Sneha Shivakumar - Political Science Notes

POLITICAL SCIENCE II
(FOUNDATIONS OF POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS)

Sneha Shivakumar, !!"
THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN PREPARED KEEPING IN MIND SPECIFIC STUDENT
REQUIREMENTS. ALTHOUGH THIS MATERIAL IS NOT AIMED TO REPLACE
THE STANDARD PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK ON THE GIVEN AREA, YET THIS
AVAILS ITSELF AS A QUICK REFERENCE TO AID CLASS ROOM DISCUSSION
AND TUTORING.
Sneha Shivakumar, 2009
CONTENTS
1. POWER
SYNOPSIS
a# In$r%&u'$i%n
(# )eanin*
'# De+ini$i%n
&# Na$ure %+ ,%-er
e# T.,e/ %+ ,%-er
C%n'0u/i%n
# AUT1O2IT3
SYNOPSIS
a# In$r%&u'$i%n
(# )eanin*
'# De+ini$i%n/
&# Chara'$eri/$i'/
e# S%ur'e/
+# 4in&/ %r $.,e/ %+ au$h%ri$.
*# Au$h%ri$. an& 0e*i$ima'.
C%n'0u/i%n
5# LEGITI)AC3
SYNOPSIS
a# In$r%&u'$i%n
(# )eanin*
'# De+ini$i%n/
&# C%n'e,$ %+ 0e*i$ima'.
e# Na$ure
+# C0a//i+i'a$i%n %+ 0e*i$ima'. a''%r&in* $%
i# )a6 7e(er
ii# Fre&ri'h
C%n'0u/i%n
8#UN9UST LA7S
SYNOPSIS
7ha$ i/ a 0a-:
De+ini$i%n %+ 0a-
Na$ure
7ha$ are un;u/$ 0a-/:
7h. ,e%,0e &i/%(e. un;u/$ 0a-/:
Di/%(e&ien'e $% un;u/$ 0a-/
Si$ua$i%n/ %+ ;u/$i+ie& %(e&ien'e
Sa+e*uar&/ a*ain/$ un;u/$ 0a-/
2
<# T1O2EAU AND GAND1I ON CI=IL DISOBEDIENCE AND SAT3AG2A1A
SYNOPSIS
a# 1enr. Davi& Th%reau %n 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e
(# E//a. %n 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e
'# G%%& *%vernmen$
&# 2i*h$ %+ rev%0u$i%n
e# Di/%(e&ien'e $% un;u/$ 0a-/
+# 2e/,e'$ +%r in&ivi&ua0
*# The ,r%(0em %+ Gan&hian 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e an& ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n
h# D%'$rine %+ /a$.a*raha
i# Sa$.a*raha v/# &ura*raha
;# Sa$.a*raha > Gan&hi?/ a,,r%a'h $% ,ea'emakin*
k# Gan&hi;i %n ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n $%-ar&/ $he /$a$e %r Gan&hian 'ivi0
&i/%(e&ien'e v/# ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n
0# Cri$i'i/m/
m# Sarv%&a.a
n# Ori*in an& Gan&hian ,%0i$i'a0 i&ea0
@# BENT1A)?S UTILITA2IANIS)
SYNOPSIS
Ben$ham?/ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n %+ u$i0i$ariani/m
)eanin* %+ u$i0i$.
P0ea/ureA,ain $he%r.
S%ur'e/ %+ ,0ea/ure %r ,ain
Fa'$%r/ *%vernin* ,0ea/ure an& ,ain
Chara'$eri/$i'/ %+ $he &%'$rine %+ u$i0i$.
Cri$i'i/m/ %+ $he &%'$rine %+ u$i0i$.
Si*ni+i'an'e %+ Ben$ham?/ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n %+ u$i0i$ariani/m
B# CONT2ACTUAL AND P2O)ISSO23 LIABILIT3
CONTRACTUAL LIABILITY
Synopsis
In$r%&u'$i%n
Na$ure %+ a '%n$ra'$ (re0a$i%n %+ '%n$ra'$ -i$h a*reemen$)
T.,e/ %+ '%n$ra'$/
C0a//i+i'a$i%n %+ '%n$ra'$/ in $erm/ %+ va0i&i$. %r en+%r'ea(i0i$.
F%un&a$i%n/ %+ '%n$ra'$ua0 0ia(i0i$.
3
PROMISSORY LIABILITY
Synopsis
Lia(i0i$.
Pr%mi/e
Pr%mi//%r. 0ia(i0i$. %+ $he (ar*ain m%&e0
E//en$ia0/ %+ a va0i& %++er
A''e,$an'e
E//en$ia0/ %+ a ,r%mi/e
A/,e'$/ %+ ,r%mi//%r. 0ia(i0i$.
C# PUNIS1)ENT
SYNPOSIS
Introduction
What is a crime?
What is the remedy to crime? (punishment)
Nature and scope of punishment
O!ect of punishment (indi"idua# and society)
$heories of punishment
i) deterrent
ii) pre"enti"e
iii) reformati"e
i") retriuti"e
%onc#usion
"# CO))UNSI)
SYNOPSIS
Introduction
What is communism?
%ommunism & 'eatures or fundamenta# postu#ates
1(. BIBLIOG2AP13
)
POWER
QUESTION FORMAT
D# 7ha$ i/ ,%-er: E6,0ain $he vari%u/ $.,e/ %+ ,%-er# E!!@F
Short notes
Po*er +2((,-2((.-2(()/
SYNOPSIS
+# In$r%&u'$i%n
*# )eanin*
h# De+ini$i%n
i# Na$ure %+ ,%-er
;# T.,e/ %+ ,%-er
k# C%n'0u/i%n
INTRODUCTION
The $erm ,%-er i/ '%n/i&ere& a/ an im,%r$an$ /u(;e'$ in 0%'a0, na$i%na0 an&
in$erna$i%na0 0eve0# N%- &a./ i$ i/ inv%0ve& eGua00. in e'%n%mi', /%'ia0, ,%0i$i'a0, an&
re0i*i%u/ +a'$%r/# In $he /$u&. %+ ,%0i$i'/ H,%-er? i/ u/ua00. re*ar&e& a/ a ke. '%n'e,$#
P%-er i/ 'en$ra0 $% $he /$u&. %+ ,%0i$i'/# I$ i/ /een a/ a /$ru**0e +%r ,%-er# I$ 'an (e /een
a/ evi0 %r un;u/$ (u$ $he e6er'i/e %+ ,%-er i/ a''e,$e& a/ en&emi' $% human/ a/ /%'ia0
(ein*/#
0
MEANING
The -%r& ,%-er i/ &erive& +r%m $he +1u!ect/Greek -%r& H,%0i$i'/?# Ari/$%$0e '0a//i+ie&
$he '%n/$i$u$i%n %n $he (a/i/ %+ $he 0%'a$i%n %+ ,%-er# The /$u&. %+ ,%-er i/ '%n'erne&
-i$h h%- i$ i/ %($aine&, e6er'i/e& an& '%n$r%00e&# P%-er i/ %+$en u/e& $% mean '%n$r%0,
in+0uen'e, au$h%ri$., +%r'e, mi*h$ an& &%mina$i%n# P%-er i/ $he 'ru6 %+ ,%0i$i'/# Sin'e,
$he (e*innin* %+ humani$. ,%-er ha/ (een %''u,.in* ,%/i$i%n# P%-er mean/ $he
/$ren*$h %+ $he (%&. an& min&# In ,%0i$i'a0 /'ien'e ,%-er mean/ $he ,%-er %+ a man
%ver $he min& an& a'$i%n/ %+ %$her men# I$ i/ $he a(i0i$. $% '%n$r%0 $he (ehavi%ur %+
%$her/ in a''%r&an'e -i$h %ne?/ %-n in$en$i%n#
DEFINITIONS
D# Ber$ran& 2u//e00 IP%-er i/ $he 'a,a'i$. $% in+0uen'e $he a'$i%n/ %+ %$her/#J
# 1an/# 9# )%r*an$heau IThe ,%-er %+ man %ver $he min&/ an& a'$i%n/ %+
%$her/#J
3. 2ass*e## 3 4Po*er is the participation in the ma5in6 of decisions.7
NATURE OF POWER
Ever /in'e $he HLevia$han? %+ 1%((e/ a,,eare& in D@<D, $he '%n'e,$ %+ ,%-er in $he
rea0m/ %+ ,%0i$i'/ ha/ (e'%me a m%men$%u/ /u(;e'$ %+ inve/$i*a$i%n /% $ha$ n%- i$ i/
re*ar&e& a/ $he ke. area %+ ,%0i$i'/#
D# P%-er i/ $he ,/.'h%0%*i'a0 ,hen%men%n# There+%re $he re0a$i%n (e$-een $h%/e
-h% e6er'i/e ,%-er an& $h%/e %ver -h%m i$ i/ e6er'i/e& i/ a ,/.'h%0%*i'a0
re0a$i%n -i$h $he im,a'$ &erive& +r%m $hree /%ur'e/ viK,#
a# $he e6,e'$a$i%n %+ (ene+i$/,
(# +ear %+ '%n/eGuen'e/, an&
'# $he re/,e'$ %r 0%ve +%r men %r in/$i$u$i%n/
# P%-er i/ $he 'a,a'i$. $% in+0uen'e $he (ehavi%ur %+ %$her/# A ,er/%n -hen
in+0uen'e/ %$her ,er/%n/ a''%r&in* $% hi/ -i/he/, $hi/ i/ '%n/i&ere& a/ ,%-er#
5# P%-er i/ a 'er$ain kin& %+ human re0a$i%n/hi,# A ,r%,er un&er/$an&in* %+
,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er inv%0ve/ an e6amina$i%n %+ $he -a. $he re0a$i%n/hi, i/
'%n&u'$e&#
8
8# P%0i$i'a0 ,%-er ha/ $% (e /een a/ a re0a$i%n/hi, +%r $he u/e %+ ,%-er, $he
,re/en'e %+ an a'$%r %r /u(;e'$ an& /%me %$her in&ivi&ua0 i/ e//en$ia0 /% $ha$ $he
a'$%r 'an in+0uen'e %$her in&ivi&ua0/ a''%r&in* $% hi/ 'a,a'i$. %r -i/h#
<# The ,rin'i,0e %+ ,%-er i/ $ha$ i$ /h%u0& (e (a'ke& (. /an'$i%n# P%-er i/ $he
'a,a'i$. $% a++e'$ an%$her?/ (ehavi%ur (. $he $hrea$ %+ /%me +%rm %+ /an'$i%n#
The *rea$er $he /an'$i%n, $he *rea$er -i00 (e ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er#
@# P%-er i/ n%$ %n0. re0a$i%na0 (u$ a0/% in+0uen$ia0# The ,er/%n -h% e6er'i/e/
,%-er a++e'$/ $he (ehavi%ur %+ $he %$her in&ivi&ua0/ an& na$i%n/# La- &%e/ n%$
re'%*niKe (a& ,%-er %+ un&ue in+0uen'e, '%er'i%n, vi%0en'e, e$'##
TYPES OR INDS OF POWER
The '0a//i+i'a$i%n %+ ,%-er i/ a/ +%00%-/L
D# DIRECT AND INDIRECT POWER 7hen a ,er/%n %r *r%u, %+ ,er/%n/ u/e
,%-er, a*ain/$ %$her/ i$ i/ 'a00e& &ire'$ ,%-er, -hi0e a ,er/%n %r *r%u, %+
,er/%n/ au$h%riKe %$her/ $% u/e ,%-er %r u/e/ $hr%u*h /u(%r&ina$e/, i$ i/ 'a00e&
in&ire'$ ,%-er# A ,er/%n ha/ $he ri*h$ $% /e00 a-a. hi/ ,r%,er$.# 7hen he /e00/
hi/ h%u/e $% /%me%ne, i$ mean/ he u/e& hi/ ,%-er &ire'$0.# A$ $he /ame $ime, he
'an *ive ,%-er $% an%$her ,er/%n $hr%u*h H*enera0 ,%-er %+ a$$%rne.?# I+ he
/e00/ hi/ h%u/e au$h%riKin* /%me%ne $% /e00 hi/ h%u/e, i$ mean/ he u/e& hi/
,%-er in&ire'$0.#
# LEGITIMATE AND ILLEGITIMATE POWER Le*i$ima$e ,%-er a''rue/
$hr%u*h 0a- an& i00e*i$ima$e ,%-er i/ a''rue& (. +%r'e %r vi%0en'e an& i$ i/
a*ain/$ $he 0a-/# C%n/$i$u$i%n %r a''e,$e& 'u/$%m/, %r a'$/ /an'$i%n $he /ame
ri*h$/ $% $he ,u(0i' an& i+ $he. a'$ a''%r&in* $% $he ru0e/ an& re*u0a$i%n/, $he
,%-er i/ '%n/i&ere& a/ 0e*i$ima$e ,%-er# I00e*i$ima$e ,%-er 'an %n0. (e
a'Guire& (. +%r'e, a**re//i%n an& vi%0en'e# The ,e%,0e %(e. 0e*i$ima$e ,%-er
an& rev%0$ a*ain/$ i00e*i$ima$e ,%-er a/ $he. -i00 $%0era$e $hem#
5# POLITICAL POWER AND MILITARY POWER P%0i$i'a0 ,%-er re/$/
-i$h $he /$a$e# P%0i$i'a0 ,%-er 0ie/ in $he a&mini/$ra$i%n %+ $he /$a$e, mi0i$ar.
