for no light, we simply make
a substitution-with a new bulb. If it is the cause we look no further , not ruling out
the possibility that the original bulb may only be a contributory cause.
Remember that the bulb, the fuse, the wiring, or the outlet could all be sufficient causes
either individually, in tandem, or in a series.

Example: If a faulty chip is replaced in a transmitter, the capacitor, the resistor or
rectifier could all be at fault.

3. If the cause is introduced into a similar situation, it should bring about a similar
effect.

Example: If we suspect a faulty battery, fuse, or bulb, we could insert one into a
different socket or receptacle where one has been operating. If the battery or fuse doesnt
work, or the light doesnt turn on, we reject our hypothesis. But if the fuse or battery work or the
lightbulb turns on, we have additional support for our belief in the original hypothesis.

Errors in Causal Reasoning

(15) Louise Rohrabacher has identified ten separate errors in causal reasoning:

1. Mistaking a time connection for a causal one.
This error has sometimes been referred to as the Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc fallacy,
translated into English as After this , therefore because of this.

Superstitions are based upon this fallacy:
After I touched the toad, I got warts.
An owl hooted before Uncle Marvins death. An owl hooting will
somehow bring about death.
Labor Day, because it always occurs before the opening of school must somehow cause
the opening of school.
The 9:00 class occurs before the 10:00 class. The 9:00 class must cause the 10:00 class.
I dont want to hold hands with any girl. When Travis held Cindys hand, he
flunked his spelling test.
After Hoover was elected, we had a Depression. Hoover caused the Depression.
After General Scocroft went to China, martial law was lifted. Scocrofts diplomacy
produced the lifting of martial law.

2. Mistaking for a cause things that coincidentally happen at the same time- also
known as the concurrent fallacy.


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If two things are concurrent ( take place at the same time), It does not mean that they are
related.
Example: If the Southern Baptist Convention and the National Gay Coalition hold
their meetings in the same city or perhaps the same hotel, we cannot assume that the two
events must be related.

Example: Colored leaves in the fall are believed to be caused by the frost.

Some things are genuinely coincidental such as the incident in which a young lady
accused a man of following her when actually they were going in the same direction at
the same time for a totally unrelated reason.

3. Beware of the single cause fallacy. We cannot settle for one single cause if there are
more.

Most effects stem from multiple causes rather than just one. Remember, the last straw
did not break the camels back by itself. The single cause fallacy results from jumping to
conclusions.

Example: A motorist hears someone honking at him. He jumps to the conclusion that
they want him to go faster. Other reasons the other motorist may be honking could
include:
His transmission may be coming loose
He may be honking because he recognizes him
He may have a bumper sticker which reads, Honk if you love Jesus.

Many newspaper headlines reveal the single cause fallacy:
Sex education causes promiscuity.
Television destroys a students capacity to read.
Comic books cause juvenile delinquency.

James Mc Crimmon suggests that attributing racial strife to differences in skin color
ignores the other social and economic causes. Randal Decker suggests that the writer who
brings his old prejudices to the task of causal analysis or fails to see the probability of
multiple causes or effects is certain to destroy his analysis, making it so superficial it
becomes worthless.

4. Be sure to distinguish between immediate and remote causes.

Example: Instructor Why are you here at Texas College?
Student: Because my father married my mother.

This line of reasoning starts back too far. We need to look at the immediate rather than
the remote causes.


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Example: Why did Jeffrey Dhamer slay those young boys and have homosexual
relations with them?
Well, it all started with Cain and Abel. or It all started when Lucifer
decided to rebel against God.
Why is Elizabeth Taylors marriage on the rocks?
It all started in the Garden of Eden when Eve decided to eat the
forbidden fruit.

Actually, when we think about it, in one sense everything in the universe could be said to
be influenced by everything else in the universe. Nothing occurs in a complete vacuum.

One summer a health inspector closed down a large canning factory in the Midwest. The
inspector closed it down after going through his checklist of recommendations of
improvements. A filthy rag hanging over the conveyor belt to prevent a leak was the
last straw. The last straw did not break the camels back alone. The filthy rag in one
sense served as a symbol, representing managements refusal to replace pipes and
equipment. The refusal to replace equipment was caused by the ever pervasive desire to
make a profit . The desire to make a profit was influenced by higher production costs,
labor costs, and weather factors. All of these factors were also influenced by the
economic well-being of the nation. The nations economic well-being was influenced by
foreign economies.

In 1991, Iraqi Foreign Minister insisted that Iraq invaded Kuwait because Israel occupied
the West Bank. Such tangential remote excuses for such bizarre behavior doesnt even
qualify as a rationalization, but represents a tortured extremely remote cause.

5. Be sure the cause has the capacity to produce the effect.

Louise Rohrabacher describes an incident in which a person leaves a big juicy beef steak
on the table. When he returned, the steak was gone. If a huge Great Dane or Black
Labrador were left in the house, and perhaps further circumstantial evidence appeared
such as red bloody juice dripping from the muzzle, distended ribs on the dog, a sheepish
look on the dogs face, etc., we have a prime suspect. A lone kitten asleep in the corner
would be exonerated.

Back in 1349, the Black Death wiped out 2/3 of Europes population. The Jews were
blamed for poisoning the wells. There were not that many Jews in all of Europe to
accomplish such a task.

A story circulated about a man who went down in a mine with a hammer and saw. The
mine later collapsed and the man was blamed. It was later determined that the width of
the beams and the sturdiness of the structure made it impossible for the man to inflict that
much damage and eventually another explanation was sought.

6. Be sure that the causes are adequate for the effects - can actually get the job done.


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One president thought that by cutting taxes and cutting the budget, the economic
problems would solve themselves. The immediate effects led to investors putting their
monies into foreign markets rather than the domestic economy, causing the closing of
plants and unemployment to rise.

Proponents of Womens Suffrage felt that the vote would cure societys ills and bring
equality for all. Proponents of the ERA amendment naively assume the same thing. The
ERA will probably be as effective at promoting equality as the balanced budget
amendment will bring our deficit under control. The O.E.O. did not do away with
poverty. The crime bill, replete with midnight basketball and handicrafts will not do away
with gang violence. Economic ills cannot be treated until the complexity of the issue is
addressed and the greed factor of human nature is checked.

The argument that productivity itself will improve the economy fails to take into account
that productivity by itself will not bring down prices unless companies are willing to turn
out more for less profit.

7. Allow for causes that may nullify predicted effects.

Example: The increase in the minimum wage is a short sighted view some labor leaders
see as a solution. But wage increases lead to higher prices to pay for the wage increases-
leading to another unfortunate effect -a higher cost of living- refueling a demand for
another wage increase.

Example: When the federal government closed down Fort Ord and the San Diego
Shipyard, it did so as an economy move, not realizing that depressing the local
economy created a greater demand for disaster relief, wiping out all the economic gains.

Example: People feel more empowered if they are given more credit, but the more
credit one has, the more the bank reckons the liabilities potential. If you can borrow
$50,000 on your signature, you can also owe the bank $50,000 on your signature.

Example: Governmental subsidies can prop up prices artificially, but can weaken
companys resolve to compete in the world market.

8. Avoid predicting contradictory effects.

Example: Sometimes it is impossible for two predicted effects to exist side by side.
Louise Rohrabacher once used the example of a politician who promised to lower taxes,
increase public works, increase military spending and social programs, and balance. the
budget.


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Example: The recent health care package which would commandeer 1/7 of the
national economy would cost the average tax payer more, and would not constitute free
health care at all.

9. Do not mistake the cause for the effect or the effect for the cause.

Example: Louise Rohrabacher suggests that Medieval philosophers tried to
substantiate the goodness of God because He made a great river run through every
city.

Example: We hear about the old farmer who says, If Id Known I was going to have
such nice children I would have picked a better mother for em. (not realizing that the
mother was a contributory cause of his nice children.)

Example: We hear the caution, Dont eat too much sugar. You will get diabetes.
Actually , sugar consumption is a symptom , not a cause of diabetes.

Example: When people think that a high fever causes the Flu, they will think that putting
ice packs on their forehead will actually cure the Flu.

Example: When a motorist blames a cars inefficiency on the knocking of the engine,
he might be tempted to muffle the sound, masking the real problem.

Example: One naive horse trainer in Baldwin Park , California blamed his horses
lack of performance on the pain in its legs. After he injected anti-pain drugs, the horse
broke its leg and had to be destroyed.

10. Avoid the pitfall of rationalization.

A rationalization constitutes a false or superficial reason replacing the real one.

Example: The driver blames a failing brake or road conditions for his own
carelessness.

Example: The tailgater blames the car in front of him for stopping abruptly.

Example: The musician blames a faulty spit valve or too much resin on the bow or bad
action on the piano keys.(Instead of his own lack of practice.)
Example: The bowler who blames his poor performance on - The light was bad,
the ball had a chip on the side, my shoe came untied rather than his own lack of
practice rationalizes away the real reason.


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Example: The student who skips nine classes fails the course. He then blames the
teacher who, Didnt teach me anything.

Example: The student who procrastinates on his research paper blames a computer
failure or the perennial, the dog peed on it excuse for his own laziness.

Example: We hear the old story of the man who goes into the radio station for a job
interview.

Man wh wh wh where ah ah ah ah ah are th th th in in in inter views fo fo fo for
th th th the a a a an n n n n nounce er j j j j job

Receptionist: Go down the hall and turn to the right at the first door.

After a few minutes the man returned down the hall , sighing, j j j j ju ju ju jus just a a
a as as as I I I I th th th th thought s s s s s same o o o old s s s story. Th th th th they j j j j
just wo wo wo wo wont h h h hi hi hire a a an an any C C C C C Ca Ca Ca Catholics.


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Instructional Objectives

1. Define and illustrate the cause/effect or relational proposition. 01-01
2. Identify some of the concerns for which the cause/effect relationship may be applied. 01-
01
3. Illustrate a cause/effect chain from the cause to effect or the effect to the cause. 01-03
4. Differentiate among necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes. 02-08
5. Define and illustrate the necessary cause. 02-09
6. Identify and describe the post hoc (time connection) error in causal reasoning. 05-15
7. Define and illustrate the sufficient cause. 03-11
8. Define and illustrate the contributory cause. 04-13
9. Identify and describe Mc Crimmons three stages in causal reasoning. 04-14
10. Identify and describe the concurrent fallacy. 05-16
11. Identify and describe the single cause fallacy. 06-17
12. Distinguish between immediate and remote causes. 06-18
13. Illustrate how a cause must have the capacity to produce the effect. 07-19
14. Illustrate how causes must be adequate for the effect - can get the job done. 08-20
15. Illustrate causes that nullify predicted effects. 08-21
16. Illustrate the fallacy of predicting contradictory effects. 09-22
17. Illustrate the fallacious problem of mistaking the cause for the effect or the effect for the
cause. 09-23
18. Define and illustrate the fallacious error of rationalization. 09-24


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Suggested Writing Assignments

1. Write an essay with a title such as I changed My Mind About . . . or I Used to Think .
. . in which you organize your material into three sections: your original attitude toward
something (a sport, activity, profession, person): the cause of your change of mind; your
present attitude. Devote most of your attention to the cause of the change and its effects.
Identify necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes.

2. Write an essay in which you answer the following questions:

a. What is my biggest frustration or problem?
b. What are the causes of the problem or frustration?
(1) What is the principal or necessary cause?
(2) What are the possible sufficient causes?
(3) What are the contributory causes?
c. What are all the possible solutions or strategies for solving the problem?
d. What is the best or most feasible solution?
The essay should be divided into four sections, each constituting at least a paragraph in
which the topic sentence will be a declarative sentence, answering the questions posed
above.
The essay should not be an abrupt or perfunctory list but should be a continuous, well-
developed theme, supported by concrete detail on relatively low levels of abstraction.
Cause and effect can be conveyed by (1) explicit statements such as A is the cause of B
or B is the effect of A or (2) by transitional words and phrases, e.g., because, therefore,
consequently, in order that, as a result, for, since, then, thus.