,%-er 0ie/ -i$h $he arm., nav. an& air +%r'e# The mi0i$ar. i/ $%% &ire'$e& (. $he
mini/$r. %+ &e+en/e -hi'h i/ a ,ar$ %+ ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er# )i0i$ar. ,%-er i/
,
/u(%r&ina$e $% ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er# The ,rimar. +un'$i%n %+ mi0i$ar. ,%-er i/ $%
,r%$e'$ $he (%un&arie/ %+ $he /$a$e an& $% &e+en& $he na$i%n a*ain/$ $he e6$erna0
a**re//i%n# P%0i$i'a0 ,%-er i/ (a/e& %n ,/.'h%0%*i'a0 in+0uen'e/# )i0i$ar. ,%-er
i/ (a/e& %n $he rea0 /$ren*$h %+ $he arm. men an& armamen$/# P%0i$i'a0 ,%-er i/
,a$en$ an& mi0i$ar. ,%-er i/ 0a$en$#
8# MANIFEST POWER AND LATENT POWER The ,%-er -hi'h 'an (e
e6er'i/e& %,en0. an& '0ear0. i/ 'a00e& mani+e/$ ,%-er# )i0i$ar. ,%-er i/ an
e6am,0e %+ mani+e/$ ,%-er# The ,%-er -hi'h 'ann%$ (e e6er'i/e& %,en0. %r
'0ear0. i/ 'a00e& 0a$en$ ,%-er# )e&ia /u'h a/ $he ,re// an& T= are e6am,0e/ %+
0a$en$ ,%-er#
<# CENTRALI!ED AND DECENTRALI!ED POWER 7hen $he ,%-er ha/
(een '%n'en$ra$e& -i$h %ne au$h%ri$. i$ i/ 'a00e& 'en$ra0iKe& ,%-er# 7hen $he
,%-er i/ &i/$ri(u$e& an& &e'en$ra0iKe& i$ i/ 'a00e& &e'en$ra0iKe& ,%-er# In In&ia
an& USA ,%-er i/ &e'en$ra0iKe& in &i++eren$ /$a$e/#
@# UNILATERAL AND BILATERAL STATES I+ %ne ,er/%n u/e/ hi/ ,%-er
%n an%$her, -herea/ $he %$her ,er/%n 'ann%$ u/e hi/ %n $ha$ ,er/%n -h% u/e&
,%-er %n him, $hen $he ,%-er i/ 'a00e& uni0a$era0 ,%-er# 7hen (%$h /i&e/ u/e
,%-er +%r ea'h %$her, i$ i/ 'a00e& (i0a$era0 ,%-er# Par$ie/ %+ a /a0e &ee&,
m%r$*a*e, an& 0ea/e are e6am,0e/ %+ (i0a$era0 ,%-er#
B# DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL POWER There are 'er$ain ma;%r
&i++eren'e/ in $he r%0e %+ ,%-er %+ a /$a$e in &%me/$i' a++air/ an& in$erna$i%na0
,%0i'ie/# In 'ivi0 /%'ie$ie/ $here e6i/$ a num(er %+ a0$erna$ive/ $% vi%0en'e#
2ea0iKin* $ha$ a00 $he re0a$i%n/ 'ann%$ (e re*u0a$e& (. ,h./i'a0 /$ren*$h a0%ne, a
/./$em %+ *enera0 ru0e/ %+ ,r%'e&ure/ ha/ (een a&%,$e& (. ea'h /%'ie$. $%
re&re// $he -r%n*/ in a n%nAvi%0en$ -a.# In&ivi&ua0/ n% 0%n*er have $he ri*h$ $%
$ake $he 0a- in$% $heir %-n han&/# In in$erna$i%na0 re0a$i%n/, &ue $% 0a'k %+
*enera00. a*ree& u,%n ru0e/ an& &evi'e/, $he /$a$e/ have $% ,r%$e'$ $heir ri*h$/
an& $% re'$i+. in;urie/ $hr%u*h $he u/e %+ +%r'e#
CONCLUSION
.
P%0i$i'/ i/ n%$hin* (u$ $he /$ru**0e +%r ,%-er# P%0i$i'/ ha/ n%- 'han*e& +r%m %ne %+
(ein* Ha /$u&. %+ /$a$e an& *%vernmen$? $% $ha$ %+ (ein* Ha /$u&. %+ ,%-er?# Cur$i/ /a./,
IP%0i$i'/ i/ an %r*aniKe& &i/,u$e a(%u$ ,%-er an& i$/ u/e inv%0vin* 'h%i'e am%n*
'%m,e$in* va0ue/, i&ea/, ,er/%n/, in$ere/$/, an& &eman&/# The /$u&. %+ ,%0i$i'/ i/
'%n'erne& -i$h $he &e/'ri,$i%n an& ana0./e/ %+ $he manner in -hi'h ,%-er i/ %($aine&,
e6er'i/e&, an& '%n$r%00e& an& $he ,ur,%/e +%r -hi'h i$ i/ u/e&, $he manner in -hi'h
&e'i/i%n/ are ma&e, $he +a'$%r/ -hi'h in+0uen'e $he makin* %+ $h%/e &e'i/i%n/, an& $he
'%n$e6$ in -hi'h $h%/e &e'i/i%n/ $ake ,0a'e#J
FURT"ER READING
D# P%0i$i'a0 O(0i*a$i%n/ Dr# S#2# ).neni
# F%un&a$i%n/ %+ P%0i$i'a0 O(0i*a$i%n/ A#S# Bha*.a/hree )a00ikar;un
5# 7iki,e&ia
AUT"ORITY
QUESTION FORMAT
1. What is authority? E9p#ain the "arious types of authority and a#so e9p#ain ho*
authority is #e6itimate? +2((,-2(()/
Short notes
Au$h%ri$. E!!C,!!@F
SYNOPSIS
h# In$r%&u'$i%n
:
i# )eanin*
;# De+ini$i%n/
k# Chara'$eri/$i'/
0# S%ur'e/
m# 4in&/ %r $.,e/ %+ au$h%ri$.
n# Au$h%ri$. an& 0e*i$ima'.
%# C%n'0u/i%n
INTRODUCTION
2i*h$ $% e6er'i/e ,%-er/, $% im,0emen$ an& en+%r'e 0a-/L $% e6a'$ %(e&ien'eL $%
'%mman&L $% ;u&*eL '%n$r%0 %verL an& ,ermi//i%n are /.n%n.m%u/ -i$h ,%-er#
Au$h%ri$. i/ a ,er/%n %r ,er/%n/, %r a (%&. e6er'i/in* ,%-er %+ '%mman& a/ $he 'ivi0
an& mi0i$ar. au$h%ri$ie/# Au$h%ri$. i/ $he ,%-er %r a&mi$$e& ri*h$ $% '%mman& %r a'$,
-he$her %ri*ina0 %r &e0e*a$e&, a/, $he au$h%ri$. %+ a ,rin'e %ver /u(;e'$/ an& %+ ,aren$/
%ver 'hi0&ren# Au$h%ri$. i/ a (%&. havin* ;uri/&i'$i%n in 'er$ain ma$$er/ %+ ,u(0i'
na$ure# The -%r& au$h%ri$. in'0u&e/ 'en$ra0 an& /$a$e *%vernmen$/# Au$h%ri$. mean/ $he
in/$i$u$i%na0iKe& e6er'i/e %+ ,%-er (a'ke& (. 0a- %r '%n/$i$u$i%n an& '%mm%n '%n/en$#
MEANING
The -%r& Hau$h%ri$.? i/ &erive& +r%m $he %0& 2%man n%$i%n %+ HAu'$%r? %r Au'$%ri$%/?#
The /ena$e, $he u,,er h%u/e in 2%me *ave i$/ '%un/e0 $% $he ,%,u0ar a//em(0. an& $hi/
'%un'i0 -a/ 'a00e& HAu'$%r? %r Au'$%ri$%/?# Au$h%ri$. mean/ $he in/$i$u$i%na0iKe&
e6er'i/e %+ 0e*i$ima$e ,%-er (a'ke& (. 0a- %r '%n/$i$u$i%n an& '%mm%n '%n/en$#
A0$h%u*h ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er re/$/ %n $he ,%$en$ia0i$. $% inv%ke '%er'i%n, +r%m hi/$%ri'a0
&a./ i$ ha/ (een +%un& $ha$ '%er'i%n (. -a. %+ $hrea$ %+ /an'$i%n i/ n%$ an a&eGua$e
in/$rumen$ $% e0i'i$ %(e&ien'e# I+ $he ,%-er i/ $% /u(/i/$ +%r 0%n*, i$ mu/$ re'eive *enera0
a''e,$an'e# O(e&ien'e ma. (e %($aine& (. $he u/e %+ $hrea$ %+ /an'$i%n/, .e$ i$ re/$/
u,%n a +%rm %+ '%n/en$# I$ i/ $hi/ '%n/en$ $% %r a''e,$an'e %+ ,%-er %+ $he ru0er (. $he
ru0e& $ha$ /$ren*$hen/ $he ,%-er an& *ive/ him $he au$h%ri$.# P%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ (a/e&
%n $he a''e,$an'e %+ $he ri*h$ $% ru0e#
DEFINITIONS OF AUT"ORITY
D# The $erm au$h%ri$. ha/ (een &e+ine& -i$h vari%u/ /ha&e/ %+ meanin*# The. are >
# )a6 7e(er IP%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ (a/e& %n $he a''e,$an'e %+ $he ri*h$ $% ru0e,
an& $hi/ i/ a0/% 'a00e& 0e*i$ima'.#J
1(
5# Frie&ri'h IMM##au$h%ri$. an& rea/%n are '0%/e0. 0inke& in&ee&MM##au$h%ri$.
re/$/ u,%n $he a(i0i$. $% i//ue '%mmuni'a$i%n/ -hi'h are 'a,a(0e %+ rea/%ne&
e0a(%ra$i%n#J
). ;cI"er 4<uthority is often defined as ein6 po*er- the po*er to command
oedience.7
NATURE OR C"ARACTERISTICS OF AUT"ORITY
Au$h%ri$. i/ inve/$e& in a ,er/%n %r a (%&. e6er'i/in* ,%-er %+ '%mman&, havin*
/u,eri%r ,%-er# The /u(%r&ina$e %(e. $he ru0e/ an& re*u0a$i%n/ +rame& (. $he /u,eri%r#
The au$h%ri$. ma. (e $ran/+erre& (. a ,rin'i,a0 $% a*en$# Au$h%ri$. i/ n%$hin* (u$ a
,%-er $% &% /%me$hin*L i$ i/ /%me$ime/ *iven in -%r&/, an& /%me$ime/ (. -ri$in* an&
in $he m%&ern ,eri%& main0. (. -a./ %+ ru0e/, re*u0a$i%n/ an& '%n/$i$u$i%n/# There i/ an
%(0i*a$i%n %n $he /u(%r&ina$e/ $% %(e. $he ru0e/ +rame& (. $heir /u,eri%r, $% -h%m /u'h
au$h%ri$. i/ en$ru/$e&# P%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ (a/e& %n $he a''e,$an'e %+ $he ri*h$ $% ru0e,
%r -ha$ )a6 7e(er 'a00e& H0e*i$ima'.?# The ru0e/ +rame& (. a /u,eri%r %++i'er mu/$ (e
%(e.e& (. hi/ /u(%r&ina$e/, i+ hi/ au$h%ri$. /,rin*/ +r%m ,r%,er 0e*i$ima'.#
i# The au$h%ri$. ,%//e//e/ &%minan'e %ver $he /u(%r&ina$e/# I$ im,0ie/ $ha$
/u,eri%r au$h%ri$. ha/ $he ri*h$ $% re'eive %(e&ien'e# The ,er/%n %r $he (%&. $%
-h%m au$h%ri$. i/ inve/$e&, e6er'i/e &%minan'e %ver $he /u(%r&ina$e/#
D%minan'e i/ an im,%r$an$ 'hara'$eri/$i' %+ au$h%ri$.# Au$h%ri$. i/ n%$ a ,%-er,
(u$ /%me $ime/ $ha$ a''%m,anie/ ,%-er#
ii# Au$h%ri$. i/ $he em(%&imen$ %+ rea/%n an& &e,en&/ %n $he 'a,a'i$. %+ rea/%ne&
e0a(%ra$i%n#
iii# Au$h%ri$. a0/% ha/ re/,%n/i(i0i$.# 2e/,%n/i(i0i$. an& a''%un$a(i0i$. are
im,%r$an$ e//en$ia0/ %+ au$h%ri$.# Au$h%ri$. i/ re/,%n/i(0e $% $h%/e -h%
au$h%riKe& i$ $% +un'$i%n %n $heir (eha0+#
iv# P%-er 'an un&er*% a /u($0e $ran/+%rma$i%n in$% au$h%ri$. -i$h $he *r%-in*
/u,,%r$ +r%m $he ,%0i$i'a0 '%mmuni$.# P%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. ma. 'han*e +r%m %ne
re*ime $% an%$her# The ne- re*ime -i00 $hen re0. %n ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er +%r $he
m%men$, n%$ ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$.# I$ -i00 $ake /%me $ime +%r $he ne- re*ime $%
*ain *enera0 ,%,u0ar a''e,$an'e#
11
SOURCES OF AUT"ORITY#
The +%00%-in* are $he /%ur'e/ %r *r%un&/ %+ 0e*i$ima$e au$h%ri$.>
D# DI$INE RIG"T A$ $he m%re ,rimi$ive 0eve0, a00 ru0e/ are a0ike# 2e0i*i%u/,
'u/$%mar. an& 0e*a0# Durin* $h%/e &a./, $he 'hie+ %r $he kin* -a/ /e0e'$e& +r%m
%ne r%.a0 +ami0., an& -%u0& (e reGuire& $% &em%n/$ra$e hi/ &ivine a,,%in$men$/
(. ,r%-e// in arm/ %r %$her vi/i(0e 'u/$%mar. /i*n# 1e -a/ $hen +%rma00.
a'kn%-0e&*e& (. hi/ ,e%,0e, a/ G%&?/ *i+$ $% $hem# I$ -a/ *enera00. a&mi$$e&
$ha$ G%& ha& in/$i$u$e& $he *%vernmen$ (e'au/e men nee&e& i$# The kin*?/ ri*h$
$% ru0e i/ &ivine an& $he /u(;e'$/ ha& $% %(e. $he kin*?/ %r&er/# 1%-ever, i$ i/
n%$ a''e,$e& in $he m%&ern a*e#
# RELIGION Thir$een$h 'en$ur. -a/ a ,eri%& %+ *rea$ re0i*i%u/ m%vemen$/#
The 'hur'h ,rea'he& $ha$ e$erna0 0a- *%vern/ $he -h%0e univer/e# I$ re,re/en$/
$he rea/%n %+ G%&# Divine 0a- '%n/i/$/ %+ '%mman&/ %+ G%& '%mmuni'a$e& (.
reve0a$i%n# The /e'u0ar *%vernmen$ i/ /u(;e'$ $% $he 'hur'h, (e'au/e $he +%rmer
i/ '%n'erne& -i$h in$erme&ia$e en&/, -herea/ $he 0a$$er i/ '%n'erne& -i$h $he
u0$ima$e en&, $he /a0va$i%n %+ $he /%u0/# The P%,e %+ $he =a$i'an, Da0ai Lama
%($aine& au$h%ri$. in $he name %+ re0i*i%n#
5# FORCE F%r'e i/ a0/% %ne %+ $he /%ur'e/ %+ %($ainin* au$h%ri$.# S%0&ier/ -i$h
a&van'e& armamen$/, 'ava0r., u/e %+ *un/ an& 'ann%n/, air +%r'e an& a$%mi'
(%m(/ ,r%vi&e +%r'e $% $he ,er/%n an& $he /$a$e/# F%r'e i/ '%n/i&ere& a/ %ne %+
$he /%ur'e/ %+ %($ainin* au$h%ri$.#
8# RE$OLUTION 4ar0 )ar6 (e0ieve& $ha$ $he au$h%ri$. i/ an e'%n%mi'
,hen%men%n an& i$ ha/ (een '%n'en$ra$e& in $he han&/ %+ 0an& 0%r&/, (%ur*e%i/
an& 'a,i$a0i/$/# The. *%$ $he ,%-er (. e6,0%i$in* $he /0ave/, ar$i/an/ an&
-%rker/# There+%re, he a&v%'a$e& n%$ %(e.in* $he ru0e %+ /u'h au$h%ri$. an&
/u**e/$e& '0a//A-ar, rev%0u$i%n an& rev%0$# 1e -an$e& $% /ee '0a//0e// /%'ie$.
-i$h%u$ e6,0%i$a$i%n -i$h $he rea0 au$h%ri$. ve/$e& in $he han&/ %+ -%rkin* '0a//
an& ,ea/an$/#
<# ELITE Due $% /u,eri%r e&u'a$i%n an& $rainin*, /%me ,e%,0e *% u, $he /%'ia0
0a&&erL $he. a0/% $en& $% 'rea$e a /$a$u/ /.m(%0 +%r a ,ar$i'u0ar /e'$i%n %+ $he
12
,e%,0e# Due $% $heir 0ea&er/hi, Gua0i$ie/, $he *%vernmen$ %+ $he ,e%,0e (. an
e0i$e /,run* +r%m $he ,e%,0e# Thu/# There e6i/$/ in ea'h /%'ie$. min%ri$. e0i$e %+
$he ,%,u0a$i%n, -hi'h '%me/ $% ,%-er $% make &e'i/i%n/ in $he /%'ie$. an& h%0&
au$h%ri$.#
@# TRADITIONAL A''%r&in* $% )a6 7e(er, ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. &erive& +r%m
an e/$a(0i/he& (e0ie+ in $he /an'$i$. %+ immem%ria0 $ra&i$i%n/ an& $he 0e*i$ima'.
%+ $he /$a$u/ %+ $h%/e e6er'i/in* au$h%ri$. %ver $hem# 7hen $he ri*h$ $% ru0e i/
a''rue& +r%m a '%n$inu%u/ u/e %+ ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er (a/e& %n 'u/$%m/ an&
$ra&i$i%n/, i$ i/ 'a00e& $ra&i$i%na0 au$h%ri$.#
B# C"ARISMATIC Chari/ma mean/ *i+$ %+ *ra'e# A''%r&in* $% )a6 7e(er,
,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. re/$/ %n $he &ev%$i%n $% $he /,e'i+i' an& e6'e,$i%na0 /an'$i$.,
her%i/m %r e6em,0ar. ,a$$ern/ %+ %r&er revea0e& %r %r&aine& (. him# 7hen $he
ri*h$ $% ru0e i/ a''rue& +r%m $he *rea$ Gua0i$ie/ an& 'hari/ma %+ a ,%0i$i'a0
0ea&er, i$ i/ 'a00e& 'hari/ma$i' au$h%ri$.#
C# LEGAL%RATIONAL A/ ,er )a6 7e(er, ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ /ai& $% re/$ %n
a hi*h (e0ie+ in $he 0e*a0i$. ,a$$ern/ %+ n%rma$ive ru0e/ an& $he ri*h$ %+ $h%/e
e0eva$e& $% $he au$h%ri$. un&er /u'h ru0e/ $% i//ue '%mman&/# 7hen $he ri*h$ $%
ru0e i/ a''rue& a''%r&in* $% $he '%n/$i$u$i%na0 ru0e/ %+ $he /$a$e, i$ i/ 'a00e& 0e*a0A
ra$i%na0 au$h%ri$.#
INDS OR TYPES OF AUT"ORITY
)a6 7e(er?/ '0a//i+i'a$i%n %+ au$h%ri$.
D# TRADITIONAL AUT"ORITY Tra&i$i%na0 au$h%ri$., $ha$ i/, $he ri*h$ $%
ru0e emer*in* +r%m a '%n$inu%u/ e6er'i/e %+ ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er# A kin*?/ au$h%ri$.
(e0%n*/ $% $hi/ 'a$e*%r.# Au$h%ri$. +r%m $hi/ ,%in$ %+ vie- i/ 0e*i$ima$e i+
/an'$i%ne& (. $ra&i$i%n (u$ /% are $he 0imi$a$i%n/ %+ au$h%ri$. i+ $he. a0/% are
$ra&i$i%na00. ,re/'ri(e&#
# C"ARISMATIC AUT"ORITY 7hen $he ,e%,0e /u(mi$ $hem/e0ve/ $% (e
ru0e& (. a man main0. %n $heir (eha0+ in $he e6$ra%r&inar. Gua0i$. %+ a ru0er, $ha$
ru0e %ver $hem i/ re+erre& $% a/ H'hari/ma$i' au$h%ri$.?# The 0e*i$ima'. %+ ru0e
re/$/ u,%n $he (e0ie+ in $he ma*i'a0 ,%-er/, an& her% -%r/hi, an& reve0a$i%n/#
13
5# LEGAL% RATIONAL AUT"ORITY Le*a0Ara$i%na0 au$h%ri$. i/ an'h%re&
in im,er/%na0 ru0e/ $ha$ have '%me $% 'hara'$eriKe /%'ia0 re0a$i%n/ in m%&ern
/%'ie$ie/#
The %$her kin&/ %+ au$h%ri$. are a/ +%00%-/L
GENERAL AUT"ORITY
An au$h%ri$. i/ *enera0 -hen i$ e6$en&/ $% a00 a'$/, %r a00 '%nne'$e& -i$h a ,ar$i'u0ar
em,0%.men$, an& /,e'ia0 -hen '%n+ine& $% a /in*0e a'$#
LEGAL AND POLITICAL AUT"ORITY
Le*a0 au$h%ri$. i/ $ha$ -hi'h +rame/ an& /u(%r&ina$e/ %(e. $hem# In 0e*a0 au$h%ri$. $he
0e*i$ima'. %+ $he ,%-erAh%0&er $% i//ue '%mman&/ re/$/ u,%n ru0e/ $ha$ are ra$i%na00.
e/$a(0i/he& (. ena'$men$, (. a*reemen$, %r (. im,%/i$i%n# P%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/
%($aine& -i$h $he ,e%,0e *ivin* v%0un$ari0. $heir '%n/en$# I$ enhan'e/ $he na$i%na0i$. %+
$he ,e%,0e %+ $he /$a$e# In ever. ,%0i$i'a0 /./$em, i$ i/ $rue a ,r%'e// %+ ,/.'hi'
mani,u0a$i%n $ha$ $he ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. /eek/ $% 'rea$e a (e0ie+ a(%u$ i$/ 0e*i$ima'.#
P%0i$i'a0 ,%-er, +%r $he /ake %+ '%n$inui$. an& a''e,$a(i0i$., ha/ $% (e 0e*i$ima$e ,%-er#
CENTRALI!ED AND DECENTRALI!ED AUT"ORITY
In $he uni$ar. /$a$e/ 0ike $he U4, Fran'e e$', $he au$h%ri$. i/ 'en$ra0iKe&# In +e&era0
/$a$e/ 0ike In&ia, USA e$', $he au$h%ri$. i/ &i/$ri(u$e& (e$-een $he 'en$re an& $he /$a$e/
%+ $he na$i%n#
DEFACTO AND DE&URE AUT"ORITY
A(i0i$. $% *e$ %ne?/ ,r%,%/a0/, '%mman&/, an& ,r%n%un'emen$/ a''e,$e& an& $hu/
&e$ermine %$her ,e%,0e?/ (ehavi%ur i/ $% have au$h%ri$. &e +a'$%, -herea/ $% have $he
ri*h$ $% make ,r%n%un'emen$/, i//ue '%mman&/ %+ 'er$ain kin&/ an& *e$ %$her/ $% %(e.