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COM FTF09-A
COMPOSITION
FIRST THINGS FIRST
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Dr. David F. Maas

(01) Many people think that writing consists of a motor activity involving writing cursive
letters with the fingers or typing letters onto the typewriter or word processor. Actually writing
consists of primarily a thinking and reasoning skill in which one puts ideas and thoughts into a
logical order. Consequently, writing of necessity involve training in reasoning skills and
learning to recognize flaws or errors in reasoning which we have come to call logical fallacies.
The purpose of this unit consists of training the writer to spot lapses of reasoning in his own
reasoning and in other peoples writing.
(02) In this unit we will learn to identify the typical logical fallacies in order to avoid them in
our own reasoning and to detect them in the articles we use for our research, keeping them from
contaminating our research. In order to master the contents of this chapter it will become
necessary for the student to define the several kinds of fallacies and provide examples of each
kind of fallacy. The student will have mastered fully the content of this chapter when he or she
can define, provide a text example and then provide one of his or her own.
(03) The first group of logical fallacies we will investigate we classify as linguistic fallacies
because they primarily involve tampering with language or the language structure.
Emotive Language

(04) The first linguistic fallacy we call emotive language. The sole purpose of emotive
language consists of the arousal of unreasoned feeling, depending on the stimulation of the
emotions. Emotive words lack clear meaning but they can really raise the blood pressure.
Example: When people use such words as Communist, Socialist, Fascist Pig,
obstructionist, reactionary, racist, bigot, welfare cheat, union goon, etc. they dont intend to
convey information, but instead to get a rise out of the reader.

(05) Some kinds of language we use to present information. We call this pointer function of
language a denotation. A denotation we may refer to as an agreement between two or more
people to restrict what a word can mean. Many have referred to the denotation as the dictionary
definition of a word. Other words we use to evoke powerful feelings.
(06) If we see a policeman standing on the corner, we could reach for some neutral words to
describe the policeman such as law enforcement officer, constable, or patrolman. These words
strike us as emotionally neutral, pointing to the object but not conveying or associating any
feelings. Other language people primarily use to evoke powerful feelings. This associative
function we call connotation. S.I. Hayakawa refers to feeling words as snarl words and purr
words.

(07) Example: People who have come to despise policemen may use angry expressions
such as: Pig, Gestapo, SS, Nazis.


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(08) On the other hand, some people who have learned to respect law enforcement officers
may choose to use purr words to describe them such as: Servant of the people, Guardian of the
peoples rights, the long blue line, etc.

(09) Both purr and snarl words tend to cloud meaning by putting the feelings into the
foreground. During the Second World War, Hitlers Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels used
emotive language to instill pride in the German people and to create hatred for Jews and other
Non-Aryans. Stuart Chases in his Tyranny of Words discusses Goebbels use of emotive
language.

(10) Bad language (Emotive Language) is now the mightiest weapon in the arsenal of despots
and demagogues. Witness Dr. Goebbels. Indeed it is doubtful if a people learned in semantics
would tolerate any sort of supreme political dictator. Ukases would be met with a flat no
comprendo or with roars of laughter. A typical speech of an aspiring Hitler would be
translated into its intrinsic meaning, if any. Hitler would be translated into its intrinsic meaning,
if any, Abstract words and phrases without discoverable referents would register a semantic
blank, noises without meaning. For instance:

(11) The Aryan Fatherland, which has nursed the souls of heroes, calls upon you for the
supreme sacrifice which you, in whom flows heroic blood, will not fail, and which will
echo forever down the corridors of history.

This would be translated:

The blab blab, which has nursed the blabs of blabs, calls upon you for the blab blab
which you, in whom flows blab blood, will not fail, and which will echo blab down the blabs
of blab.

(12) The blab is not an attempt to be funny; it is a semantic blank. Nothing comes
through. The hearer, versed in reducing higher order abstractions to either nil or a
series of roughly similar events in the real world of experience, and protected from
emotive associations with such words, simply hears nothing comprehensible. The
demagogue might as well have used Sanskrit.

Equivocation

(13) According to S. Morris Engel, to commit the fallacy of equivocation consists of allowing
a key word or phrase to shift its meaning in the course of the argument. The etymology or
origin comes from the Latin Equi or equal and Vox or voice, If we use the word the same way
throughout the discussion we use it univocally but if we shift its meaning we use it equivocally.
(14) Example: Only man is rational.
No woman is a man.
Therefore no woman is rational.

(15) We can see that an argument becomes fallacious if it uses the same term with different
meanings. Especially susceptible are abstract terms like democracy, (applying the same term to

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the Greek city states, the American republic, or the Democratic peoples republic of China), The
term liberal ( meaning in todays parlance the centralization of governmental power but in
Thomas Jeffersons time the moving away from centralized power to states rights), or the term
freedom (which means to one set of politicians freedom of choice freedom of religion, or
freedom from government intervention, but to another group of politicians it means freedom
from hunger, freedom from poverty, and perhaps freedom from responsibility). We see that the
real problem consists in using the term in more than one sense, while one gives the impression
that it has one and only one meaning throughout the argument.

(Consider this example: The things which have real educational value should
obviously be the core of a college curriculum. Nobody who has ever tried to get a
job will deny that typing is valuable. Certainly, then all students should be
required to take typing.

(16) Example: Practice makes perfect. Physicians have practiced the art of healing for
thousands of years. My physician, therefore, who studied at one of our greatest medical
schools, should be perfect in this field.

(17) Example: As far as Im concerned, we need pay no attention to the president of the
college when it comes to educational matters because he has no authority in education. He
doesnt even have enough authority to prevent students from staging protest rallies.

Ambiguity

(18) Ambiguity occurs when we use terms which are ill-defined, vague in meaning,
signifying a variety of ideas, none of which can be made clear or precise either by definition or
by the context.
(19) Consider this example of a well-known biblical passage, drained of all its life- blood by
George Orwells high-level bureaucratize or governmental abstractions, a favorite technique of
the IRS:

(20) Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success
in competitive activities is in no way commensurate with innate capacity, but a considerable
amount of the unpredictable must be taken into account.

(21) What Orwell has given us consists of an ambiguous paraphrase of Ecclesiastes 9:11-
(21) I returned and saw under the sun that-
The race is not to the swift,
Nor the battle to the strong,
Nor bread to the wise,
Nor riches to men of understanding,
Nor favor to men of skill;
But time and chance happen to them all.

Accent

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(22) According to S. Morris Engel, the fallacy of accent when

1. A statement is spoken in a tone of voice not intended for it.
2. Certain words in it are wrongly accented or stressed.
3. Certain words (or even sentences or paragraphs) are taken out of context and
thus given an emphasis ( and therefore a meaning) they were not meant to have.

(23) Aristotle applied the term accent to misinterpretations resulting from words that differ
in syllabic accent.

(24) Consider:

In valid refers to someone ill.
Invalid refers to a faulty argument.

(25) The fallacy of accent occurs less frequently in oral speech, where tone is easily conveyed
by voice and gestural cues, than in written language.
(26) We commit the fallacy of accent when we try to deceive by changing the part of the
phrase to be emphasized. The meaning changes depending upon which parts of the phrase we
emphasize or accent.
(27) Consider the following phrase:

We should not speak ill of our friends.

(28) By changing the emphasis I get all kinds of differing meanings.

(29) We should not speak ill of our friends.
(But other people may speak ill of them)

(But we do anyway.)
(But we can think or write ill of them.)

( But we can speak good of them.)

( But we can speak ill of your friends)

( But we can speak ill of our enemies.)

(35) Or consider this group of sentences:


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(36) I never said he hit his wife.
(But Fred may have said it.)

(Under no circumstances did I ever say that)

(But I may have thought or written it.)

(But his friend may have hit her.)

(But he may have hit Harrys wife.)

(But he could have hit his girlfriend or mistress.)

(42) Much Yiddish humor results from a fallacy of accent. Consider Leo Rostens
word play on the following sentence:

(43) Two tickets for her concert I should buy.

( Im having enough trouble buying one.)
(You mean she isnt giving away free passes.)

( After she didnt come to my sons recital.)
(She calls that hideous racket and noise a concert?)

(48) Two tickets for concert I should buy.
(What about the other office members?)

(Are you giving me a lesson in ethics?)

(50) Two tickets for her concert I should buy?
(Why isnt she giving them away free?)

Amphiboly

(51) S. Morris Engel claims the fallacy of amphiboly occurs as the result or product of
poor structure. It results when words are incorrectly or loosely grouped in a sentence, giving rise

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to a meaning not intended by the author. The etymology of the word derives from the Greek:
Ampho, meaning double or on both sides
(52) We should remember that amphibolous arguments produce a two-fold interpretation
because of its awkward structure (or the awkward way in which its words are combined), and not
from any deliberate attempt to deceive.

(53) Consider the amphibolous consequences of the following sets of sentences:

(54) Eat here and get gas.

( 55) The Longview Committee on Public Decency is looking into plunging
necklines.

(56) There are some things that one should not eat, especially children.

(57) Church Sign: Do You Know What Hell Is? Come Hear Our New
Organist.

(58) Clean and decent boxing every night except Sunday.

(59) Apartment for rent: View takes in 4 counties. 2 bedrooms.

(60) For Sale: 1969 Cadillac hearse. Body in good condition.

(61) Lost cat: owner worried, neutered and declawed.

(62) Church Sign: Is there a God
who cares?

(63) Sign in druggists window:
We dispense with accuracy.

Composition

(64) We commit the fallacy of composition when we attempt to apply what is true of the part or
individual to the whole group.
(65)Example: If we say Jones is the best quarterback in the country.
Smith is the best Quarterback in the country. Davis is the best
receiver in the country. Putting them together on the Aggie team
will not necessarily make the Aggies the best team in the country.
Prima Donnas do not always make good choir members.

(66) A statement about an integral part of something is not necessarily true about the composite
whole.
(67) Consider the story of the six blind men and the elephant.
The one holding the tusk said, An elephant is sharp like a spear.

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The one holding the trunk said, No it is flexible like a rope.
The one holding the ear said, No it is soft like a palm leaf.
The one feeling its side said, It feels like a wall.

None of them described the elephant in its totality.

(68) Consider: The atomic bombs dropped during W.W.II did more
damage than the ordinary bombs dropped. (Collectively, more
conventional types were dropped. Collectively, the conventional
bombs did more damage.)

Division

(69) This fallacy occurs when an individual assumes that what is true of a composite whole is
true for each component part considered separately.

(70) Example: Texas A&M is a world famous institution.
Carl Jones attends Texas A&M.
Carl Jones is a world famous student.

(71) The fallacy of division takes place when one makes the assumption that what holds true
about a collection of elements must hold true for each of the individual elements themselves.

(72) Example: American Indians are disappearing.
Jim Big Crow is an American Indian.
Jim Big Crow is disappearing.

(73) What holds true of the composite - the group as a whole - is not necessarily true of the
individual parts.

(74) Example: The Chicago Symphony Orchestra is the best symphony
orchestra in the country. That doesnt mean that the
concert master is best violinist in the country.
(75) Example: Critics have hailed the Mormon Tabernacle Choir as one of
the best choirs in the world. The choir is composed of
amateurs (housewives, laborers, farmers, and merchants -
not exactly conservatory trained singers). Consequently,
the best choir may not be made up of the best individual
singers in the country.

Vicious Abstraction

(76) We commit the fallacy of vicious abstraction when we remove a statement from its
context, thereby changing the meaning of an argument.

(77) Example: Paul The love of money is the root of all evil.

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(78) Emerson: A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.
(79) Pope: A little learning is a dangerous thing.
(80) Bacon A little philosophy inclineth mans mind to atheism, but
depth in philosophy bringeth mens mind about to religion.

COMFTF 09-B
Fallacies of Irrelevance
Dr. David F. Maas
(81) The next set of fallacies we will term fallacies of relevancy or fallacies of irrelevance. The
first fallacy we will examine is called the irrelevant thesis. S. Morris Engel refers to the fallacy
of irrelevant thesis as an argument in which an attempt is made to prove a conclusion that is
not the one at issue.
(82) While seeming to refute another s argument, the writer or speaker advances a conclusion
different from the one at issue in the others argument. Some synonyms for irrelevant thesis
include: Irrelevant Conclusion, Ignoring the Issue, Befogging the Issue, Diversion, Red Herring.
The red herring refers to a practice in which prison escapees would smear themselves with a
herring ( which turns brown or red when it spoils) in order to throw dogs off their track.
(83) The irrelevant thesis succeeds in proving a point, but it is not the one at issue. Engel
suggests that the fallacy has two forms:
1. Attacking someone elses claim irrelevantly.
2. Defending a claim of ones own irrelevantly.

(84) Example: The advocates of conversation contend that if we adopt their
principles we will be better off than if we did not adopt
them. They are mistaken, for it is easy to show that
conservation will not produce an Eden on earth.

(85) Example: I fail to see why hunting should be considered cruel when it
gives tremendous pleasure to many people and
employment to even more.

(86) This argument simply avoids what it attempts to prove(that hunting is cruel to animals)
and attempts to prove what has not been argued( that hunting is advantageous for people.) This
resembles the prosecutor who thinks he has proved to the jury the defendants guilt by proving
that murder is a horrible and a horrible crime.