$hem i/ $% have au$h%ri$. &e ;ure# De ;ure au$h%ri$. e6er'i/e/ au$h%ri$. $hr%u*h /,ee'h
an& -%r& an& en;%./ $he ri*h$ $% re'eive %(e&ien'e# I$ &e$ermine/ -h% /ha00 (e $he
au$h%r# I$ i/ '%n'erne& -i$h a ,ri%r /e$ %+ ru0e/# De +a'$% au$h%ri$. ha/ n% rea0 au$h%ri$.
in i$/ han&/ (u$ en;%. $he /ame ,%/i$i%n# I+ $he man -h% ha/ &e +a'$% au$h%ri$. /$ar$/
u/in* +%r'e, he /ha00 (e &e/'ri(e& a/ e6er'i/in* ,%-er, n%$ au$h%ri$.#
AUT"ORITY AND LEGITIMACY
1)
Au$h%ri$. i/ $he in/$i$u$i%na0iKe& e6er'i/e %+ 0e*i$ima$e ,%-er# P%-er i/ $he 'a,a'i$. $%
in+0uen'e $he a'$i%n/ %+ %$her/# P%-er i/ $he a(i0i$. $% -in %ver %$her/# F%r'e i/ an
a&;a'en$ (u$ n%$ $he e//en'e %+ ,%-er# P%-er i/ $he 0a$en$ +%r'e an& +%r'e i/ $he ,a$en$
,%-er# Au$h%ri$. an& ,%-er are (%$h -a./ %+ re*u0a$in* /%'ia0 (ehavi%ur an& '%n&u'$#
Au$h%ri$. i/ a0-a./ 0e*i$ima$e# 7hen $he au$h%ri$. i/ 0e*i$ima$e, $he ma;%ri$. ,e%,0e
%(e. $he ru0e/, &e'i/i%n/, 0a-/ e$', ,a//e& (. /u'h au$h%ri$., -i$h%u$ an. +%r'e %r
,er/ua/i%n# The ,e%,0e %(e. /u'h 0a-/ unGue/$i%na(0.# Le*i$ima'. i/ $he +%un&a$i%n %+
,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er in a/ mu'h a/ i$ i/ e6er'i/e& (%$h -i$h $he '%n/'i%u/ne// %n $he
*%vernmen$?/ ,ar$ $ha$ i$ ha/ a ri*h$ $% *%vern an& -i$h /%me re'%*ni$i%n (. $he
*%verne& %+ $ha$ ri*h$# The ,ar$. havin* $he ma;%ri$. in $he 0e*i/0a$ure ha/ $he au$h%ri$.
$% ,a// 0a-/, an& i$ ha/ a'Guire& 0e*i$ima'.# The *%vernmen$ -hi'h ,%//e// rea0 an&
/$r%n* ma;%ri$. 'an a'Guire 0e*i$ima'.# Le*i$ima'. in'0u&e/ ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. an& n%nA
,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$.# I$ '%ver/ (%$h ,%0i$i'a0 an& n%nA,%0i$i'a0 %r*aniKa$i%n/ &e,en&in*
u,%n $he 'ir'um/$an'e/# The e6er'i/e %+ au$h%ri$. (e'%me/ 0e*i$ima$e -hen i$ i/
e6er'i/e& a''%r&in* $% '%n/$i$u$i%na0 an& 0e*a0 ,rin'i,0e/L a''%r&in* $% 'u/$%m/ an&
$ra&i$i%n/ an& (. a 'hari/ma$i' 0ea&er#
CONCLUSION
A0$h%u*h ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er re/$/ %n $he ,%$en$ia0i$. $% inv%ke '%er'i%n, +r%m hi/$%ri'a0
&a./ i$ ha/ (een +%un& $ha$ '%er'i%n (. -a. %+ $hrea$ %+ /an'$i%n i/ n%$ an a&eGua$e
in/$rumen$ $% e0i'i$ %(e&ien'e# I+ ,%-er i/ $% /u/$ain +%r 0%n* i$ mu/$ re'eive $he *enera0
a''e,$an'e# O(e&ien'e ma. (e %($aine& (. $he u/e %+ $hrea$ %+ /an'$i%n/, .e$ i$ re/$/
u,%n a +%rm %+ '%n/en$# I$ i/ $hi/ '%n/en$ $% %r a''e,$an'e %+ ,%-er %+ $he ru0er (. $he
ru0e& $ha$ /$ren*$hen/ $he ,%-er an& *ive/ him $he au$h%ri$.# P%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ (a/e&
%n $he a''e,$an'e %+ $he ri*h$ $% ru0e#
FURT"ER READING
1. P%0i$i'a0 O(0i*a$i%n/ Dr# S#2# ).neni
2. F%un&a$i%n/ %+ P%0i$i'a0 O(0i*a$i%n/ A#S# Bha*.a/hree
)a00ikar;un
10
3. 7iki,e&ia
LEGITIMACY
QUESTION FORMAT
1. E9p#ain the concept of #e6itimacy. =iscuss the "arious types of #e6itimacy *ith
i##ustrations? +2(()-2((,/
SYNOPSIS
*# In$r%&u'$i%n
h# )eanin*
i# De+ini$i%n/
;# C%n'e,$ %+ 0e*i$ima'.
k# Na$ure
0# C0a//i+i'a$i%n %+ 0e*i$ima'. a''%r&in* $%
i# )a6 7e(er
ii# Fre&ri'h
m# C%n'0u/i%n
INTRODUCTION
Le*i$ima'. i/ a '%n'e,$ $ha$ i/ in$ima$e0. 0inke& -i$h $he '%n'e,$/ %+ ,%-er an&
au$h%ri$.# The ear0ie/$ $ra'e/ %+ 0e*i$ima'. are +%un& in $he -ri$in*/ %+ P0a$% an&
Ari/$%$0e# In m%&ern $ime/ )a6 7e(er ha/ &ea0$ -i$h $he n%$i%n %+ 0e*i$ima'.#
Le*i$ima'. i/ $he +%un&a$i%n %+ ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er in a/ mu'h a/ i$ i/ e6er'i/e& (%$h -i$h a
'%n/'i%u/ne// %n $he *%vernmen$?/ ,ar$ $ha$ i$ ha/ a ri*h$ $% *%vern an& -i$h /%me
re'%*ni$i%n (. $he *%verne& %+ $ha$ ri*h$#
MEANING
P%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ (a/e& %n $he a''e,$an'e %+ $he ri*h$ $% ru0e %r -ha$ )a6 7e(er
'a00e& 0e*i$ima'.# The $erm 0e*i$ima'. ha/ (een &erive& +r%m $he La$in -%r&
H0e*i$imu/? meanin* 0a-+u0 %r a''%r&in* $% 0a-# I$ n%rma00. /$an&/ +%r /%me$hin*
au$h%riKe& $% &% an a'$i%n -hi'h &%e/ n%$ vi%0a$e $he 0a-/#
18
DEFINITIONS
D# Lipset ILe*i$ima'. in'0u&e/ $he 'a,a'i$. $% ,r%&u'e an& main$ain a (e0ie+ $ha$
$he e6i/$in* ,%0i$i'a0 in/$i$u$i%n/ %r +%rm/ are $he m%/$ a,,r%,ria$e +%r $he
/%'ie$.#J
2. Blondel 3 4It is an e9terna# e9tent to *hich the popu#ation accepts the
or6ani>ation *ithout ?uestionin6 it.7
CONCEPT OF LEGITIMACY ' NATURE
A''%r&in* $% 1#G 7e00/, /$a(i0i$. %+ a &em%'ra$i' ,%0i$i'a0 /./$em &e,en&/ n%$ %n0.
u,%n $he e'%n%mi' &eve0%,men$, (u$ a0/% u,%n i$/ 0e*i$ima'.# Le*i$ima'. re/$/ u,%n
$he '%n+i&en'e %+ $he ,e%,0e in $he e6i/$in* ,%0i$i'a0 in/$i$u$i%n/# De'i/i%n makin*
,r%'e// 'hara'$eriKe/ $he %,era$i%n %+ a m%&ern ,%0i$i'a0 /./$em# Au$h%ri$. an&
0e*i$ima'. are $-% im,%r$an$ '%m,%nen$/ %+ $he &e'i/i%nAmakin* /./$em# Pe%,0e?/
'%n/en$ 0e*i$imiKe/ $he e6er'i/e %+ ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er#
Sin'e $he /$a$e *enera00. ha/ a '%n/i&era(0e am%un$ %+ ,%-er a$ i$/ &i/,%/a0 $% en+%r'e
i$/ 0a-/, i$ i/ '0ear $ha$ %ne in a ,%/i$i%n %+ ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. en;%./ a *rea$ am%un$ %+
,%-er# i+ $he *%vernmen$ i/ a H0e*i$ima$e *%vernmen$?, $hen $he /%ur'e %+ i$/ ,%-er 0ie/
-i$h $he a,,r%va0 %+ $he ,e%,0e#
Le*i$ima'. a,,0ie/ $% $he 'a/e/ -here $he /e$A u, an& u/e %+ ,%0i$i'a0 au$h%ri$. i/ in
a''%r&an'e -i$h $he e/$a(0i/he& an& a''e,$e& ,r%'e&ure/ an& ru0e/ in a /%'ie$.#
Le*i$ima'. '0ear/ -he$her &e'i/i%n/ are (ein* ma&e (. $he ri*h$ kin& %+ ,e%,0e i#e#, (.
$he ,e%,0e -h%, a''%r&in* $% ru0e/, /h%u0& (e makin* $he &e'i/i%n/, an& -he$her $he
&e'i/i%n/ are (ein* ma&e in a''%r&an'e -i$h $he ru0e/ %+ $he ,ar$i'u0ar /%'ie$.#
Le*i$ima'. i/ n%$ re0a$e& $% $he *%%&ne// %r (a&ne// %+ $he ,e%,0e %r $heir &e'i/i%n/# A
re*ime ma. (e 0e*i$ima$e in $he /en/e $ha$ i$ 'ame $% ,%-er in a''%r&an'e -i$h $he
ru0e/ %+ $he 0an&, an& n%$ .e$ (e (enev%0en$, -i/e %r *%%&# G%%&ne// i/ n%$ e6hau/$e&
(. $he 0e*i$ima'.# S%me$ime/, a *%%& *%vernmen$ ma. (e 0e*i$ima$e an& .e$ $.ranni'a0#
The Gue/$i%n %+ 0e*i$ima'. i/ &e'i&e& (. &e$erminin* -he$her $he ,er/%n in au$h%ri$.
a'$/ -i$hin $he /,here re'%*niKe& $% (e hi/ un&er $he/e ru0e/, an& (. a/kin* -he$her $he
1,
,er/%n in '%mman& rea00. /a$i/+ie/ $he '%n&i$i%n/ 0ai& &%-n (. $he ru0e/# &i++eren$
/%'ie$ie/ have &i++eren$ kin&/ %+ n%rma$ive ru0e/ -hi'h (e/$%- 0e*i$ima'.# Le*i$ima'.
i/ 0imi$e& $% $he reGuiremen$/ %+ $he ,r%'e&ure/ an& i$ i/ n%$ '%rre'$ $% a/k -he$her a
'%mman& i/ -i/e, ,ru&en$ %r %$her-i/e &e/ira(0e (e+%re %(e.in* i$# Su'h '%n/i&era$i%n/
are e//en$ia0 -hen -e &ea0 -i$h $he Gue/$i%n %+ ;u/$i+i'a$i%n %+ au$h%ri$.#
CLASSIFICATION OF LEGITIMACY ACCORDING TO
MA( WEBER
)a6 7e(er ha/ '0a//i+ie& 0e*i$ima'. in$% $hree kin&/# 1e /$a$e/ hi/ '0a//i+i'a$i%n a/
+%00%-/L
i) $ra&i$i%na0
ii) 'hari/ma$i'
iii) 0e*a0Ara$i%na0
TRADITIONAL LEGITIMACY I$ &e,en&/ %n $ra&i$i%n/, 'u/$%m/ an& u/a*e/#
Pe%,0e %(e. $he ru0e/ a/ ma$$er %+ $ra&i$i%n# Tra&i$i%n/ have a 'er$ain 0imi$a$i%n -hi'h
i/ +%00%-e& (. $he ru0er a/ -e00 a/ $he ,e%,0e#
C"ARISMATIC LEGITIMACY i$ &e,en&/ %n $he e6$ra%r&inar. +ea$ure %+ $he
,%0i$i'a0 0ea&er# 7hen ,e%,0e /u(mi$ $hem/e0ve/ $% (e ru0e& (. a man main0. %n $heir
(e0ie+ in $hr e6$ra%r&inar. Gua0i$. %+ /u'h a ru0er, $ha$ ru0e %ver $hem i/ re+erre& $% a/
H'hari/ma$i' au$h%ri$.?# The 0e*i$ima'. %+ 'hari/ma$i' ru0e re/$/ u,%n $he (e0ie+ in
ma*i'a0 ,%-er/, an& her% -%r/hi, an& reve0a$i%n/
LEGAL% RATIONAL The au$h%ri$. $ha$ '%me/ +r%m a -e00 e/$a(0i/he& 0e*a0 /./$em
i/ 'a00e& 0e*a0Ara$i%na0 0e*i$ima'.# The ,%-er %+ $he ,rime mini/$er i/ (a/e& %n $he
'%n/$i$u$i%na0 0a-#
FREDRIC"
Fre&ri'h '0a//i+ie/ 0e*i$ima'. in$%L
i) RELIGIOUS LEGITIMACY ha/ i$/ '%n'e,$ +r%m $he $ime %+ an'ien$
em,ire, -hen $he kin* -a/ '%n/i&ere& a/ $he /%n %+ *%&# F%r e* &ivine
%ri*in $he%r. %+ /$a$e#
1.
ii) P"ILOSOP"ICAL LEGITIMACY i/ (a/e& %n $he rea/%nin* ,%-er %+
a ru0er# F%r e#*# P0a$% /ai& $ha$ ,hi0%/%,her/ /h%u0& (e $he kin* an& vi'eA
ver/a#
iii) PROCEDURAL LEGITIMACY i/ (a/e& %n e0e'$i%n (. -hi'h ,e%,0e
e0e'$ $heir re,re/en$a$ive/ a''%r&in* $% $he ,r%'e&ure/ 0ai& &%-n (. $he
'%n/$i$u$i%n# 1ere $he ma;%ri$. i/ *iven ,ri%ri$., a0/% 'a00e& &em%'ra$i'
0e*i$ima'.#
iv) PRAGMATIC LEGITIMACY &e,en&/ %n $he ,er+%rman'e %+ &u$ie/
0ike main$enan'e %+ 0a-, /u''e// in -ar, e'%n%mi' ,r%*re// e$'#
CONCLUSION
Le*i$ima'. i/ $he +%un&a$i%n %+ ,%0i$i'a0 ,%-er in a/ mu'h a/ i$ i/ e6er'i/e& (%$h -i$h a
'%n/'i%u/ne// %n *%vernmen$?/ ,ar$ $ha$ i$ ha/ a ri*h$ $% *%vern an& -i$h /%me
re'%*ni$i%n (. $he *%verne& %+ $ha$ ri*h$# Le*i$ima'. i/ in$e*ra0 $% a *%vernmen$?/
au$h%ri$.# In %r&er $% main$ain i$, a00 *%vernmen$/ mu/$ in /%me -a. (e a(0e $% /a$i/+.
$he (a/i' nee&/ %+ $heir 'i$iKen/# The '%nver/i%n %+ ,e%,0e?/ nee&/ in$% ,%0i'ie/ i/ (a/i'
$% a00 +%rm/ %+ *%vernmen$, even in ,rimi$ive $ri(e/ $ha$ mu/$ +ee& an& /he0$er $heir
mem(er/#
FURT"ER READING
# F%un&a$i%n/ %+ P%0i$i'a0 O(0i*a$i%n/ A#S# Bha*.a/hree )a00ikar;un
5# 7iki,e&ia
1:
UN&UST LAWS
QUESTION FORMAT
)# E6,0ain $he ,r%(0em/ %+ %(e&ien'e $% un;u/$ 0a-/# E!!CF
*# Sh%u0& un;u/$ 0a-/ (e %(e.e&: Di/'u//# E!!B, !!@F
SYNOPSIS
7ha$ i/ a 0a-:
De+ini$i%n %+ 0a-
Na$ure
7ha$ are un;u/$ 0a-/:
7h. ,e%,0e &i/%(e. un;u/$ 0a-/:
Di/%(e&ien'e $% un;u/$ 0a-/
Si$ua$i%n/ %+ ;u/$i+ie& %(e&ien'e
Sa+e*uar&/ a*ain/$ un;u/$ 0a-/
W"AT IS A LAW+
2(
)en 0ive in /%'ie$.# The. &i++er in $heir i&ea/, aim/ an& i&ea0/# 1en'e $here mu/$ (e
/%me Huni+%rm ru0e/? $% '%n$r%0 $heir a'$ivi$ie/# The/e uni+%rm ru0e/ -hi'h re*u0a$e
human (ehavi%r/ are 'a00e& 0a-/# The '%n'e,$ %+ 0a- %''u,ie/ a /i*ni+i'an$ ,0a'e %+
,%0i$i'a0 $he%r.# La- i/ '0%/e0. a//%'ia$e& -i$h S$a$e $ha$ /$a$e -i$h%u$ 0a- i/ anar'hi'
an& 0a- -i$h%u$ /$a$e i/ meanin*0e//# T% )a'Iver I$he S$a$e i/ (%$h $he 'hi0& an& ,aren$
%+ 0a-J# La- n%$ %n0. ,re/'ri(e/ $he ru0e/ %+ (ehavi%r +%r 'i$iKen/ in $he /$a$e (u$ a0/%
,r%vi&e/ a /%'ia0 %r&er -i$h%u$ -hi'h n% 'ivi0iKa$i%n an& e'%n%mi' &eve0%,men$ i/
,%//i(0e# The -%r& 0a- i/ &erive& +r%m an %0& Teu$%ni' r%%$ H0a*? -hi'h mean/
/%me$hin* -hi'h 0ie/ +i6e& %r even0.# The -%r& 0 a- i/ a0/% a//%'ia$e& -i$h $he La$in
-%r& H;u/? -hi'h a*ain i/ a//%'ia$e& -i$h an%$her -%r& H;un*ere? *ivin* $he meanin*
Ha (%n& %r $ie?# The *enera0 meanin* %+ 0a- i/ Ha (%&. %+ ru0e/ $% *ui&e human a'$i%n# I$
i/ $he ,r%&u'$ %+ human a'$i%n an& en&eav%ur#
DEFINITION OF LAW
La- i/, in i$/ -i&e/$ a(/$ra'$ /en/e, an. uni+%rmi$. %+ even$/, %r an. ru0e %+ a'$i%n#
D# Montesquieu /a./, ILa-/, in $he m%/$ e6$en&e& /i*ni+i'a$i%n, are $he ne'e//ar.
re0a$i%n/ -hi'h +0%- +r%m $he na$ure %+ $hin*/L an& in $hi/ /en/e a00 (ein*/ have
$heir 0a-/L &ivini$. ha/ her 0a-L $he ma$eria0 -%r0& ha/ her 0a-/L in$e00i*en'e
/u,eri%r $% human (ein*/ have $heir 0a-/L human (ein*/ have $heir 0a-/#J
# A''%r&in* $% Blackstone, ILa-, in i$/ m%/$ *enera0 an& '%m,rehen/ive /en/e
/i*ni+ie/ a ru0e %+ a'$i%n -he$her anima$e %r inanima$e, ra$i%na0 %r irra$i%na0#J
5# A''%r&in* $% Salmond, I$he 0a- ma. (e &e+ine& a/ $he (%&. %+ $he ,rin'i,0e/
re'%*niKe& an& a,,0ie& (. $he S$a$e in $he a&mini/$ra$i%n %+ ;u/$i'e#
NATURE
i# The m%/$ &%mina$in* +ea$ure %+ 0a- i/ i$/ uni+%rmi$.#
ii# The m%/$ &%mina$in* +ea$ure 0a- i/ $ha$ i$ i/ in $he na$ure %+ en;%inmen$/ $% (e
ke,$#
iii# The 0a- /h%u0& '%n+%rm $% $he ,rin'i,0e/ %+ ;u/$i'e#
iv# La- '%n/i/$/ 0ar*e0. %+ H%u*h$? En%rma$iveF ,r%,%/i$i%n/ ,re/'ri(in* h%-
,e%,0e %u*h$ $% (ehave (u$ n%$ '%n$r%0 $heir inner $h%u*h$/ an& m%$ive/#
21
v# An%$her va0ua(0e 'hara'$er %+ 0a- i/ i$/ 'a,a(i0i$ie/ in ,r%'urin* reme&ie/ in
'a/e/ %+ in+rin*emen$#
vi# La- i/ univer/a0 in $he /en/e $ha$ n% in&ivi&ua0 in e6em,$e& +r%m 0a-#
vii# The main aim %+ 0a- i/ $% en/ure /%'ia0 %r&er +%r $he *enera0 *%%& %+ a00#
viii# La-/ are a ,ar$ %+ $he in/$i$u$i%na0 /./$em in /%'ie$.#
i6# La-/ '%n+er en;%.men$ %+ ,%-er/ %r ri*h$/#
6# La- /h%u0& (e &.nami' an& n%$ /$a$i'#
W"AT ARE UN&UST LAWS+
The 0e*i/0a$ure/, -h% have (ru$e ma;%ri$. in $he 0e*i/0a$ure, %r hu*e ,%-er/ in $heir
han&/, ma. ,a// 'er$ain (a& an& un;u/$ 0a-/ $% /a$i/+. a /e'$i%n %+ /%'ie$. an& a /e'$i%n
%+ ,e%,0e /u++er a 0%$ -i$h $r%u(0e/# Un;u/$ 0a-/ are $he m%/$ un-an$e& &e+e'$ %+ 0a-#
Un;u/$ 0a-/ mean/ 0a-/ %+ n%$ ;u/$, un+air, 'rue0, (a&, e$'# Genera0 ,e%,0e ,re+er 0a-A
a(i&in* /%'ie$. in/$ea& %+ 0a-0e//ne//, anar'h., an& un;u/$ 0a-/ -hen $he 0a-/ are
un;u/$ in $he vie- %+ ma;%ri$. ,e%,0e %+ $he /$a$e, $he. &i/%(e. /u'h 0a-/, $he 0e*a0
/./$em -%u0& (reak&%-n, (e'%me ine++e'$ive an& 'ea/e $% (e 0a-# F%r Au*u/$ine ILex
injusta non est lexJ meanin* Han un;u/$ 0a- i/ n% 0a-?# An un;u/$ man, a'$ %r 0a- i/
au$%ma$i'a00. imm%ra0# 7i'ke&ne// 'an $ake %$her +%rm/ $han ;u/$i'e# Un;u/$ 0a-/
make ,e%,0e /u++er# Un;u/$ 0a-/ 0ea& $% ineGua0 &i/$ri(u$i%n %+ -ea0$h an& (reak &%-n
%+ 0a- /./$em an& $% rev%0$ a*ain/$ $he /%verei*n an& *%vernmen$# In 'er$ain %''a/i%n
%+ un;u/$ 0a-/ an& a$r%'i$ie/ (. $he ru0er/ $he ,e%,0e ma. re+u/e $% %(e. $he 0a-/ an&
&e'i&e n%$ $% 'arr. %u$ $heir %(0i*a$i%n/# Un;u/$ 0a-/ 'ea/e $% (e 0a- (. (e'%min*
ine++e'$ive +%r i$ %n0. (. (ein* a''e,$e& an& %(e.e& $ha$ 0a- remain/ e++e'$ive an&
'%n$inue/ $% (e 0a-# Un;u/$ 0a-/ are $he 0a-/ $ha$ $rea$ %ne %r m%re ,er/%n/ m%re
har/h0. %r m%re +av%ra(0. $han %$her/ in $he /ame /i$ua$i%n# A +a$her -h% ,i'k/ %n %ne
'hi0& an& make/ a +av%uri$e %+ an%$her i/ an un;u/$ ,aren$# Simi0ar0., i+ $he *%vernmen$
im,%/e/ heav. $a6e/ %r re/$ri'$i%n/ %n ,e%,0e %r a *r%u, %+ ,e%,0e /u'h 0a-/ are un;u/$
0a-/# Un&er NaKi *%vernmen$, 1i$0er ,a//e& /evera0 un;u/$ 0a-/ a*ain/$ $he +%00%-er/
%+ 9u&ai/m# In an un;u/$ 0a-, $he /%'ie$. -i00 (e &ivi&e&# The ,rin'i,0e IA00 are eGua0
(e+%re $he 0a-J i/ (a&0. e++e'$e&# The e++e'$e& ,e%,0e -%u0& rev%0$ a*ain/$ /u'h 0a-
an& *%vernmen$# Pea'e -i00 (e &i/$ur(e&# Cu/$%m/ are $he /%ur'e/ %+ 0a-# )a;%ri$. %+
22
$he ,e%,0e +%00%- 'u/$%m/ in ever. /%'ie$.# Le*i/0a$ure a&%,$/ /u'h 0a-/ -hi'h are
a''u/$%me& $% 'u/$%m/# S%me 'u/$%m/ ma. $urn (a& &ue $% 'han*e& /%'ie$.# F%r
e*#/a$i, 'hi0& marria*e/, &%-r. -a/ +%00%-e& %n'e an& n%- $he. are evi0 'u/$%m/# I+ $he
0e*i/0a$ure ena'$/ in /u,,%r$ %+ $hem, $he. are '%n/i&ere& a/ un;u/$ 0a-/# Un;u/$ 0a-/
ena'$e& (. ma;%ri$. %+ 0e*i/0a$ure are n%$ a$ a00 an& $here i/ n% %(0i*a$i%n %n ,e%,0e $%
%(e. /u'h 0a-/# Su'h un;u/$ 0a-/ %+ &i/'rimina$i%n -ere &i/%(e.e& in Ameri'a un&er
$he 0ea&er/hi, %+ )ar$in Lu$her kin*, an& in S%u$h A+ri'a an& In&ia (. $he Gan&hian/#
Pe%,0e have $he ri*h$ $% rev%0$ a*ain/$ /u'h 0a-/ i+ $he. are in ,ra'$i'e#
W"Y PEOPLE DISOBEY UN&UST LAWS+
The %(0i*a$i%n %+ $he /$a$e i/ $% make 0a-/ -hi'h are (ene+i'ia0 $% $he ,e%,0e an& -hi'h
are a''e,$a(0e $% ,u(0i'# Simi0ar0., $he %(0i*a$i%n %+ in&ivi&ua0/ i/ $% %(e. 0a-/ %+ $he
/$a$e# The ,r%(0em ari/e/ %n0. -hen $he 0a-/ are un;u/$# I/ i$ &e/ira(0e $% %(e. /u'h
un;u/$ 0a-/: )an. ,%0i$i'a0 $hinker/ ,r%,%/e $% &i/%(e. un;u/$ 0a-/# The. +%re/ee $ha$
rev%0u$i%n $ake ,0a'e i+ $he 0a-/ are un;u/$#
DISOBEDIENCE TO UN&UST LAWS
Di/%(e&ien'e i/ $he a'$i%n -hi'h ,r%&u'e/ in'rea/in* $en/i%n (e$-een 0a-/ an&
(ehavi%ur# In ,ermi//ive /%'ie$ie/, $he em,ha/i/ %n 0i(er$. in/,ire/ re/i/$an'e $% &u$.L
an& a &ee,A/ea$e& re0i*i%u/ %r /%'ia0 an$a*%ni/m /har,en/ $he $en/i%n/ an& +%/$er ra,i&
'han*e/ in m%ra0 i&ea/#
There i/ a 0e*a0 &u$. $% %(e. 0a-/# Bu$ $he in&ivi&ua0 ha/ $he inner m%ra0 0i(er$. $% %(e.