(87) Example: Darwin conclusively proved the principle of anatomical
similarity, but he did not prove evolution to be anything more than a
hypothesis.

(88) Example: Professor: Roger, You have missed 11 classes in a row. What is
your problem ?
Roger: Well, The professor last year spoke with a foreign
accent.


104

(90) Example: Professor: I noticed you havent been to class for over eight
times.
Student: Well, This class isnt like other English classes Ive
attended. Ive never heard some of those terms before.

(91) Both students may have made some truthful statements, but neither argument had
anything to do with the question at hand.

Appeal to Ignorance ( Argumentum ad Ignorantium)

(92) In the classic appeal to ignorance the assumption becomes made that something must be
true or correct merely because no one can prove it incorrect. As S. Morris Engel has suggests, we
dont emphasize the evidence for a thesis, but the lack of evidence against. often these arguments
are made in matters of psychic phenomena. telepathy , and the like.

(93) Example: There is bound to be life on other planets.
Really, can you prove it?
Well, can you prove there isnt

(94) This fallacy has sometimes been called shifting the burden of proof.
In a logical argument it is always the obligation of those who propose the argument to furnish the
proof.

(95) Example: Bush was a lousy president.
Why. what was so bad about him?
You tell me what was so good about him?

(96) Example: On good Friday of each year, while the congregation bowed
in prayer, the statue on the altar would kneel and shed tears. But if
even one member of the congregation looked up from prayers in
order to see the tears, the miracle would not occur.

(97) Example: The chiropractors have failed entirely in their attempts to
establish a scientific basis for their concepts. Consequently,
chiropractic has no basis in science.

Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordium)

(98) In this fallacy, we appeal to pity for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted.. Engel
adds that his fallacy seeks to persuade not by presenting evidence but by arousing pity.

(99) Example: Please officer, dont give me a ticket. My parents will take the car away from
me and my life will be miserable. The fallacy shamelessly exploits a single emotion- that of
sympathy. Misericordium ( meaning Mercy) is the Latin name for this fallacy.

105

(100) Several years ago , when a n entrepreneur laid out plans for a corporate farm. One
Midwestern senator tearfully whined to a farm group meeting:
Would you want to put all these people out in the cold or working in drab
factories?
Appeal to Prestige ( Argumentum Ad Verecundium)

(100) The appeal to prestige could be considered a variety of misplaced authority. This
fallacy equates prestige with evidence. When an authority is appealed to out of his field-using a
movie or recording star to peddle clothing, perfume, or automobiles we are guilty of using
appeal to prestige.

(101) Engel suggests that this argument can take several forms including:
1. Appeal to the one.
( If you like people , be sure you brush with Colgate. Charles Frasier wouldnt
think of brushing with anything else.)
2. Appeal to the many.
(Everybodys wearing it.)
3. Appeal to the select few.
(Infiniti- to set you apart from the crowd.)

(101) We could call Appeal to the select few as snob appeal, exploiting our desire to act like
aristocrats, that we belong not to the masses but to the select few.
(102) Examples: Camel Filters. Theyre not for everybody.
(103) Only one grape in 50 grows up to be great champagne.
(104) Guerlain is pleased to announce that only one man in 10,000 wears
Imperials.
(105) The Marine Corps is looking for a few good men.

Appeal to Force (Argumentum Ad Baculum)

(106) The appeal to force ( or fear) is the threat of force to cause acceptance of That conclusion.
If X isnt done, a bad thing will happen.

(107) Example If you dont buy this Viper car alarm, dont be surprised if you
walk out to the parking garage some night and find
your wife raped, beaten and murdered.

(108) Example: The Gay -Lesbian Lobbyist reminds the representative that he has
thousands of voters in his constituency who will vote against him if he doesnt
vote for the Gay rights bill.

(108) Example If you wont listen to our demands when we speak softly ,
youll feel our violent demands later.


106

(109) Example: The congressman who warns his colleagues, If you
dont vote for this Federal Jobs programs for young people, dont
blame me if there are riots in our large cities during the long hot
summer.

(110) The etymology (source) for Baculum means stick or club, implying that the user will
swing a big stick or club to get his or her conclusions accepted.. Consider this little gentle hint:
Mr. Editor, I hope you will agree that this little escapade has no real news
value. I know that youll agree that my firm buys thousands of dollars
worth of advertisement space in your paper every year. I suppose we could
consider another paper.

Argument from Ridicule (Argumentum Ad Hominem)

(111) The English translation of Ad Hominem becomes Against the Man (or a personal
attack). When someone attacks the character or personal quirk rather than his or her thesis he
uses a form of Ad Hominem attack.
(112) Example: He should clearly not be our leader. He has admitted having a
drinking problem.

(113) Example: This theory about a new cure for cancer has been introduced by a
woman known for her Atheistic tendencies. I dont see why we
should extend her the courtesy of our attention.

(114) Example: Dan Quayle would make a lousy candidate for president. He
cant even spell potato.
(115) Example: We have to discount Linda Tripps testimony in the Starr report.
She is overweight and has a double chin.

Argumentum Ad Populum ( Fallacy of Mob Appeal)

(116) The fallacy of mob appeal or the Ad populum appeal we can also refer to as the Band
Wagon or Everybody is doing it argument. Someone tries to persuade that a position should
be accepted because a large number of people have endorsed it.

(117) Example: You ought to buy your car from Cal Worthington Ford. Were the
largest dealer in southern California.

(118) Example: Join the Catholic Church- 800 million people cant be wrong.

(119) Example: A campaigning politician argues that he should receive our vote
because everybody is voting that way.

(120) Example: The child who begs his parents to let him see an R- rated movie
because all the other kids parents are allowing their friends
to see it.

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(121) The Appeal to the people has proved the favorite device of the demagogue, propagandist,
and advertiser. George Bernard Shaw seemed to sum it up best:
If 50 million people say a foolish thing-- it is still a foolish thing.

Fallacy of Accident (Sweeping Generalization)

(122) The fallacy of accident consists of applying a general law or rule to a special case for
which it is not appropriate.
(123) Example: When the robber asked me to tell him where the safe was,
I told him, because the Bible says we should not lie.
(124) Example: Since horseback riding is healthful exercise, Harry Brown
ought to do more of it because it will be good for his
heart condition.

(125) Example: If we believe that everyone should have the freedom of
speech in this country then we had better stop forbidding
judges from speaking out about cases they are handling.

(126) Example: I believe in the golden rule as an inherent duty to do unto
others as I would have them done unto me. If I were
puzzled by a question on an examination, I would want
my neighbor to help me. So it is my duty to help the
person next to me who has asked me to give her the answer to a question on this exam.

Fallacy Of Converse Accident ( Hasty Generalization)

(127) The Fallacy of Converse accident or the Hasty Generalization we could consider the
reverse of the sweeping generalization. In this fallacy an isolated or exceptional case is used as
the basis for a general conclusion which is unwarranted.

(128) Example: Marijuana was used experimentally to alleviate pain in
cancer victims, therefore marijuana should be used by
everybody.

(129) Example: LSD was used experimentally at UCLA to test recall and
association, therefore LSD ought to be made available for everybody.

(130) Example: I had a bad time with my former husband. From that
experience Ive learned that all men are no good.

(131) Example: I know one union representative and hes a terrible
person. I wouldnt trust any of them.


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Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
(After This , Therefore Causes This)

(132) This fallacy suggests that just because A preceded B , A must have caused B. Many
superstitions stem from this fallacy.
(133) Example: After I touched the toad I got warts. Touching toads
causes warts.
(134) Example: After Hoover was elected we had a Depression. Hoovers
economic policies caused the Depression.
(135) Example: Every time weve had a Democrat in office weve had a
war. Democrats cause wars.

Non-Sequitur ( It Doesnt Follow)

(136) In the non-sequitur fallacy , no logical connection can be found between the conclusion
and its premises. The individual statements may be true and relevant, but not logically
connected.

(137) Example: If it takes a man 20 minutes to walk a mile, a women
should be able to live longer than men.

Compound Questions

(138) This fallacy also goes under the name the loaded question, trick question, leading
question, fallacy of the false question, fallacy of many question, or poisoning the wells. This
error consists of combining several questions in such a manner as to preclude all opposing
arguments. We assume that a single question has been asked , whereas the wording implies that
prior questions have been asked (and answered)

(139) Example: Has your mother had any normal children?
(140) Example: When did you stop beating your wife?
(141) Example: Are you bragging or complaining?

(142) S. Morris Engel suggests that the Complex Question consists of the interrogative form of
Begging the Question. it leads one to believe that a particular answer to a prior question has
been answered in a certain way when this may not be the case. Engels suggests that before
rushing to answer a complex question, it is best to question the question.
(143) Example: Did John ever give up his bad habits?
(144) Example: Are you still a heavy drinker?
(145) Example: Are you still following that goofy cult?
(146) Example: What did you use to wipe your fingerprints from the gun?
(147) Example: How long had you contemplated this robbery before you
carried it out?

109

(148) Example: What are your views on the token effort made by the
government to deal with this monstrous oil crisis?
(149) Example: Was it through stupidity or through deliberate dishonesty that the
administration hopelessly botched our relations with Cuba?

(150) Example: When should you buy your first Cadillac? ( An assumption has already been
made on the positive merit of the product.)
(151) Example: What is the explanation for mental telepathy.(An
assumption has been made that it exists.)

Begging The Question

(152) According to Engel, the fallacy of begging the question is committed when, instead of
offering proof for its conclusion, an argument simply asserts the conclusion in another form.

(153) Example: Free trade will be good for this country. The reason is
patently clear. Isnt it obvious that unrestricted relations
will bestow on all sections of this nation the benefits which
result in an unimpeded flow of goods between countries.
(
(Free trade will be good for the country because free trade
will be good for the country.)

(154) Example: People cant help doing what they do.
Why not?
Because they always follow the strongest motive.
But what is the strongest motive?
It is, of course, the one that people follow.

(155) In Engels estimation, the repetition of a conclusion in another form should never be
mistaken for proof of that conclusion.

Tu Quoque ( You Yourself Do It)

(156) Tu Quoque is a fallacy of relevance because one person answers a charge against
himself by leveling the same charge against his opponents. In the recent presidential sex scandal,
the presidents supporters attempted to deflect the attack by pointing out moral faults in their
accusers. Also known as the double standard charge, the individual suggests that the
opponents argument is worthless because he failed to follow through on the same advice.
(157) Example: The son tells his father, Look whos telling me to stop smoking.
You smoke more than I do.

(158) Example: Far too much fuss has been made over our Central Intelligence
Agencys espionage abroad. Other countries are just as deeply
engaged in spying as we are.


110

Genetic Fallacy

(159) The genetic fallacy we call a fallacy of relevance because the source for an idea or
statement is not relevant in determining its truth. A person may hold a true belief even though it
may have developed for poor reasons. According to S. Morris Engel, the Genetic fallacy is a
variety of Argumentum Ad Hominem ( argument against the man) in which an attempt is made
to prove a conclusion false by condemning the source. The source of the idea is irrelevant to its
viability, truthfulness, or accuracy.

(160) Example: This scholarship aid proposal is calculated to exploit poor students, for it
was written by a committee composed only of members of the faculty and administration.
No scholarship students were on that committee.
(161) Example: We must take Schopenauers famous essay denouncing women with a grain of
salt. Any psychologist would at once explain this essay by reference to the strained relationship
between Schopenhauer and his mother.

(162) Example: Lets examine this suggestion that prisons should be made a better place to
live. Where does that idea come from? Its source is mostly men who have been in prison before,
convicted felons and criminals. Surely we can reject this idea just by knowing its source.

False Analogy

(163) In an analogy, it is assumed that since two things are alike in one respect, they might be
alike in other respects. But any major difference between the propositions destroys the analogy.
(164) Example: Women should make better Congressional Representatives than men, for
government is merely good housekeeping.

(165) Example: Why should we sentimentalize over a few hundred thousand Native Americans
who were ruined when our great civilization was being built? It may be that they suffered
injustices, but, after all, you cant make an omelet without breaking a few eggs.

(166) Example: What is taught on this campus should depend entirely on what students are
interested in. After all, consuming knowledge is like consuming anything else in society, The
teacher is the seller, the student is the buyer. Buyers determine what they want to buy, so
students should determine what they want to learn.

(The buyer knows the goods he purchases before he
purchases them. But does the student know the subject
before learning it.)

Insufficient Evidence

(167) Insufficient evidence consists of accepting inadequate data as a basis for a conclusion.

(168) Example: Proving the murder weapon belonged to the defendant
does not in itself prove that he used it to commit a crime.

111

(169) Example: The missing 18 minutes on the audio tape may lead to
speculation as to what may have been on the tape, but does
not constitute evidence.

Pathetic Fallacy ( Anthropomorphism)

(170) The pathetic fallacy consists of ascribing human feelings to non-human or inanimate
objects. The arguer uses poetic license to try to get his conclusion accepted.

(171) Example: Colonizing the wilderness is a bad idea. The very rocks
threatened us, warning us to go back.

(172) Example: The forest was gloomy and sinister, full of evil.

(173) Example: The day John Kennedy was shot ,a climate of
hatred enveloped Dallas. One could just feel it in the air.

Contrary to Fact Conditional Error

(174) This fallacy alters historical facts and then draws conclusions from them.

(175) Example: If Nixon had been allowed to continue in the
Whitehouse, the morals of this nation would have gone bankrupt.

(176) Example: If Goldwater had been in the Whitehouse, there
would have been no Viet Nam conflict.

(177) Example: If the South had won the Civil War, slavery would
have existed in the North.

Contradictory Premises

(178) This fallacy contains premises which contradict each other. We can reach no conclusion
because one premise cancels out another.

(179) Example: Is God All Powerful?
Yes
Could God make a rock so big He couldnt lift it?
I doubt it. Why would He want to do that?
How can you say He is all powerful then?

112

(180) Example: What happens when an irresistible force meets an
immovable object?
Nothing- one cancels the other.


113

Key Terms / Glossary / Index

Accent 04-26 Occurs when we try to deceive by changing the part of the
word or phrase to be emphasized.
Accident 13-122 The fallacy of accident consists of applying a general law or
rule to a special case for which it is not appropriate.
Ambiguity 03-18 Occurs when we use terms which are ill-defined, vague in
meaning, signifying a variety of ideas, none of which can be
made clear or precise either by definition or by the context.
Amphiboly 06-51 It results when words are incorrectly or loosely grouped in a
sentence giving rise to a meaning not intended by the author.
Appeal to Force 11-106 The threat of force is used to cause the acceptance of a
conclusion.
Appeal to Ignorance 10-92 The assumption becomes made that something must be true
or correct merely because no one can prove it incorrect.
Appeal to Pity 10-98 Seeks to persuade not by presenting evidence by
arousing pity.
Appeal to Prestige 11-100 When an authority is appealed to out of his field.
Argumentum 12-100 Latin for appeal to force - from baculum - meaning club.
Ad Baculum
Argumentum 12-111 Synonym for argument from ridicule. When someone
Ad Hominem attacks the character or personal quirk rather than
his or her thesis, he uses this form of attack.
Argumentum 10-92 See Appeal to Ignorance.
Ad Ignorantium
Argumentum 10-98 Synonym (Latin root) for appeal to pity.
Ad Misericordium
Argumentum 12-116 Occurs when someone tries to persuade that a position
Ad Populum should be accepted because a large number of
people have endorsed it.
Argument 12-111 The English translation of Ad Hominem Against the Man
from Ridicule
Associative Function 01-06 Language used to evoke powerful feelings.
Befogging the Issue 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.
Begging the Question 15-152 This fallacy is committed when instead of offering proof
for its conclusion, an argument simply asserts the conclusion in another form.

Complex Question 14-142 Another name for compound question

Composition 07-64 Occurs when we attempt to apply what is true of the part or
individual to the whole group.
Compound Questions 14-138 This error consists of combining several questions in such a
manner
as to preclude all opposing arguments. We assume that a single
question has been asked, wherein the wording implies that prior
questions have been asked (and answered).

114

Connotation 01-06 Language used to evoke powerful feelings.
Contradictory Premises 18-178 This fallacy contains premises which contradict each other.
We can reach no conclusion because one premise cancels out another.

Contrary to Fact 18-174 Alters historical facts and then draws conclusions from them.
Conditional Error
Converse Accident 13-127 An isolated or exceptional case is used as the basis for a
general conclusion which is unwarranted.
Denotation 01-05 Refers to an agreement between two or more people to
restrict what a word can mean.
Division 07-71 Occurs when an individual assumes what is true of a
composite whole is true for each component part considered separately.
Diversion 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.
Double Standard 15-156 Another name for the Tu Quoque or you yourself do it.
Charge
Emotive Language 01-04 The sole purpose of emotive language consists of the arousal of
unreasoned feeling, depending on the stimulation of the emotions.
Equivocation 02-13 Allowing a key word or phrase to shift its meaning in the
course of the argument.
Fallacy of the 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
False Question
Fallacy of 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
Many Questions
Fallacy of Mob Appeal 12-116 Someone tried to persuade that a position should be
accepted because a large number of people have endorsed it.
False Analogy 16-163 It is assumed in an analogy that since two things are alike
in other respects, they might be alike in other respects. But any major difference between the
propositions destroys the analogy.

Genetic Fallacy 16-159 An attempt is made to prove a conclusion false by condemning the
source.

Hasty Generalization 13-127 Another name for fallacy of converse accident.

Ignoring the Issue 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.

Insufficient Evidence 17-167 Consists of accepting inadequate date as a basis for a
conclusion.

Irrelevant Conclusion 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis.

Irrelevant Thesis 09-81 An argument in which an attempt is made to prove a conclusion
that is not the one at issue.

Leading Questions 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.

115

Linguistic Fallacies 01-03 Fallacies which primarily involve tampering with language or the
language structure.

Loaded Questions 14-138 Another name for Compound Questions.

Non-Sequitur 14-136 No logical connection can be found between the conclusion and its
premises. The individual statements may be true and relevant, but not logically connected.

Pathetic Fallacy 17-10 Ascribing human feelings to non-human or inanimate objects.

Pointer Function 01-05 The kinds of language we use to present information.
Poisoning the Wells 14-138 Another name for Compound Question.
Post Hoc Ergo 14-132 This fallacy suggests that just because A preceded B,
Propter Hoc A must have caused B.
Purr Words 01-06 Associative words used to evoke pleasant feelings.
Red Herring 09-82 Synonym for irrelevant thesis. Refers to a practice in which prison
escapes would smear themselves with a herring (which turns brown or red when it spoils) in
order to throw dogs off their track.

Shifting the Burden 10-94 Synonym for Appeal to Ignorance.
of Proof

Snarl Words 01-06 Associative words used to create ill-will.

Sweeping 13-122 Another term for Fallacy of Accident.
Generalization

Trick Question 14-138 Another name for Compound Questions.

Tu Quoque 15-156 One person answers a charge against himself by leveling the same
charge against his opponents.

Vicious Abstraction 08-76 Occurs when we remove a statement from its context, thereby
changing the meaning of an argument.


116

Logical Fallacies
Objectives
COMFTF08

1. Define and provide examples of the emotive language fallacy. 01-04
2. Define and provide examples of the equivocation fallacy. 02-13
3. Define and provide examples of the ambiguity fallacy. 03-18
4. Define and provide examples of the accent fallacy. 04-22
5. Define and provide examples of the fallacy of amphiboly. 06-51
6. Define and provide examples of the composition fallacy. 07-64
7. Define and provide examples of the division fallacy. 07-69
8. Define and provide examples of the vicious abstractions fallacy. 08-76
9. Define and provide examples of the irrelevant thesis fallacy. 09-81
10. Define and provide examples of the red herring fallacy. 09-82
11. Define and provide examples of the appeal to ignorance (argumentium
ad ignorantium) fallacy. 10-92
12. Define and provide examples of the appeal to pity (misericordium) fallacy. 10-98
13. Define and provide examples of the appeal to prestige (argumentum ad
verecundium) fallacy. 11-100
14. Define and provide examples of the appeal to force (argumentium ad baculum)
fallacy. 11-106
15. Define and provide examples of the argument from ridicule (ad hominem) fallacy.
12-111
16. Define and provide examples of the argumentum ad populum (fallacy of mob
appeal) fallacy. 12-116
17. Define and provide examples of the accident or sweeping generalization fallacy. 13-122
18. Define and provide examples of the converse accident (hasty generalization)
fallacy. 13-127
19. Define and provide examples of the post hoc ergo propter hoc (A preceded B;
A caused B) fallacy. 14-132
20. Define and provide examples of the non-sequitur (it doesnt follow) fallacy. 14-
136
21. Define and provide examples of the compound question fallacy. 14-138
22. Define and provide examples of the begging the question fallacy. 15-152
23. Define and provide examples of the tu quoque (you yourself do it) fallacy. 15-156
24. Define and provide examples of the genetic fallacy. 16-159
25. Define and provide examples of the false analogy fallacy. 16-163
26. Define and provide examples of the insufficient evidence fallacy. 17-167
27. Define and provide examples of the pathetic fallacy (anthropomorphism) fallacy.
17-170
28. Define and provide examples of the contrary to fact conditional error. 18-174
29. Define and provide examples of the contradictory premises fallacy. 18-178


117

COMFTF-10
The Paraphrase Clinic

For the last 44 years, as an English teacher, I have waged a relentless war against
plagiarism or academic burglary. During my recent 10 years at Wiley College I have developed a
technique called the paraphrase clinic which has yielded positive results. My students who use
this technique encounter no difficulty with the Turn-It-In radar, and actually find that normally
terrifying system an ally.
Most research papers in my Advanced Composition courses have a body of 7-10 pages. I
remind the students that this does not count the cover page, outline, or bibliography. Each page
within the body should contain roughly four paraphrases. For each paraphrase appearing in the
paper, the student must submit one template, highlighting the original material in red (with each
consecutive sentence numbered), followed by a sentence by sentence paraphrase highlighted in
green. At the conclusion, the green sentences are reassembled into a coherent paragraph,
beginning with a lead-in or attributive tag and a page number surrounded by parentheses. The
final green paragraph is the item that will appear in the body of the text.
I then ask students to attach an appendix of ALL templates used in the paper, in the order
in which they appear in the paper. If the paper is 7 pages long, the appendix should consist of 28
pages; if the paper is 10 pages long, the appendix will consist of 40 pages. Because I ask for all
the research papers to come in electronically, I do not worry about wasting paper or red and
green ink.
Three times in the semester, I ask the students to do two additional phases- highlighting
in purple how they changed the red sentences to the green sentences. Earlier in the semester
they have gone through a basic grammar review with a concentrated unit on sentence combining.
The students learn to substitute synonyms (nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs), converting one
grammatical category into another, changing the word order, changing passive to active voice,
using E-prime, etc. Consequently 3 out of the 40 pages in the appendix will have the purple
descriptors.

The following sequence of illustrations highlights the three phases of the paraphrase
clinic process.
The first phase the students do in class- selecting a paragraph from a book,
magazine or internet source, highlighting it in red, and numbering each sentence.
The student then sentence by sentence makes paraphrases, highlighting his or her
efforts in green. The green sentences are then reassembled at the end. Every
completed paraphrase MUST HAVE A LEAD-IN (OR ATTRIBUTIVE TAG) at
the beginning and a page number at the end surrounded by parentheses. At the
top of the template the student must insert a TAP (title, author, and page number)
along with a brief description of the contents.
The second phase consists of copying and pasting the red/green pair immediately
under each red/green pair. The duplicate pair is highlighted in black.
The third phase consists of adding purple explanatory notes as to how the red
sentences were converted to green. Even though each sentence may have from 3-
5 strategies, I require only one for each pair. Within a week, I require the students
to e-mail the revised phase back to me.


118

Phase 01: Red and Green
Title Gustav Mahlers Symphony No. 1 D major, Edition Eulenburg, No. 570
Author Hans Redlich,

Page 1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._1_(Mahler)

1The Symphony No. 1 in D major by Gustav Mahler was mainly composed between late 1887
and March 1888, though it incorporates music Mahler had composed for previous works.2 It was
composed while Mahler was second conductor at the Leipzig Opera, Germany. 3Although in his
letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as a symphony, the first two performances
described it as a symphonic poem or tone poem.4The work was premired at the Vigad Concert
Hall, Budapest in 1889, but was not well received. 5Mahler made some major revisions for the
second performance, given at Hamburg in October 1893; further alterations were made in the
years prior to the first publication, in late 1898. 6Some modern performances and recordings
give the work the title Titan, despite the fact that Mahler only used this label for two early
performances, and never after the work had reached its definitive four-movement form in 1896.

and March 1888, though it incorporates music Mahler had composed for previous works

According to Hans Redlick, Gustav Mahler composed his first symphony between late 18887
and early 1888, incorporating some music he had composed for previous works.

2 It was composed while Mahler was second conductor at the Leipzig Opera, Germany.
Mahler composed this work while conducting at the Leipzig Opera in Germany.

3Although in his letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as a symphony, the first two
performances described it as a symphonic poem or tone poem

Even though in several of his letters, he always called his work a symphony, he termed it a
symphonic poem for the first two performances.