%r &i/%(e.# Di/%(e&ien'e %+ an imm%ra0 0a- -%u0& n%$ (e ne'e//ari0. $h%u*h$ imm%ra0
even (. $h%/e -h% -%u0& /$i00 &eem i$ H0a-? $h%u*h $he. -%u0& $rea$ i$ a/ i00e*a0#
C%n/en$ i/ $he rea/%n -h. ,e%,0e %u*h$ $% %(e. 0a-/# An%$her rea/%n +%r %(e&ien'e i/
$ha$ &i/%(e&ien'e /e$/ a (a& e6am,0e# Di/%(e&ien'e ma. (rin* har&/hi, %n %$her/#
Di/%(e&ien'e ma. $%,,0e $he *%vernmen$ in au$h%ri$.# E'%n%m. %+ $he /$a$e ma.
(e'%me $ur(u0en'e# P%0i$i'a0 unre/$ 'rea$e/ ne- ,r%(0em/ $% $he e6i/$in* %ne/#
SITUATIONS OF &USTIFIED DISOBEDIENCE
I$ i/ ar*ue& $ha$ /%me a'$i%n/ are 0e*i$ima$iKe& (. 0a- even -hen $he. are &e,ar$ure/
+r%m i$# F%r e6am,0e a &%'$%r ,er+%rme& an a(%r$i%n %n a *ir0, -h% -a/ ,re*nan$ a/ a
23
re/u0$ %+ ra,e, kn%-in* +u00. -e00 $ha$ a/ ,er 0a- he -a/ '%mmi$$in* a 'rime# 1e -a/ in
+a'$ he0& n%$ *ui0$. (e'au/e $he '%ur$ re$r%/,e'$ive0. en0ar*e& $he /'%,e %+ ne'e//i$.#
N%nA en+%r'emen$ %r n%nA ,r%/e'u$i%n %+ /%me %++en'e/ are e6am,0e/ %+ 0e*i$ima$iKe&
&i/%(e&ien'e#
SAFEGUARDS AGAINST UN&UST LAWS
In m%&ern /%'ie$., &em%'ra$i' +%rm %+ *%vernmen$ make/ 0a-/ $hr%u*h 0e*i/0a$ure/
'%n/i/$in* %+ re,re/en$a$ive/ e0e'$e& (. $he ,e%,0e# A''%r&in* $% $he &%'$rine %+
/e,ara$i%n %+ ,%-er/, $he ;u&i'iar. ha/ $he ,%-er %+ ;u&i'ia0 revie- -hen an a'$ i/
a*ain/$ $he ri*h$/ *iven (. $he '%n/$i$u$i%n# There are /% man. /a+e*uar&/ a*ain/$
ena'$in* un;u/$ 0a-/ in a &em%'ra$i' /$a$e# The. are>
D# O,,%/i$i%n ,ar$ie/ The %,,%/i$i%n ,ar$ie/ ini$ia$e amen&men$/ $% $he (i00/
,r%,%/e& (. $he ru0in* ,ar$ie/, -herever $he. +ee0 $ha$ 'er$ain '0au/e/ are un;u/$#
# E6e'u$ive The ,re/i&en$ %r $he hea& %+ $he /$a$e ma. a/k $he 0e*i/0a$ure $%
'%n/i&er %n'e a*ain $he 'han*e/ $% (e ma&e (. /en&in* (a'k $he (i00/#
5# 9u&i'iar. The ;u&i'iar. 'ann%$ in$er+ere in $he a++air/ %+ $he ena'$men$ (u$, in $he
in$ere/$ %+ ;u/$i'e an& $% ,r%$e'$ $he +un&amen$a0 +ree&%m/ %+ $he in&ivi&ua0, in
'er$ain 'a/e/, $ake u, ;u&i'ia0 revie- an& Gua/h un;u/$ ,ar$/ %+ a'$/ %r $he ,r%vi/i%n/
%+ /u'h un;u/$ 0a-/#
8# Pu(0i' a*i$a$i%n In 'er$ain %''a/i%n/, '%mm%n ,e%,0e a0/% a*i$a$e a*ain/$ un;u/$
0a-/ (. &em%n/$ra$i%n/, har$a0/, (%.'%$$/, e$'#
0. Pu#ic Opinion throu6h press and the mass media 3 Press critici>es un!ust #a*s
throu6h artic#es- #etters to the editors and the statements of eminent pu#ic fi6ures.
;ass media educate the pu#ic re6ardin6 un!ust #a*s.
T"OREAU AND GAND"I ON CI$IL
DISOBEDIENCE AND SATYAGRA"A
QUESTION FORMAT
)# E6,0ain $he &i++eren$ /$e,/ %+ Sa$.a*raha an& Sarv%&a.a a/ a $e'hniGue %+
'han*e# E!!CF
2)
*# 7ri$e n%$e/ %n Sa$.a*raha an& Sarv%&a.a# E!!@F
,# E6,0ain $he ,%0i$i'a0 an& e'%n%mi' i&ea/ %+ )aha$ma Gan&hi# E!!BF
Short notes
Civi0 &i/%(e&ien'e E !!8F
SYNOPSIS
%# 1enr. Davi& Th%reau %n 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e
,# E//a. %n 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e
G# G%%& *%vernmen$
r# 2i*h$ %+ rev%0u$i%n
/# Di/%(e&ien'e $% un;u/$ 0a-/
$# 2e/,e'$ +%r in&ivi&ua0
u# The ,r%(0em %+ Gan&hian 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e an& ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n
v# D%'$rine %+ /a$.a*raha
-# Sa$.a*raha v/# &ura*raha
6# Sa$.a*raha > Gan&hi?/ a,,r%a'h $% ,ea'emakin*
.# Gan&hi;i %n ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n $%-ar&/ $he /$a$e %r Gan&hian 'ivi0
&i/%(e&ien'e v/# ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n
K# Cri$i'i/m/
aa# Sarv%&a.a
((# Ori*in an& Gan&hian ,%0i$i'a0 i&ea0
"ENRY DA$ID T"OREAU ON CI$IL DISOBEDIENCE
1enr. Th%reau i/ '%n/i&ere& %ne %+ $he m%/$ in+0uen$ia0 +i*ure/ in Ameri'an $h%u*h$
an& 0i$era$ure# A /u,reme in&ivi&ua0i/$, he 'ham,i%ne& $he human /,iri$ a*ain/$
ma$eria0i/m an& /%'ia0 '%n+%rmi$.# The in+0uen'e/ %+ 2%u//eau, 9e++er/%n an& T%0/$%.
%n Th%reau -ere im,re//ive an& /u(/$an$ia0# Th%reau -a/ a ,hi0%/%,hi'a0 re(e0 an&
a//er$e& $he ri*h$ %+ $he in&ivi&ua0 $% re/i/$ $he in/$i$u$i%na0 '%nven$i%n/ $% en/0ave him#
1i/ a,,r%a'h $% ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n -a/ (a/e& %n $he &i*ni$. an& in$e*ri$. %+ $he
in&ivi&ua0#
ESSAY ON CI$IL DISOBEDIENCE
One %+ Th%reau?/ m%/$ im,%r$an$ -%rk/, HCivi0 Di/%(e&ien'e? EDC8CF, *re- %u$ %+ an
%verAni*h$ /$a. in ,ri/%n a/ a re/u0$ %+ hi/ '%n/'ien$i%u/ re+u/a0 $% ,a. a ,%00 $a6 $ha$
/u,,%r$e& $he )e6i'an 7ar, $% -hi'h Th%reau re,re/en$e& an e++%r$ $% e6$en& /0aver.#
Th%reau?/ a&v%'a'. %+ 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e a/ a mean/ $% ,r%$e/$ $h%/e a'$i%n/ %+ $he
*%vernmen$ $ha$ he '%n/i&er/ un;u/$ ha/ ha& a ,a//ive re/i/$an'e in&e,en&en'e
20
m%vemen$ 0e& (. Gan&hi in In&ia, an& $he n%nAvi%0en$ 'ivi0 ri*h$/ m%vemen$ 0e& (.