4 The work was premired at the Vigad Concert Hall, Budapest in 1889, but was not well
received.

When the work premiered in Budapest at the Vigado Concert Hall, it did not receive hospitable
reception.

119

5Mahler made some major revisions for the second performance, given at Hamburg in October
1893; further alterations were made in the years prior to the first publication, in late 1898.

For the second performance Mahler revised it considerably and made more before the first
official publication in late 1898

6Some modern performances and recordings give the work the title Titan, despite the fact that
Mahler only used this label for two early performances, and never after the work had reached its
definitive four-movement form in 1896.

Modern performances often label the work the Titan even though Mahler himself only used this
title for the first two performances and actually dropped the term after the work evolved into the
four movement structure in 1896.(1)

and early 1888, incorporating some music he had composed for previous works. Mahler
composed this work while conducting at the Leipzig Opera in Germany. Even though in several
of his letters, he always called his work a symphony, he termed it a symphonic poem for the first
two performances. When the work premiered in Budapest at the Vigado Concert Hall, it did not
receive hospitable reception. For the second performance Mahler revised it considerably and
made more before the first official publication in late 1898.Modern performances often label the
work the Titan even though Mahler himself only used this title for the first two performances and
actually dropped the term after the work evolved into the four movement structure in 1896.(1)


120

Phase 02: Add the Black pairs


Page 1


and March 1888, though it incorporates music Mahler had composed for previous works.2 It was
composed while Mahler was second conductor at the Leipzig Opera, Germany. 3Although in his
letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as a symphony, the first two performances
described it as a symphonic poem or tone poem.4The work was premired at the Vigad Concert
Hall, Budapest in 1889, but was not well received. 5Mahler made some major revisions for the
second performance, given at Hamburg in October 1893; further alterations were made in the
years prior to the first publication, in late 1898. 6Some modern performances and recordings
give the work the title Titan, despite the fact that Mahler only used this label for two early
performances, and never after the work had reached its definitive four-movement form in 1896.








121





received.

reception.

received.

reception.






122





and early 1888, incorporating some music he had composed for previous works. Mahler
composed this work while conducting at the Leipzig Opera in Germany. Even though in several
of his letters, he always called his work a symphony, he termed it a symphonic poem for the first
two performances. When the work premiered in Budapest at the Vigado Concert Hall, it did not
receive hospitable reception. For the second performance Mahler revised it considerably and
made more before the first official publication in late 1898.Modern performances often label the
work the Titan even though Mahler himself only used this title for the first two performances and
actually dropped the term after the work evolved into the four movement structure in 1896.(1)


123

Phase 03: Add the purple descriptions


Page 1


1The Symphony No. 1 in D major by Gustav Mahler was mainly composed between
late 1887 and March 1888, though it incorporates music Mahler had composed for
previous works.2 It was composed while Mahler was second conductor at the Leipzig
Opera, Germany. 3Although in his letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as
a symphony, the first two performances described it as a symphonic poem or tone
poem.4The work was premired at the Vigad Concert Hall, Budapest in 1889, but was
not well received. 5Mahler made some major revisions for the second performance,
given at Hamburg in October 1893; further alterations were made in the years prior to
the first publication, in late 1898. 6Some modern performances and recordings give the
work the title Titan, despite the fact that Mahler only used this label for two early
performances, and never after the work had reached its definitive four-movement form
in 1896.

Add lead-in

previous works

According to Hans Redlick, Gustav Mahler composed his first symphony between late
18887 and early 1888, incorporating some music he had composed for previous works

previous works

18887 and early 1888, incorporating some music he had composed for previous works.

Replace passive voice with active voice


124

Synonym Substitution: Verbs
3 Although in his letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as a symphony, the
first two performances described it as a symphonic poem or tone poem

Even though in several of his letters, he always called his work a symphony, he termed
it a symphonic poem for the first two performances.

3Although in his letters Mahler almost always referred to the work as a symphony, the
first two performances described it as a symphonic poem or tone poem

Even though in several of his letters, he always called his work a symphony, he termed
it a symphonic poem for the first two performances.

E-Prime Strategy Substitute Do verb for a Be Verb
4 The work was premired at the Vigad Concert Hall, Budapest in 1889, but was not
well received.

When the work premiered in Budapest at the Vigado Concert Hall, it did not receive
hospitable reception.

4 The work was premired at the Vigad Concert Hall, Budapest in 1889, but was not
well received.

When the work premiered in Budapest at the Vigado Concert Hall, it did not receive
hospitable reception.

5Mahler made some major revisions for the second performance, given at Hamburg in
October 1893; further alterations were made in the years prior to the first publication, in
late 1898.

For the second performance Mahler revised it considerably and made more before the
first official publication in late 1898

5Mahler made some major revisions for the second performance, given at Hamburg in
October 1893; further alterations were made in the years prior to the first publication, in
late 1898.

For the second performance Mahler revised it considerably and made more before the
first official publication in late 1898


125

Synonym Substitution: verbs
6Some modern performances and recordings give the work the title Titan, despite the
fact that Mahler only used this label for two early performances, and never after the
work had reached its definitive four-movement form in 1896.

Modern performances often label the work the Titan even though Mahler himself only
used this title for the first two performances and actually dropped the term after the work
evolved into the four movement structure in 1896.(1)

6Some modern performances and recordings give the work the title Titan, despite the
fact that Mahler only used this label for two early performances, and never after the
work had reached its definitive four-movement form in 1896.

Modern performances often label the work the Titan even though Mahler himself only
used this title for the first two performances and actually dropped the term after the work
evolved into the four movement structure in 1896.(1)

18887 and early 1888, incorporating some music he had composed for previous works.
Mahler composed this work while conducting at the Leipzig Opera in Germany. Even
though in several of his letters, he always called his work a symphony, he termed it a
symphonic poem for the first two performances. When the work premiered in Budapest
at the Vigado Concert Hall, it did not receive hospitable reception. For the second
performance Mahler revised it considerably and made more before the first official
publication in late 1898.Modern performances often label the work the Titan even
though Mahler himself only used this title for the first two performances and actually
dropped the term after the work evolved into the four movement structure in 1896.(1)


126

COMFTF 11
36 Strategies
To Say It
In Different Words
A Hyper-Text
Paraphrase Manual
Dr. David F. Maas
October 3, 2011


127

Table of Contents

Add
Add Adjective
AddAdverb
Add Agent
Add Appositive
Add Lead-in
Add Prepositional Phrase
Add Relative Clause
Add Subordinating Conjunction
Add Verbs

Change
Change Passive to Active Voice
Change Word Order

E-Prime Strategies
E-Prime Strategy: Add Agent or Subject
E-Prime Strategy: Replace Expletive Place Holder with Agent or Subject
E-Prime Strategy: Replace Linking Verb with Action Verb
E-Prime Strategy:Subject Complement becomes Subject

Replace Grammatical Categories

Replace Adjective with Prepositional Phrase
Replace Adjective with Verb
Replace Adverb with Adjective
Replace Adverb with Prepositional Phrase
Replace Apostrophe with a Prepositional Phrase
Replace Noun with Adjective
Replace Participle with a Verb
Replace Preposition with Adverb
Replace Prepositional Phrase with a Clause
Replace Propositional Phrase with Infinitive Phrase
Replace Prepositional Phrase with Participle
Replace Pronoun with Proper Noun
Replace Relative Clause With Past Participle
Replace Subordinate Clause with an Appositive

128

Replace Verb Phrase with Subordinate Clause
Replace Verb with Participle

Synonym Substitution
Synonym Substitution: Adjectives
Synonym Substitution: Nouns
Synonym Substitution: Prepositions
Synonym Substitution: Subordinate Clauses
Synonym Substitution: Verb Phrases

Dr. David F. Maas has undertaken to model five
basic patterns of paraphrasing, including adding
words, changing syntactical order, using E-
Prime strategies, replacing grammatical
categories, and using synonym substitution.
This work is merely a prototype, a preview of a
larger, more expansive work to come out in the
future.

The hypertext table of contents should enable
the student to locate pertinent examples quickly.


129

ADD

Add Adjective(s)

5. The vigorous finale combines elements of sonata and rondo form and ends with a climactic
fugato in which in the opening theme of the first movement reappears.

In the vigorous finale, the players combine elements of the sonata and rondo form, ending with a
powerful climactic fugato ( in the style of a fugue or an interweaving of themes) ,reintroducing
the theme from the first movement.(3)

Add Adjective(s) :
The instrumental choirs/the various instrumental sections
The tempo wavers, disintegrates ; the instrumental choirs lose synch with each other , accelerate
at vertiginously varying attempt.
According to Mark Adamo, as the temper wavers, the various instrumental sections go out of
sync, accelerating into confused states. (04)

1Schumann sketched the music of his piano quintet in just five days in September 1842, and he
completed the score on October 12.

According to musicologist Leonard Burkat, Robert Schumann drafted the music of his brilliant
piano quartet in September 1842, in an impressive five short days, completing the entire score
by October 12,1842.


piano quartet in September 1842, in an impressive five short days, completing the entire score
by October 12,1842

Add Word: Adjective

4 There are two contrasting trio sections here: the first superimposes the complexity of the
strings counterpoint on that of the pianos rhythm, and the second is a restless rustic dance

In the trio, we find two contrasting sections: the first blend the complex string counterpoint on
the rhythm of the piano, and the second features a dazzling rustic dance.

130

Add Adverb(s)

2 In November it was read through at the Schumann home in Leipzig by a quartet of
distinguished string players and Clara Schuman, the composers wife, who was one of the greatest
pianists of the time.

Later, in November, a quartet of accomplished string players as well as Robert Schumanns wife
Clara, noted as one of the most virtuoso pianists of the time sight-read the piece through at the
Schumann home in Leipzig.

To Table of Contents

Add Agent
The first movement, subtitled Of Rage and Remembrance begins in fury. A single incisive
string tone hardens from a keen to a snarl before percussion strikes it silent.
According to Mark Adamo, in the first movement, which Carigliano subtitled Of Rage and
Remembrance, the theme begins furiously and becomes bolder before the percussion snuffs it
out.(04)

Add Appositive

3 At a private performance in December Felix Mendelssohn played the piano part.

Composer and pianist Felix Mendelssohn played the piano part at a private performance in
December of that year.

Add Appositive
3He discussed the possibilities with Francois Mauriac and a scenario was devised, starting with
the young mans desire for a military life, his disillusionment with the brutality of soldiers,
conflict with his father, the meeting with Lady Poverty and his withdrawal to the hills to pray: he
falls asleep on the ground and finally , with three faithful followers, takes Poverty as his bride, as
the Franciscan Order is founded.

Massine brainstormed with his friend Fancois Mauriac about possible scenarios in this ballet,
including the young mans desire to enter the military, his disgust with the soldiers brutality, his
conflict he had with his father, his encounter with Lady Poverty and his subsequent withdrawing
to the hills to pray. As he awakens from sleep, he takes Poverty as his bride, leading to the
foundation of the Franciscan order.


131

Add Lead-in


According to musicologist Leonard Burkat, Robert Schumann drafted the music of his
brilliant piano quartet in September 1842, in an impressive five short days, completing the entire
score by October 12, 1842.

1The music begins with a powerful declarative main subject that Schumann mines skillfully for
the elements of all the tunes in the marvelously melodic movement.

According to Leonard Burkat,Schumanns Quintet in e flat declares a main subject which
Schumann derives skillfully fashions, rearranging elements of several marvelous melodies.

Add Words: Lead-in
1The Dance Legend, Nobilissima Visione again had a pictorial source, the Giotto frescoes in the
Church of Santa Croce in Florence, which Hindemeth saw during a visit in May 1937

According to Armin Firouzmande, the Ballet Nobilissima Visione had a pictorial source for its
inspiration.When Hindemeth visited the Church of Santa Croce in Florence in 1937, he was
enchanted by the Giotti frescoes.


out. (04)

Add First Name before Surname


piano quartet in September 1842, in an impressive five short days, completing the entire score by


132

Add Parenthetical Expression

powerful climactic fugato ( in the style of a fugue or an interweaving of themes)
,reintroducing the theme from the first movement.(3)






inspiration. When Hindemeth visited the Church of Santa Croce in Florence in 1937, he was

Add Words : Preposition


In the vigorous finale, the players combine elements of the sonata and rondo form, ending with
a powerful climactic fugato ( in the style of a fugue or an interweaving of themes),
reintroducing the theme from the first movement.(3)

Add Relative Clause

out.(04)


133

Add Subordinating Conjunction:
the tempo wavers/ as the tempo wavers

The tempo wavers, disintegrates; the instrumental choirs lose synch with each other, accelerate
According to Mark Adamo, as the tempo wavers, the various instrumental sections go out of

Add Verb(s)


inspiration, When Hindemeth visited the Church of Santa Croce in Florence in 1937, he was

CHANGE

Change Passive to Active Voice

Sentence( 01) Antar was at first designated a symphony, being the second of Rimsky-
Korsakovs compositions in this class , but was afterwards called Oriental Suite.

Change passive to active voice
According to the article Antar on the online website, Music with Ease Rimsky Korsakov
first designated this work a symphony, but later classified it as an Oriental Suite. (1)

Replace passive voice by a slow heartbeat of tympani with active voice tympani throbs as with a
slow heartbeat
Enter the orchestra,paced by a slow heartbeat of timpani; high in the register, bitter trumpets hint
of threat of panic.
According to Mark Adamo,when the orchestra enters, the tympani throbs as with a slow
heartbeat. The trumpets, in a high register foreshadow an ominous threat. (04)

134

distinguished string players and Clara Schuman, the composers wife, who was one of the
greatest pianists of the time.


Change Word Order

Change Word Oder:

2 The choreographer Massine at first doubted the possibility of creating a devotional style in a
ballet that is based,as are the paintings, on the life of Saint Fancis of Assisi.

The Ballets choreographer Massine had grave reservations about creating a ballet in a
devotional style derived from the life of Saint Francis of Assisi.

Change word order: high in the register / trumpets, in the high register
Enter the orchestra,paced by a slow heartbeat of timpani; high in the register, bitter trumpets
hint of threat of panic.


Later, in November, a quartet of accomplished string players as well as Robert Schumanns
wife Clara, noted as one of the most virtuoso pianists of the time sight-read the piece through
at the Schumann home in Leipzig.




135

E-Prime Strategy: Add agent or subject

2 The second movement is in the manner of a march, but it is a somber cortege rather than a
bright parade march, with an agitated section written as a contrasting trio.

The ensemble plays the second movement in the manner of a march, but more like a dirge-like
funeral procession rather than a crisp military march. This somber march is contrasted with an
agitated trio.

E-Prime Strategy: Add Agent or Subject


In the vigorous finale, the players combine elements of the sonata and rondo form, ending with
a powerful climactic fugato ( in the style of a fugue or an interweaving of themes)
,reintroducing the theme from the first movement.(3)

E-Prime Strategy : Replace expletive place holder with agent or subject:


In the trio, we find two contrasting sections: the first blends the complex string counterpoint on


3The main theme of the Scherzo is no more than a simple scale, but its rhythms are so
ingeniously spaced by Schumann that the ear can hardly guess where the beat really is.

A simple scale provides the skeletal structure of the main theme of the Scherzo, but Schumann
has so cleverly arranged the rhythms that the listener can hardly determine where the real beat
occurs.





136

E-Prime Strategy: Subject Complement becomes the subject


has so cleverly arranged the rhythms that the listener can hardly determine where the real beat is.

Replace Grammatical Categories

Replace Adjective with Prepositional Phrase:



Replace Adjective with Verb


Schumanns Quintet in e flat declares a main subject which Schumann derives skillfully
fashions, rearranging elements of several marvelous melodies.

Replace Adverb with Adjective:

Schumanns Quintet in E flat declares a main subject which Schumann derives skillfully

Replace Adverb with Adjective:


has so cleverly arranged the rhythms that the listener can hardly determine where the real beat is.


137

Replace Adverb with Prepositional Phrase:
vertiginously varying attempt/into confused states
The tempo wavers, disintegrates; the instrumental choirs lose synch with each other , accelerate

Replace Appositive with Prepositional Phrase

inspiration, When Hindemeth visited the Church of Santa Croce in Florence in 1937, he was

Replace Apostrophe with Prepositional Phrase:



Replace Noun with Adjective



Replace Participle with Verb:


agitated trio.


138

Replace Passive Voice with Active Voice
Replace passive voice by a slow heartbeat of tympani with active voice tympani throbs as with a
slow heartbeat
of threat of panic.

Replace Preposition with Adverb

out.(04)


Replace Prepositional Phrase with a Clause


agitated trio.

Replace Prepositional Phrase with Infinitive Phrase

Massine brainstormed with his friend Francois Mauriac about possible scenarios in this ballet,
including the young mans desire to enter the military, his disgust with the soldiers brutality,
his conflict he had with his father, his encounter with Lady Poverty and his subsequent
withdrawing to the hills to pray. As he awakens from sleep, he takes Poverty as his bride, leading
to the foundation of the Franciscan order.


139

Replace Prepositional Phrase with Participle

powerful climactic fugato ( in the style of a fugue or an interweaving of themes)
reintroducing the theme from the first movement.(3)


4. He suggested some revisions, which Schumann made in time for the first performance, on
January 8,1843, in the Leipzig Gewahndhaus.

Felix Mendelssohn advised Schumann to make a few revisions, a task Schumann accomplished
before the first performance in the Leipzig Gewandhaus in January8, 1843.(3)
Table of Contents



Replace Relative Clause with a Past Participle




140

Replace Subordinate Clause with an Appositive:



Replace Verb Phrase with Subordinate Clause

Replace verb phrase Enter the orchestra with subordinate clause When the orchestra enters
Enter the orchestra,paced by a slow heartbeat of timpani; high in the register, bitter trumpets
hint of threat of panic.



October 12,1842.



powerful climactic fugato (in the style of a fugue or an interweaving of themes), reintroducing
the theme from the first movement.(3)

accelerate at/ accelerating
The tempo wavers, disintegrates; the instrumental choirs lose synch with each other, accelerate at
vertiginously varying attempt.


141

Synonym Substitution
Synonym Substitution :Adjectives













142

agitated trio.


agitated trio.


is.



the instrumental choirs / the instrumental sections

The tempo wavers, disintegrates; the instrumental choirs lose synch with each other ,
accelerate at vertiginously varying attempt.


being like God/ Godly power

The attitude Jesus showed in washing His disciples' feet is the same attitude that enabled Him to
give up the power and glory of being like God and become a man.


143

According to Richard Ritenbaugh, when Jesus washed the disciples feet, He demonstrated the
same attitude which lead Him to put aside His Godly Power in order to become a human
being.(4)

Synonym Substitution: Nouns Become a man / become a human being


being.(4)

Synonym Substitution: Prepositions



Synonym Substitution: Subordinate Clauses





October 12,1842.


144








is.




ballet that is based, as are the paintings, on the life of Saint Francis of Assisi.

The Ballets choreographer had grave reservations about creating a ballet in a devotional style
derived from the life of Saint Francis of Assisi.

Synonym Substitutions: Verbs


145



Synonym Substitution: Verbs called/ classified
Sentence( 01) Antar was at first designated a symphony, being the second of Rimsky-
Korsakovs compositions in this class , but was afterwards called Oriental Suite.
According to the article Antar on the online website, Music with Ease Rimsky Korsakov first
designated this work a symphony, but later classified it as an Oriental Suite. (1)

Synonym Substitution: Verbs give up/ put aside


being.(4)

Synonym Substitution Verbs: are able to/need to follow

When we come to the point that we are able to do everything in an attitude of service and
humility, we are truly following Jesus Christ.

We need to follow His example of accepting the status of a menial servant, doing everything in
an attitude of humility.(4)

Synonym Substitution: Verbs hardens/ becomes bolder


146


out.(04)

Synonym Substitution: Verbs strikes it silent with snuffs it out.


out.(04)



ballet that is based,as are the paintings, on the life of Saint Fancis of Assisi.

The Ballets choreographer had grave reservations about creating a ballet in a devotional style
derived from the life of Saint Francis of Assisi.

Synonym substitution:verbs-
hint of threat of panic/ foreshadow an ominous threat.
of threat of panic.

lose sync with each other/go out of sync
The tempo wavers, disintegrates ; the instrumental choirs lose sync with each other , accelerate at
vertiginously varying attempt.


147

COMFTF-12

MAKE YOUR PARAPHRASING PLAGIARISM PROOF WITH
A COAT OF E-PRIME

DAVID F. Maas*
* David Maas, Ed .D ., Professor of English at Wiley College, Marshall, Texas, author of
Many ETC articles, currently serves as VP/Education, ISGS .

I WOULD LIKE TO DEDICATE this article to the memory of my late friend and
mentor, D . David Bourland, Jr . I think he would have derived tremendous satisfaction from
knowing that one of his disciples had found yet another use for the E-Prime extensional device.
In my opinion the biggest scourge to the English teacher (or any teacher for that matter) consists
of the perennial epidemic of plagiarism, which occurs all too frequently in our schools, colleges,
and universities. I have taught English for over 46 years in public and private schools,
community colleges, business colleges, state colleges and universities, as well as several church-
related colleges .Whether appealing to the Judeo-Christian ethic (Exodus 20 :15) or stressing
the legal ramifications of academic burglary, I have never had one plagiarism-free semester .
Recently, however, I have had huge success in my freshman and Advanced Composition classes
at Wiley College incorporating a series of paraphrase clinics using E-Prime as a major
paraphrasing strategy.

Plagiarism, I inform the class, consists of taking someone else's words and passing them off as
one's own . The most egregious form of plagiarism consists of lifting an entire article or book
manuscript and passing it off as one's own. Partial or a la carte plagiarism consists of simply
changing the tense or the voice of the sentence, substituting past tense verbs for present
tense verbs, passive for active voice, removing an occasional adjective, making the manuscript
appear somewhat "different" from the original, or simply substituting synonyms without really
understanding the sense of the passage.

I generally begin my paraphrase clinics by telling a personal story of the guilt I felt when my
ninth grade English teacher gave me an A+ on a paper I had plagiarized, pinning it to the bulletin
board next to my desk, leaving it there for three weeks. My ears often glowed crimson during
that display. I then go on to routine problems of lead-ins and in-text page citations,
stressing the need to include introductory phrases such as, "According to Smith" or the generic
"One authority states" for every piece of documentation, whether precis, summary, paraphrase,
or direct quotations . I emphasize that page numbers also need to be used for every borrowed
entry, including Web sources, reminding the students that when they download the article as hard
copy, page numbers magically appear. As the students have acquiesced to the idea of proper
documentation, I take them through a sentence-combining workshop in which they learn
concision in their writing by replacing relative clauses and subordinate clauses with participial
phrases or prepositional phrases, and replacing phrases with single word qualifiers or
punctuation . Students go through exercises splicing clauses with relative pronouns, participial
phrases, or other such modifying devices.


148

I then take the students through an extemporaneous fluency exercise developed by my late
speech Professor, Dr . Edward Palzer, who demonstrated that from one compound complex
sentence, a student can get up to ten variations. The student makes variations by changing the
word order, breaking it up into shorter sentences, using subordinating devices such as
subordinating conjunctions, participles, or other subordinating, modifying
devices, or finding synonyms.

After we have begun the research paper unit, the students having selected their topics and framed
the tentative thesis, I then distribute paraphrase worksheets which the students fill out every
Friday, six weeks before the due date. I emphasize to the students "You can write a research
paper in twenty hours, but you can't write a research paper in twenty hours," explaining
the conundrum by suggesting that the students cannot coalesce the hours together, but they must
intersperse them over a period of time allowing plenty of time for rest and recharging the nerve
batteries . Paraphrasing, I remind them, takes a great deal of cerebral energy. If a student does it
correctly, his forehead should feel almost hot enough to fry an egg . Consequently, to keep
students from burning-out or succumbing to the temptation of plagiarizing, I encourage them to
paraphrase in short daily segments, collecting and processing the data incrementally. I also ask
them to complete the following paraphrase exercise form, turning in one written out of class
and one composed during class on a weekly basis .

Dr. Mark Hopkin, Professor of Education and media specialist at Wiley
College, has prepared an electronic template of my handout. The template
appears in the format below .

Paraphrase Assignment
Student Name: Your Name Here
Date: Month 00, 2013
Original Material
Title:
Author:
Page (s)
Text
(Erase these lines then type your original text here.)
Text
Text
More Text
My Paraphrase
Text
(Erase these lines then type your paraphrase text here .)
Text
Text
More Text

At the end of the paraphrase clinic session, the students turned their completed
assignments in to me. After the second paraphrase clinic, I introduce the E-Prime unit, using the
following handout :

149

COMFTF12-E
Composition
First Things First
E-Prime Unit
(E')
Make your paraphrasing plagiarism-proof with a coat of E-Primer
Dr. David F. Maas
Dr. Karen L. Cruey, MD, in her informative chapter, "A Linguistic Tool in Psychiatric
Evaluation," has provided a succinct definition of E-Prime :

Briefly, E-Prime encompasses all of the English language (E) minus any
form of the verb to be:
E'= E - to be .