)ar$in Lu$her 4in* in $he Uni$e& S$a$e/# Th%reau in hi/ HCivi0 Di/%(e&ien'e? '0ear0.
e6,0aine& $he ri*h$/ %+ $he in&ivi&ua0 $% %(e. $he &i'$a$e/ %+ hi/ '%n/'ien'e ra$her $han
$he &i'$a$e/ %+ $he /$a$e# Th%reau, in hi/ e//a. HCivi0 Di/%(e&ien'e? e6,0ain/ *%%&
*%vernmen$ a/ /$a$e& (e0%-#
GOOD GO$ERNMENT
Th%reau a''e,$/ $he m%$$%, ITha$ *%vernmen$ i/ $he (e/$ $ha$ *%vern/ $he 0ea/$#J 1e
a0/% (e0ieve/, ITha$ *%vernmen$ i/ (e/$ -hi'h *%vern/ n%$ a$ a00#J The *%vernmen$ i/ a$
(e/$ (u$ an e6,e&ien$# 1%-ever, m%/$ *%vernmen$/ are u/ua00. ine6,e&ien$# The
*%vernmen$ i$/e0+, -hi'h i/ %n0. $he m%&e -hi'h $he ,e%,0e have 'h%/en $% e6e'u$e
$heir -i00 i/ eGua00. 0ia(0e $% (e a(u/e& an& ,erver$e& (e+%re $he ,e%,0e 'an a'$ $hr%u*h
i$# 1e *ive/ $he e6am,0e %+ a +e- in&ivi&ua0/ u/in* $he /$an&in* *%vernmen$ a/ $heir
$%%0L +%r in $he %u$/e$, $he ,e%,0e -%u0& n%$ have '%n/en$e& $% $hi/ mea/ure#
Ameri'an *%vernmen$, $h%u*h a re'en$ %ne, i/ en&eav%rin* $% $ran/mi$ i$/e0+
unim,aire& $% ,%/$eri$., (u$ ea'h in/$an$ 0%/in* %+ i$/ in$e*ri$.# The *%vernmen$ ha/ n%$
$he vi$a0i$. an& +%r'e %+ a /in*0e man 'an (en& i$ $% hi/ -i00# G%vernmen$ i/ a /%r$ %+ a
-%%&en *un $% $he ,e%,0e $hem/e0ve/# G%vernmen$ i/ e6'e00en$, -e mu/$ a00 a00%-# 3e$
$he *%vernmen$ never %+ i$/e0+ +ur$here& an. en$er,ri/e, (u$ (. $he a0a'ri$. -i$h -hi'h i$
*%$ %u$ %+ i$/ -a.# The *%vernmen$ &%e/ n%$ kee, $he '%un$r. +ree# F%r *%vernmen$ i/
an e6,e&ien$, (. -hi'h men -%u0& +ain /u''ee& in 0e$$in* %ne an%$her a0%neL an& -hen
i$ i/ m%/$ e6,e&ien$, $he *%verne& are 0e$ a0%ne (. i$# Th%reau a/ke& +%r a (e$$er
*%vernmen$ -hi'h e&u'a$e/ ma//e/, ,r%m%$e/ $ra&e an& '%mmer'e an& kee,/ $he
'%un$r. +ree# I+ $he $ra&er/ *% %u$ %+ 0a-, $hen $he. -%u0& &e/erve $% (e '0a//e& an&
,uni/he& -i$h $h%/e mi/'hiev%u/ ,er/%n/ -h% ,u$ %(/$ru'$i%n/ %n $he rai0 r%a&/# Le$
ever. man make kn%-n -ha$ kin& %+ *%vernmen$ -%u0& '%mman& re/,e'$#
7hen $he ,%-er i/ %n'e in $he han&/ %+ $he ,e%,0e, a ma;%ri$. are ,ermi$$e&, an& +%r a
0%n* ,eri%& '%n$inue $% ru0e, i/ n%$ (e'au/e $he. are m%/$ 0ike0. $% (e in $he ri*h$, n%r
(e'au/e $hi/ /eem/ +aire/$ $% $he min%ri$., (u$ (e'au/e $he. are ,h./i'a00. $he /$r%n*e/$#
Bu$ a *%vernmen$ in -hi'h $he ma;%ri$. ru0e/ in a00 'a/e/ 'ann%$ (e (a/e& %n ;u/$i'e,
even a/ +ar a/ men un&er/$an& i$# I$ i/ n%$ $he ma;%ri$. $ha$ &e'i&e/ ri*h$ an& -r%n* (u$
28
$he '%n/'ien'e# Ever. 'i$iKen /h%u0& (e a man +ir/$ an& /u(;e'$ 0a$er# I$ i/ n%$ &e/ira(0e
$% 'u0$iva$e a re/,e'$ +%r $he 0a-, /% mu'h a/ +ar a/ +%r $he ri*h$# The %n0. %(0i*a$i%n
-hi'h %ne ha/ a ri*h$ $% a//ume i/ $% &% a$ an.$ime $ha$ he $hink/ ri*h$# A '%mm%n an&
un&ue re/,e'$ +%r 0a- i/ $ha$ %ne ma. /ee a H/$a$e -i$h +i0e %+ +%r'e? an& men (urie&
un&er arm/# The ma//e/ %+ men /erve $he /$a$e n%$ a/ men (u$ a/ ma'hine/, -i$h $heir
(%&ie/# In m%/$ 'a/e/ $here i/ n% +ree e6er'i/e -ha$ever %+ $he ;u&*men$ %r %+ $he m%ra0
/en/eL (u$ $he. ,u$ $hem/e0ve/ %n a 0eve0 -i$h -%%& an& ear$h an& /$%ne/# 3e$, /u'h a/
$he/e even are '%mm%n0. e/$eeme& *%%& 'i$iKen/# O+$en m%/$ ,%0i$i'ian/, 0a-.er/,
mini/$er/ an& %++i'eAh%0&er/ /erve $he /$a$e 'hie+0. -i$h $heir hea&/, an& $he. rare0.
make an. m%ra0 &i/$in'$i%n# A -i/e man -i00 %n0. (e u/e+u0 a/ a man, an& -i00 n%$
/u(mi$ $% (e H'0a.? an& H/$%, a h%0e $% kee, $he -in& a-a.?, (u$ 0eave $ha$ %++i'e $% hi/
&u/$ a$ 0ea/$# Thu/, a''%r&in* $% Th%reau, a *%%& *%vernmen$ i/ a0-a./ (a/e& %n $he
'%n/en$ %+ $he in&ivi&ua0/ an& a00%-/ $hem $% 0ive h%ne/$0. an& '%m+%r$a(0.#
RIG"T OF RE$OLUTION
Th%reau /a./ a(%u$ ri*h$ %+ rev%0u$i%n $hu/>
All men recognize the right to revolution; that is, the
to refuse to allegiance to, and to resist, the government,
when its trann or its inefficienc are great and
unendura!le"# $e further sas,#%%%when a si&th of
the population of a nation which has undertaken to !e the
refuge of li!ert are slaves, and a whole countr is
un'ustl overrun and conquered ! a foreign arm, and
su!'ected to militar law, ( think that is not too soon for
honest men to re!el and revolutionize" )hat makes this
dut the more urgent is that the countr so overrun is not
our own !ut ours is the invading arm"# *horeau sas,
that +arle, is his essa on the ,ut of Su!mission to
-ivil .overnment# resolves all civil o!ligation into
e&pedienc; and he proceeds to sa that so long as the
interest of the whole societ requires it, that is, so long as
2,
the esta!lished government cannot !e resisted or
changed without pu!lic inconvenienc, it is the will of
.od%%"that the esta!lished government !e
o!eed%%%"and no longer" *his principle !eing
admitted, the 'ustice of ever particular case of
resistance is reduced to a computation of the quantit of
the danger and grievance on the one side, and the
pro!a!ilit and e&penses of redressing it on the other"#
/f this, +arle sas, ever man shall 'udge for himself"
But +arle appears to have contemplated those cases to
which the rule of e&pedienc does not appl, in which a
people as well as an individual must do 'ustice, cost what
it ma"#
DISOBEDIENCE TO UN&UST LAWS
Th%reau ha& n% +ai$h in $he e6i/$in* 0a-/# 1e 'a00e& $hem un;u/$ 0a-/ -hi'h /$ran*0e
man?/ +ree&%m# 1e Gue/$i%ne& $heir ,r%,rie$. an& a/ke& $he ,e%,0e $% (reak un;u/$ 0a-#
RESPECT FOR INDI$IDUAL
Th%reau a//er$e&, 0ike man. in&ivi&ua0i/$/, $ha$ $he au$h%ri$. %+ $he *%vernmen$ i/ an
im,ure %ne# Bu$ $he *%vernmen$ mu/$ have $he /an'$i%n an& '%n/en$ %+ $he *%verne& in
%r&er $% (e /$ri'$0. ;u/$# I$ 'an have n% ,ure ri*h$ %ver in&ivi&ua0 an& ,r%,er$. (u$ -ha$
he '%n'e&e/ $% i$# The ,r%*re// +r%m an a(/%0u$e $% a 0imi$e& m%nar'h., +r%m a 0imi$e&
m%nar'h. $% a &em%'ra'., i/ a ,r%*re// $%-ar&/ a $rue re/,e'$ +%r $he in&ivi&ua0# Even
$he Chine/e ,hi0%/%,her, C%n+u'iu/ -a/ -i/e en%u*h $% re*ar& $he in&ivi&ua0 a/ $he
(a/i/ %+ $he em,ire# I/ &em%'ra'., /u'h a/ -e kn%- i$, $he 0a/$ im,r%vemen$ ,%//i(0e in
*%vernmen$: There -i00 never (e a rea00. +ree an& en0i*h$ene& /$a$e un$i0 $he /$a$e
'%me/ $% re'%*niKe $he in&ivi&ua0 a/ a hi*her an& in&e,en&en$ ,%-er, +r%m -hi'h a00 i$/
%-n ,%-er an& au$h%ri$. are &erive&, an& $rea$/ him a''%r&in*0.#
Th%reau '%n'0u&e/ hi/ e//a. HCivi0 Di/%(e&ien'e? (. /a.in*, II ,0ea/e m./e0+ -i$h
ima*inin* a /$a$e a$ 0a/$ -hi'h 'an a++%r& $% (e ;u/$ $% a00 men, an& $% $rea$ $he
2.