Its use prohibits present tense (am, is, are), past tense (was, were), progressive
forms (being), past participle (been), abbreviated forms of the preceding
tenses ('m, 's, 're), the infinitive (to be), as well as dialectal forms
such as ain't .

E-Prime does not permit use of to be as an auxiliary for the passive
voice, and excludes linking a noun phrase with an adjective phrase or another
noun phrase with any of its forms . (Cruey : p .403)

The Passive Voice
The passive voice displaces the role player, often recasting the objects in the subject slot using
the following pattern :
Noun phrase + verb phrase [including to be] .

The gun was fired .

The gun was fired by John .

The report was written . (Cruey : p .405)

Possible alternatives using E-Prime

A policeman fired the gun .

John fired the gun .

John, the chairman of the Department of Psychology, wrote the report
. (Cruey : p.405)


150

The newly appointed members of the steering committee wrote the repor .
The "is of identity"
The "is of identity" connects two noun phrases with a form of the to be
or the copula verb using the following pattern:
Noun phrase + [to be] + noun phrase. (Cruet' : p .405)

The false to fact construction often makes an occasional behavior equivalent
to a person's identity, such as m

I am a procrastinator.

I am a slob.

She is a doctor.

One could just as easily connect up the noun phrases :

Joe is a nose picker.

Jane is a yawner.

Possible alternatives using E-Prime:
I didn't turn my assignment in until after the break .
I left my socks, shoes, and jacket on the hall floor .

She began her residency in internal medicine last July .

The "is of predication"
The "is of predication" connects a noun phrase to an adjective phrase using
a form of the verb to be with the following pattern :
Noun phrase + [to be] + adjective clause . (Cruey : p .405)

This false to fact construction detaches the nervous system from the evaluation, ascribing
qualities called predicates, such as color, taste, texture, etc . to a subject, such as :

The rose is red.

The road is rough.

I am fat.

He is evil.


151

These constructions invalidate the vital role played by the nervous system
in the evaluation .
Possible alternatives using E-Prime :

I see the rose as red .

The rose looks red to me .

Mary said, "I think I look fat ." She gained 50 pounds because of
compulsive eating and now weighs 300 pounds .

His mother called him evil because he stole a nickel from her purse .
Another handout I use with the class I derived from an article by James
C. Brolin and Michael J. Lesnik, "To Be or Not to Be : Reducing Language
Traps in the Rehabilitation Process," containing several tables illustrating
how to reword "is of identity" and "is of predication" statements into
E-Prime (Brolin, p .478, p .480) .

Rewording the "Is of Identity"
Labeling E-Prime
E-Prime
A . Fred is retarded . B. Fred reads at a second grade level
Susan is a public offender. Susan has served five years in the state reformatory .
3. Bill was an alcoholic . Bill's drinking has caused him to lose his job.

Rewording "Is" When Leading To Predication of Qualities Projected Impression

E-Prime
A Mary was generous B Mary gave Fred half of her lunch
Tom is insecure Tom has a difficult time making decisions
They are unmotivated They do not finish their assignments on time.

D . David Bourland, Jr . in his article, "How to Earn Better Grades in College Writing Classes,"
realizes that students feel more secure with a set of instructions rather than the simple suggestion
"Just stop using to beverbs," and offers the following guidelines :

A. Most importantly, fight against "is structure" sentences : "The rice is cooked"
may become "Ed cooked the rice," or "The rice has finally cooked," etc . "The music is good"
may become "I always enjoy that song," or "She played that piece very well," etc . "She is a
teacher" may become "She teaches at State U.," "She has taught for four years," or "She used to
teach," etc .


152

B . Emphasize the so-called Linking Verbs: sense descriptions such as see, hear, look, etc. ;
tentative verbs such as seem, appear, and become. Watch out for the tendency to overuse the
latter, for they too can become addictive. Good writing in E-Prime does not just amount to
replacing one verb family with another.

C. In the beginning you may find yourself converging onto a structure that will involve a form of
the verb "to be." Stop and reconsider what you have begun to say, and see if you can't find a
better way to do it.
D. Avoid the passive voice . If you must use such a construction, perhaps the
scruffy verb "to get" can help, as in "The work got done ." If you do not like
the way that sounds, and neither do I, try reformulating what you want to
write or say . (p.428)

As a class exercise I give the class a list of sentences to recast in E-Prime, such as:
1 .The crowd was angry.
2. Howard and Betty were incompatible.
3 .Tom was unfriendly .
4. The humidity was unbearable.
5 . Bill was absentminded .
6. The banker was stingy .
7. Steve's car was unsafe .

Some of the responses my students have given include :
1 . The crowd threw trash at the referee.
2 . Howard and Betty have argued incessantly .
3 . Tom snarled at the passer-by .
4. The perspiration soaked right through my new shirt.
5 . Bill couldn't find his glasses on his forehead.
6. The banker wouldn't give his mother a loan.
7 . Steve's car had four bald tires .

After these initial exercises, the students have progressed to the next level, including longer
sentences such as:

We live in a world in which it is commonplace to blame others for our shortcomings, when
negative messages about our worth are common. (Padus, p .114)

Responses I have received include :

According to Padus, we live in a world where people commonly blame others for their
shortcomings and reveal oversensitivity to messages about their power and self-worth . (p. 114)

Padus suggested that in our world, people routinely blame others for their shortcomings, showing
susceptibility to negative self-esteem messages (p.114) .


153

After I take the class through the E-Prime exercises, I warn them that only the E-primed
paraphrases will qualify for a higher grade. I also insist that all the before and after paraphrases
must be appended to their final research paper .The following paraphrase from one of my
international students from Maranga, Kenya, Mary Kahama, illustrates a sample successful
application of a coat of E-Prime to her paraphrases .

Paraphrase Assignment
Original Material
Name: Mary Kahama
Title : The Effects of Divorce on a Child
Author : Alan L . Frankel
Page 2
School-age children may exhibit some of the same signs as younger children, but may also
display more overt signs of anger, worry, or sadness. Others may act like "they don't care" and
put on an air of indifference while some kids will blatantly deny their parents are divorcing .
Sometimes kids in this age try to be "extra good," as if they could behave perfectly, then maybe
their parents won't separate . This stems from the all too common belief that children have that
divorce is somehow their fault . It's usually a good idea to let them know that divorce is
"grownup business" and is certainly not their doing . In contrast to the child who is working
overtime to "be good," are some kids who start to become overtly oppositional, aggressive, or
even hostile to a parent, perhaps blaming one of them for divorce . Some children are subtler in
their resentment, and may display aggressive behaviors, such as spilling things, losing things,
and frequently forgetting things .

Title The Effects of Divorce on a Child
Author: Alan L . Frankel
Page: 2
Paraphrase
Alan L . Frankel, in his article, The Effects of Divorce on a Child, states that school-age children,
exhibiting similar signs as younger children, sometimes get irritated, anxious, or sad, while
others acting like nothing matters have an air of indifference . Others repress their feelings,
entering into a state of self-denial, in some cases attempting to behave perfectly in an effort to
stop their parents from separating . Such behavior derives from the common belief among
children that they have actually caused the divorce . Parents enlightening them should ensure that
they know the real causes for their divorce . In contrast to the above, some children become
contrary, hostile, continually spilling, losing, and forgetting things . (2)


154

WORKS CITED

Bourland, D . David, Jr. "How to Earn Better Grades in College Writing Classes,"
(423-430) in E-Prime III. A Third Anthology, Ed. D. David Bourland, Jr . and
Paul Dennithorne Johnston . Concord: ISGS, 1997 .

Brolin, James C . and Michael J . Lesnik. "To Be or Not To Be: Reducing Language
Traps in the Rehabilitation Process," (pp .473-484) in E-Prime III. A Third Anthology.
Ed. D. David Bourland, Jr. and Paul Dennithorne Johnston . Concord :
ISGS, 1997 .

Cruey, Karen L . "A Linguistic Tool in Psychiatric Evaluations," (pp .401-422) in
EPrime III! A Third Anthology . Ed. D. David Bourland, Jr . and Paul Dennithorne
Johnston . Concord: ISGS, 1997 .

Padus, Emrika. he Complete Guide to Your Emotions and Your Health . Emtnaus:
Rodale Press, 1986 .

POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS
Professor David Maas has created PowerPoint Presentations for learning how to Make Your
Paraphrasing Plagiarism Proof with a Coat of E-Prime .

To obtain free copies of these presentations, go to
www.generalsemantics .org.


155

APPENDIX I
Essay Evaluation Form

Symbol
Page
In Text
Essay
#1
Essay
#2
Essay
#3
Essay
#4
Essay
#5
0. Grade
1. Abbreviation Ab 175-181
2. Adjective Adj 58-70
3. Adverb Abv 58-70
4. Agreement Agr 87-103
5. Awkward K
6. Capitalization Cap 158-174
7. Clarity Cl 309-310
8. Coherence Coh 374-382
9. Colloquial Colloq 271-272
10. Connotation Con 282-283
11. Comma Splice CS 54-56
12. Diction D 266-280
13. Development Dev 382-385
14. Division Div 263-265
15. Dangling Modifier DM 325-327
16. Emphasis EM 342-350
17. Evidence EV 480-481
18. Examples Exam 384-385
19. Facts Facts 477-479
20. Fragment Frag 35-44
21. Generalization Gen 778
22. Idiom Id 287-292
23. Illustrate Illus 435-
36,779

24. Jargon Jn 273-274
25. Logic Log 483-495
26. Misplaced Modifier MN 322-324
27. No such word NSW
28. Organization Org 511-516
29. Punctuation P 215-246
30. Parallelism lacking // 328-331
31. Passive Pass 345-350
32. Plural (improper use of) Pl 258-259
33. Predication (faulty) Pred 312
34. Redundant Red 293-296
35. Reference (vague/faulty) Ref 336-341
36. Repetition Rep 297-299
37. Relevance Rel
38. Run on RT or RO 45-52
39. Sentence (ineffective structure) S
40. Shift in Mood shift mood 133-135
41. Shift in Number Num 332-335
42. Shift in Pt. of View P.V. 332-335
43. Shift in tense Tense 332-335
44. Shift in Voice Voice 332-335
45. Slang (inappropriate use) Slang 272
46. Source (supply) Source 574-579
47. Specifics Needed Spec 382-383
48. Spelling Sp 248-265
49. Subordinate Sub 316-318
50. Superfluous Supfl 293-294
51. Thesis Thesis 411
52. Tone (unclear) Tone 333-334
53. Transition lacking Trans 376-382
54. Trite Trite 167-168
55. Topic Sent. lacking TS 364

156

56. Unity U 308, 363-
367

57. Verb (incorrect form) Vb 104-134
58. Wordy Wordy 293-299
59. Wrong Word WW 157-169
60. Word Choice WC 266-292
61. Omission ^ 300-305
62. Paragraph (begin new) Pp 362-386


157

Symbol
Page
In Text
Research
Paper

0. Grade
1. Abbreviation Ab 175-181
2. Adjective Adj 58-70
3. Adverb Abv 58-70
4. Agreement Agr 87-103
5. Awkward K
6. Capitalization Cap 158-174
7. Clarity Cl 309-310
8. Coherence Coh 374-382
9. Colloquial Colloq 271-272
10. Connotation Con 282-283
11. Comma Splice CS 54-56
12. Diction D 266-280
13. Development Dev 382-385
14. Division Div 263-265
15. Dangling Modifier DM 325-327
16. Emphasis EM 342-350
17. Evidence EV 480-481
18. Examples Exam 384-385
19. Facts Facts 477-479
20. Fragment Frag 35-44
21. Generalization Gen 778
22. Idiom Id 287-292
23. Illustrate Illus 435-
36,779

24. Jargon Jn 273-274
25. Logic Log 483-495
26. Misplaced Modifier MN 322-324
27. No such word NSW
28. Organization Org 511-516
29. Punctuation P 215-246
30. Parallelism lacking // 328-331
31. Passive Pass 345-350
32. Plural (improper use of) Pl 258-259
33. Predication (faulty) Pred 312
34. Redundant Red 293-296
35. Reference (vague/faulty) Ref 336-341
36. Repetition Rep 297-299
37. Relevance Rel
38. Run on RT or RO 45-52
39. Sentence (ineffective structure) S
40. Shift in Mood shift mood 133-135
41. Shift in Number Num 332-335
42. Shift in Pt. of View P.V. 332-335
43. Shift in tense Tense 332-335
44. Shift in Voice Voice 332-335
45. Slang (inappropriate use) Slang 272
46. Source (supply) Source 574-579
47. Specifics Needed Spec 382-383
48. Spelling Sp 248-265
49. Subordinate Sub 316-318
50. Superfluous Supfl 293-294
51. Thesis Thesis 411
52. Tone (unclear) Tone 333-334
53. Transition lacking Trans 376-382
54. Trite Trite 167-168
55. Topic Sent. lacking TS 364
56. Unity U 308, 363-
367

57. Verb (incorrect form) Vb 104-134
58. Wordy Wordy 293-299
59. Wrong Word WW 157-169

158

60. Word Choice WC 266-292
61. Omission ^ 300-305
62. Paragraph (begin new) Pp 362-386

159

Appendix 2
Using General Semantics Extensional Devices
to Assess Stylistic Maturity
David F. Maas

Back in 1970, my mentor Gerald L. Kincaid, former Language Arts Consultant for the
Minnesota Department of Education, introduced me to an assessment tool developed by Roy
ODonnell at the University of Georgia, lovingly called the Aluminum Test, a short paragraph
composed of 32 short, choppy, single-clause, primer style sentences, used to measure a students
ability to apply sentence combining skills. This paragraph was given to groups of students with
the instructions: Rewrite the following paragraph so that it flows smoothly, stylishly. You may
combine sentences, change the order of words, and omit words that are repeated too many times,
but try not to leave out any of the information.
Aluminum is a metal. It is abundant. It has many uses. It comes from bauxite.
Bauxite is an ore. Bauxite looks like clay. Bauxite contains aluminum. It contains
several other substances. Workmen extract these other substances from the
bauxite. They grind the bauxite. They put it in tanks. Pressure is in the tanks.
The other substances form a mass. They remove the mass. They use filters. A
liquid remains. They put it through several other processes. It finally yields a
chemical. The chemical is powdery. It is white. The chemical is alumina. It is a
mixture. It contains aluminum. It contains oxygen. Workmen separate the
aluminum from the oxygen. They use electricity. They finally produce a metal.
The metal is light. It has a luster. The luster is bright. The luster is silvery. This
metal comes in many forms.

Kellogg W. Hunt, in his 1970 monograph Syntactic Maturity in Children and Adults,
described how researchers used this paragraph to measure linguistic or stylistic complexity by
identifying word clusters called Terminal Units or T-Units, defined by Jeff Jeske as a single
main clause with whatever other subordinated clauses or non-clauses are attached to, or
embedded within, that one main clause. A terminal unit may expand clauses by means of
simple coordination: I swung the bat. I missed the ball. (I swung the bat, but I missed the
ball.); subordination: (When I swung the bat, I missed the ball.); and modification: (Swinging
the bat, I missed the ball). Hunt studied the writing samples of fourth graders, eighth graders,
twelfth graders, and adults, observing that sentence or clause length increases as a person

160

matures, with 4th graders averaging 8.60 words per t-unit (or terminal) unit, 8th graders
averaging 11.5 words per t-unit, 12
th
graders averaging 14.40 words per t-unit , and educated
adults averaging 20.20 units per t-unit. Dr. Roger M. Thompson of the University of Florida
pointed out that sentence length alone was not an accurate measure of assessing syntactic
maturity. One could jam all these primer clauses into one unwieldy sentence simply by using
simple coordination: Aluminum is a metal and it is abundant and it has many uses and it come
from bauxite. This method of sentence combining does not improve the primer style.
Jeff Jeske, author of the Guilford Writing Manual, has referred to syntactic variation as
the joystick used to control style, artfully combining words, phrases, and clauses into more
complex units. Every terminal unit, Jeske points out, is composed of multiple s- constituents-
also known as kernel sentences. Jeske corroborates the General Semantics Principle of Non-
I dentity, suggesting that in years of administering the Aluminum Test, he has never had a
duplicate match of kernel sentences combining into the same terminal unit, adding that he once
read in an essay that allowing for the astronomical possibilities of syntactic or grammatical
combinations, it would take ten trillion years (two thousand times the exact age of the earth) to
utter all the possible English sentences that use exactly 20 words. Therefore it is improbable that
any 20-word sentence a person speaks was ever spoken previously. (Jeske, Syntax in Guilford
Writing Manual)
Nevertheless, some combinations are better than others, and some combinations make the
writer sound mature and cultivated, and some combinations make the writer sound immature or
childish. Jeske points out that a typical fourth grader will use an abundance of coordinating
conjunctions, such as:
Aluminum is a metal and it is abundant. It has many uses and it comes from
bauxite. Bauxite is an ore and looks like clay.

A typical eighth grader uses compound verbs and relative clauses, such as:
Aluminum is an abundant metal, has many uses, and comes from bauxite. Bauxite
is an ore that looks like clay.

A typical adult response could be characterized as having more compact prepositional phrases
and appositives, such as:
Aluminum, an abundant metal with many uses, comes from bauxite, a clay-like
ore.


161

One can see the need for the general semantics dating device, measuring linguistic
maturity from the 4
th
to the 8
th
grade up through college and adulthood. An educator, teaching
written composition, would certainly desire to see the longitudinal changes brought about by
instructional units designed to improve the quality of composition. In the fall of 2004, I looked
again at the Aluminum Test, attempting to combine analytical precision with holistic expedience.
Realizing that the metamorphosis between the minimally competent writer (using comma splices
and fused clauses) to the maximally competent writer, using sparkling participial phrases and
compact appositives could be theoretically placed on a continuum of linguistic maturity, I
decided to give the techniques of combining general semantics index numbers, showing a
progression from least desirable to most desirable. The following continuum emerged over
several years of applying the Aluminum Test:

Unacceptable Elementary More Mature
Superior

3.4 Appositive
-1.0 Comma Splice 2.2 Combined Subjects or
Verbs 3.3 Infinitive Phrase
-1.1 Fused 1.1 Subordinate clause 2.1 Single Adjectives or
Adverbs 3.1 Gerund Phrase
-1.2 Error 0 Coordination 1.0 Relative Clause 2.0 Prepositional
phrase 3.0 Participial Phrase
-1 0 1 2
3

To the unacceptable syntactical choices I applied negative numbers, indicating the
stigmatizing effects of these choices. The coordinating devices used to connect phrases and
clauses received no numerical weight because students were already expected to have
internalized this combining technique in the 4
th
grade. Because 8
th
grade responses included the
relative clause and the subordinate clause, the index numbers increased in value. The typical
college freshman has learned to use combined subjects, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, as well
as prepositional phrases, leading me to increase the numerical value of these techniques. The
highest numerical I have attached to the verbals because they add the vitality of the verb to
nouns and adjectives. The appositive has been also designated as a choice mature or adult
writers would make. My goal in my Advanced Composition Class at Wiley College has been to
direct the syntactic choices away from the stigmatizing immature or elementary to more mature
or superior. By using the general semantics extensional devices of indexing and dating, I have

162

been able to measure the development of syntactic maturity both in the class as a whole and in
individual students. The following represents the raw scores of the class when I administered the
Aluminum Test as a Pre-test on February 11, 2008 and the Post Test on March 11, 2008, after
taking the class through an intensive sentence combining unit, emphasizing less desirable and
more desirable choices, emphasizing the general semantics multi-valued orientation over the
two-valued orientation, moving from what Hayakawa would have called the paddle to the
steering wheel. The average cumulative scores of the class improved 100%.

Pre-Test Results ( 2-11-08) -12 -7 -4 -1 2 4 5 20 23 ( 2) 25 27 29 30 33 35
( Average Score 14.6)

Post Test Results (3-11-08) -5 12 13 24 26 27 30 32 (3) 35 (2) 36 (2) 42 45
(Average Score 28.5)

Below 1 Unacceptable 1-20 Elementary 21-30 More Mature Superior 31-45

The following bar graph illustrates the change in each category:


163

The stigmatizing items such as fused sentences and comma splices decreased while the desirable
techniques such as participial phrases and appositives increased dramatically. The following
table, representing the percentage change of improvement gives another encouraging insight:

Learning Theories
Overview
F
u
s
e
d
C
o
m
m
a
S
p
lic
e
C
o
o
r
d
in
a
t
io
n
R
e
la
t
iv
e
C
la
u
s
e
S
u
b
o
r
d
in
a
t
e
C
la
u
s
e
C
o
m
b
in
e
d
S
u
b
je
c
t
&
V
e
r
b
P
r
e
p
o
s
it
io
n
a
l P
h
r
a
s
e
P
a
r
t
ic
ip
ia
l P
h
r
a
s
e
A
p
p
o
s
it
iv
e
s
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
S
c
o
r
e
Linguistic Writing Strategies
Weaker Linguistic
Writing Strategies
Stronger Linguistic
Writing Strategies
<--Post-Test <--Pre-Test
Percent Change in
Linguistic Strategies
Scores from
Pre-Test to Post-Test
Weaker Linguistic
Writing Strategies
Stronger Linguistic
Writing Strategies
95.2%
28.5 14.6
Average Scores
128.6%
16 7 Appositives
240.0%
68 20
Participial Phrase
-8.7%
63 69
Combined Subject & verbs
-10.3%
35 39
Prepositional Phrase
18.2%
13 11
Subordinate Clause
34.2%
51 38
Relative Clause
-32.3%
63 93
Coordination
-95.7%
1 23
Comma Splices
-25.0%
3 4
Fused
Difference Post-
Test
Pre-
Test

164

The students use of fused sentences dropped by nearly 100%, while their use of the
participle increased by 240%. Most dramatically, the average scores of the class improved by
nearly 100%.

The general semantics extensional devices of indexing and dating can be used to
measure not only class improvement but individual improvement. Every student in the class
demonstrated some improvement. The following student dramatically improved from a -4 (
Unacceptable) to 30 ( Mature).

Aluminum is a metal -1.1 it is abundant, 0 and has many uses. It come from bauxite
0 ;Bauxite is an ore 0; Bauxite looks like clay. Bauxite contains aluminum -1.1 it
contains other substances. Workers extract these other substances 0 ; workers extract these
other substances from the bauxite. They grind the bauxite, 0 and they put it in tanks. The
other substances form a mass 0; -1.2 they remove the mass -1.0, they use filters, 0
and a liquid remains. They put it through several processes 0; -1.2 it finally yield a
chemical. The chemical is powdery -1.1it is white 0; and the chemical is aluminum 0;
it is a mixture -1.1 it contains aluminum. Also it contains oxygen. Workers separate
the aluminum from the oxygen 0; they use electricity. They finally produce a metal -1.1 the
metal is light 0, and it has luster. The luster is bright -1.1 also the luster is silver. ( Raw
Score -4)
JB 2-11-08 is not JB 3-11-08
1.1Although aluminum is a metal, it is also abundant, 3.0 coming from bauxite 1.0
which is an ore. 3.0 Looking like clay, bauxite contains aluminum 0 and also several other
substances. Workers extract these other substances 2.0 by 3.1 grinding the bauxite,3.0
putting it in tanks, 1.1while the other substances form a mass. 1.1When 3.0 removing the
mass, they use filters 2.0 with a liquid 3.0 remaining. 2.0 By3.1 putting it through
several processes, it finally yields a chemical. The chemical 1.0 which is aluminum is
powdery 0 and white -1.1 it is a mixture 1.0 that contains aluminum 3.0 containing
oxygen. 3.0 Using electricity, they produce a metal 1.0 which is light, 0 has a luster1.0
which is bright 0 and silver. ( Raw Score 30)

After I gave the pre-test, I shared this continuum of index numbers attached to the
combining strategies with the class, expressing my intense displeasure with fused sentences and

165

comma splices and praising highly the students use of participial phrases and other verbals.
Some educators may have ordered the relative weight differently, but the general semantics
multi-valued orientation calls for an indexing of techniques on an unacceptable to acceptable
continuum, somewhat after the manner of an assessment rubric. The general semantics dating
extensional device could enable the student to keep a longitudinal record of his/her improvement
throughout grade school, high school, and college, or from the beginning of the semester to the
end, providing yet another assessment tool evaluating learning and teaching.

Selected References

Hopkin, Mark. Graphics for Linguistic Writing Strategies and Percent Change in
Linguistic Strategy Scores from Pre-Test to Post Test.

Hunt, Kellogg W. Syntactic Maturity in Schoolchildren and Adults
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 35, No. 1,
Syntactic Maturity in Schoolchildren and Adults (Feb., 1970)

Jeske, Jeff Syntax in Guilford Writing Manual

http://www.guilford.edu/about_guilford/services_and_administration/writing/style/synt
ax.html

Thompson, Roger M. Chapter Eleven: Sounding Educated in I nteraction Combining
http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/rthompso/interactioncombining.html#Prag

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