in&ivi&ua0 -i$h re/,e'$ a/ a nei*h(%urL -hi'h even -%u0& n%$ $hink i$ in'%n/i/$en$ -i$h
i$/ %-n re/,%n/e i+ a +e- -ere $% 0ike a0%%+ +r%m i$, n%r em(ra'e& (. i$, -h% +u0+i00e& a00
$he &u$ie/ %+ nei*h(%ur an& +e00%- men# A /$a$e -hi'h (%re $hi/ kin& %+ +rui$, an&
/u++ere& i$ $% &r%, %++ a/ +a/$ a/ i$ ri,ene&, -%u0& ,re,are $he -a. +%r a /$i00 m%re
,er+e'$ an& *0%ri%u/ /$a$e, -hi'h I have a0/% ima*ine&, (u$ n%$ .e$ an.-here /een#J
T"E PROBLEM OF GAND"IAN CI$IL DISOBEDIENCE AND POLITICAL
OBLIGATION
DOCT2INE OF SAT3AG2A1A ESAT3AG2A1A, AS A TEC1NINUE OF CI=IL
DISOBEDIENCE > Gan&hi;i u/e& Sa$.a*raha a/ a $e'hniGue %+ $he +i*h$ %+ an
%,,re//e& ,e%,0e a*ain/$ +%rei*n ru0e# A''%r&in* $% Gan&hi, ever. na$i%n /h%u0& have
H/-ara;?# S-ara; i/ $he (ir$h ri*h$ %+ ever. 'i$iKen# Ever. na$i%n /h%u0& have
in&e,en&en'e# Gan&hi +rank0. 'a00e& $he a0ien ru0e a/ H/a$ani'?# S-ara; mean/ a /$a$e
/u'h $ha$ $he 'i$iKen/ 'an main$ain %ur /e,ara$e e6i/$en'e -i$h%u$ +%rei*n ru0e# S-ara;
i/ an i&ea0 /%'ie$. in -hi'h ever.%ne ha/ $he 'a,a'i$. $% re/i/$ $he a(u/e %+ au$h%ri$.#
S-ara; im,0ie/ $he rei*n %+ '%m,0e$e /%'ia0 ;u/$i'e, eGua0i$. an& +ree&%m# S-ara; a0/%
&e/ire/ a /%'ia0 %r&er -i$h%u$ e*%i/$i' in$ere/$/ $ha$ 'au/e/ /%'ia0 '%n+0i'$/ an& $en/i%n/#
S-ara; mean/ $he ru0e %+ $he ,e%,0e %+ a na$i%nA/$a$e# Gan&hi ev%0ve& $he $e'hniGue %+
Sa$.a*raha, a n%ve0 an& a uniGue -a. $% re/i/$ $he evi0 %+ +%rei*n ru0e# I$ i/ a &evi'e
$hr%u*h -hi'h $he un;u/$, im,ure, un$ru$h+u0 an& evi0 are $e/$e&#
The 0i$era0 meanin* %+ $he $erm HSa$.a*raha? i/ H,er/i/$en'e +%r $ru$h?# I$ i/ $he /%u0
+%r'e %r 0%ve %r $ru$h +%r'e# The $erm Sa$.a*raha -a/ '%ine& (. Gan&hi in S%u$h A+ri'a
$% e6,re// $he +%r'e $ha$ In&ian/ $here u/e&# I$ -a/ '%n'eive& a/ a -ea,%n %+ $he /$r%n*
an& e6'0u&e& $he u/e %+ vi%0en'e an& ha$re& in an. /,here %r +%rm# Sa$.a*raha i/ a
re0en$0e// /ear'h +%r $ru$h an& a &e$ermina$i%n $% $ea'h $ru$h +%r'e $hr%u*h n%nvi%0en$
mean/# I$ 0i$era00. mean/ h%0&in* %n $% $ru$h# S% i$ i/ a $ru$h +%r'e# I$ i/ n%$ (a/e& %n $hr
+%r'e %+ arm/, (u$ %n $he +%r'e %+ $ru$h an& 0%ve# A''%r&in* $% Gan&hi, a /a$.a*rahi i/ a
2:
+ear0e// ,er/%n# 1e -i00 never /u(mi$ $% an. ar(i$rar. a'$i%n# 1e -h% ha/ a$$aine& $he
/a$.a*rahi?/ /$a$e %+ min& -i00 remain vi'$%ri%u/ un&er a00 '%n&i$i%n/# S% i$ i/ (e0ie+ in
$he ,%-er %+ $he /,iri$, $he ,%-er %+ $ru$h, $he ,%-er %+ 0%ve (. -hi'h man 'an
%ver'%me evi0 $hr%u*h /e0+A/u++erin* an& /e0+A/a'ri+i'e# 1i/ Sa$.a*raha re0a$e& $% $-%
$hin*/L i$ en;%in/ u,%n man $he &u$. $% era&i'a$e evi0 an& ,%/i$ive0., i$ remin&/ him %+
hi/ %(0i*a$i%n $% /erve $he '%mmuni$.# Sa$.a*raha i/ a ver. ,%-er+u0 n%nvi%0en$
me$h%& %+ &ire'$ a'$i%n# A /a$.a*rahi e6hau/$/ a00 %$her mean/ (e+%re he re/%r$/ $%
Sa$.a*raha# 1e a0/% u/e/ a/ hi/ -ea,%n a*ain/$ in;u/$i'e a+$er havin* e6hau/$e& a00
%$her ,%//i(i0i$ie/ %+ ,er/ua/i%n an& '%n'i0ia$i%n# Sa$.a*raha a/ a -ea,%n %+ /%'ia0
'%n$r%0 i/ e$erna0 an& 'rea$ive# A /a$.a*rahi &%e/ n%$ 'rave %r in&u0*e in +%r ,er/%na0
*ain %r *0%ri+i'a$i%n, %r $% humi0ia$e an.%ne# The en$ire /%'ia0 0i+e i/ im,%//i(0e -i$h%u$
Sa$.a*raha -hi'h i/ a $rue re0i*i%n# I$ i/ n%$ %n0. em,0%.e& a*ain/$ ru0er/ an& ru0e&, (u$
a0/% $he /%'ie$. an& $he *%vernmen$# I$ i/ a ,ra'$i'a0 ,hi0%/%,h.# Sa$.a*raha ma. (e
un&er/$%%& a/ a $e'hniGue +%r re/%0vin* '%n+0i'$/ an& a me$h%& +%r +i*h$in* evi0/#
A''%r&in* $% Gan&hi, Sa$.a*raha i/ ,ra'$i'a(0e in ever. /i$ua$i%n# The /a$.a*rahi
(e'%me/ men$a00. /$r%n* (. en&urin* ,h./i'a0 /u++erin*# In $hi/ '%n$e6$ Gan&hi -r%$e,
II /ee $ha$ Sa$.a*raha i/ a//ure& %+ &ivini$. an& $ha$ in $e/$in* a /a$.a*rahi, $he 'rea$%r
im,%/e/ %n him a$ ever. /$e, a/ mu'h (ur&en a/ he 'an (ear#J There are $hree +%rm/ %+
Sa$.a*raha# The/e +%rm/ ma. (e a,,0ie& in a /a$.a*raha 'am,ai*n# The/e -ere m%/$
'%mm%n0. em,0%.e& &urin* $he +ree&%m /$ru**0e in In&ia un&er $he 0ea&er/hi, %+
Gan&hi# There are $hree +%rm/ %+ Sa$.a*raha, name0.> (a) n%nA'%%,era$i%n, (() 'ivi0
&i/%(e&ien'e, an& (') +a/$in*#
N%nA'%%,era$i%n mean/ renun'ia$i%n %+ $he (ene+i$/ %+ a /./$em -i$h -hi'h -e are
a//%'ia$e&# I$ inv%0ve/ v%0un$ar. /u++erin* in $he ,r%'e// %+ re/i/$in* evi0# Se'%n&0., i$
'%n/i/$/ %+ 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e -hi'h inv%0ve/ &ire'$ '%n$raven$i%n %+ /,e'i+i' 0a-/ 0ike
n%n ,a.men$ %+ $a6e/ an& /% %n# The /,iri$ %+ 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e '%n/i/$/ in &e+.in* a00
$h%/e 0a-/ -hi'h are '%n/i&ere& un;u/$# I$ i/ an a'$ %+ 'ivi0i$. /in'e i$ i/ %,,%/e& $% a00
+%rm/ %+ vi%0en$ an& un'ivi0iKe& (ehavi%ur# I$ inv%0ve/ &i/%(e&ien'e $% $he un;u/$# Bu$ i$
inv%0ve/ a hi*her m%ra0 0a-, $ru$h an& ;u/$i'e# I$ a&v%'a$e/ a 'ivi0iKe& -a. %+ 0i+e# I$
%,,%/e/ a00 un'ivi0iKe& a'$/, un'ivi0 an& vi%0en$# On $he %$her han&, &i/%(e&ien'e i/ $%
3(
(e 'ivi0# Fina00., +a/$in* i/ $he m%/$ ,%$en$ +%rm %+ Sa$.a*raha#i$ i/ /e0+ in+0i'$e&#
Fa/$in* i/ $he hi*he/$ e6,re//i%n %+ $he ,ra.er %+ a ,ure an& 0%vin* hear$# I$ i/
in&i/,en/a(0e#
SATYAGRA"A $ERSUS DURAGRA"A
The e//en'e %+ Sa$.a*raha i/ $ha$ i$ /eek/ $% e0imina$e an$a*%ni/m/ -i$h%u$ harmin* $he
an$a*%ni/$/ $hem/e0ve/, a/ %,,%/e& $% vi%0en$ re/i/$an'e, -hi'h i/ mean$ $% 'au/e harm
$% $he an$a*%ni/$# A Sa$.a*rahi $here+%re &%e/ n%$ /eek $% en& %r &e/$r%. $he
re0a$i%n/hi, -i$h $he an$a*%ni/$, (u$ in/$ea& /eek/ $% $ran/+%rm %r @,uri+. i$ $% a hi*her
0eve0# A eu,hemi/m /%me$ime/ u/e& +%r Sa$.a*raha i/ $ha$ i$ i/ a @/i0en$ +%r'e %r a
@/%u0 +%r'e (a $erm a0/% u/e& (. )ar$in Lu$her 4in* 9r# &urin* hi/ +am%u/ @I 1ave a
Dream /,ee'h)# I$ arm/ $he in&ivi&ua0 -i$h m%ra0 ,%-er ra$her $han ,h./i'a0 ,%-er#
Sa$.a*raha i/ a0/% $erme& a @univer/a0 +%r'e, a/ i$ e//en$ia00. @make/ n% &i/$in'$i%n
(e$-een kin/men an& /$ran*er/, .%un* an& %0&, man an& -%man, +rien& an& +%e#
Gan&hi '%n$ra/$e& Sa$.a*raha (h%0&in* %n $% $ru$h) -i$h @&ura*raha (h%0&in* %n (.
+%r'e), a/ in ,r%$e/$ mean$ m%re $% hara// $han en0i*h$en %,,%nen$/# 1e -r%$e> @There
mu/$ (e n% im,a$ien'e, n% (ar(ari$., n% in/%0en'e, an& n% un&ue ,re//ure# I+ -e -an$ $%
'u0$iva$e a $rue /,iri$ %+ &em%'ra'., -e 'ann%$ a++%r& $% (e in$%0eran$# In$%0eran'e
(e$ra./ -an$ %+ +ai$h in %neO/ 'au/e# Civi0 &i/%(e&ien'e an& n%nA'%%,era$i%n a/
,ra'$i'e& un&er Sa$.a*raha are (a/e& %n $he @0a- %+ /u++erin*, a &%'$rine $ha$ $he
en&uran'e %+ /u++erin* i/ a mean/ $% an en&# Thi/ en& u/ua00. im,0ie/ a m%ra0
u,0i+$men$ %r ,r%*re// %+ an in&ivi&ua0 %r /%'ie$.# There+%re, n%nA'%%,era$i%n in
Sa$.a*raha i/ in +a'$ a mean/ $% /e'ure $he '%%,era$i%n %+ $he %,,%nen$ '%n/i/$en$0.
-i$h $ru$h an& ;u/$i'e#
S-ty-.r-h-' G-n/hi0s -ppro-1h to pe-1e2-3in.
A/ a ma;%r +i*ure %+ ,ea'e in %ur 'en$ur., )%han&a/ Gan&hi -arran$/ /eri%u/ a$$en$i%n,
(%$h +%r hi/ i&ea/ %+ n%nvi%0en'e an& +%r hi/ '%ura*e%u/ $ran/0a$i%n %+ $he/e i&ea/ in$%
a'$i%n#
31
As Martin Luther King, Jr., so aptly said, If humanity is to progress, Gandhi is
inescapale!"e may ignore him at our o"n ris#$
.
In $hi/ ar$i'0e, $he Gan&hian ,er/,e'$ive %n ,ea'e an& $he a,,0i'a(i0i$. %+ hi/ $he/i/ %+
n%nvi%0en$ a'$i%n $% '%n$em,%rar. '%n+0i'$ /i$ua$i%n/ i/ e6amine&# Fun&amen$a0
'%n'e,$/>
D# A''%r&in* $% Gan&hi, $he /u,reme human en&eav%ur /h%u0& (e $he ,ur/ui$ %+
Sa$.a, Tru$h# Gan&hi %+$en Gu%$e& $he '%re ,hi0%/%,hi'a0 a//er$i%n +r%m $he
Bha*ava&AGi$a Gi$a, satanasti paro dharma, H$here i/ n% hi*her &u$. $han
a&heren'e $% Tru$h#? Thi/ -a/ $he U,ani/ha& '%n'e,$ %+ $he u0$ima$e, e$erna0
Tru$h $ha$ i/ akin $% /e0+Area0iKa$i%n, $ran/'en&in* (arrier/ %+ hi/$%r., $ime, an&
'u0$ure# 1%-ever, i$ -a/ n%$ $he e$erna0 Tru$h $ha$ *ui&e& Gan&hi?/ $h%u*h$ an&
a'$i%n, (u$ $he i&ea %+ re0a$ive Tru$h#
# The (a/i' %,era$ive a//um,$i%n $ha$ Gan&hi make/ i/ $ha$ n%nvi%0en'e
'%n/$i$u$e/ a ,%/i$ive ,r%'e&ure +%r ,r%m%$in* -%r$h-hi0e /%'ia0 'han*e# I$ i/
n%$ mere0. $ha$ %ne /h%u0& re+rain +r%m vi%0en'e, (e'au/e i$ i/ -r%n*L
/%me$ime/ vi%0en'e i/ n%$ -r%n*# There 'an (e '%n&i$i%n/ in -hi'h %ne i/
;u/$i+ie& in in+0i'$in* vi%0en'eP+%r in/$an'e, i+ $he %n0. %$her 'h%i'e i/ a'$in* in
a '%-ar&0. manner# =i%0en'e i/ a0/% ;u/$i+ie& +%r $he ,r%$e'$i%n %+ $h%/e un&er
%ne?/ 'are, %r un&er $he 'are %+ $he 0ar*er '%mmuni$.# In Gan&hi?/ vie-, $he
(e/$ re/,%n/e -a/ (a/e& %n n%nvi%0en'eL $he /e'%n& (e/$ -a/ vi%0en$ &e+en/e#
The -%r/$ +%rm %+ re/,%n/e -a/ /u(mi//i%n $% a $.ran$ %r runnin* a-a. %u$ %+
+ear %+ '%n/eGuen'e/# In Gan&hi?/ -%r&/> I "ould rather ha%e India resort to
arms in order to defer her honour than that she should, in a co"ardly
manner, ecome or remain a helpless "itness to her o"n dishonour.
5# Thi/, $hen, (rin*/ u/ $% $he 'en$ra0 i&ea in hi/ $he/i/, Sa$.a*raha, -hi'h 0i$era00.
mean/ H'0in*in* $% $ru$h? %r Hh%0&in* +a/$ $% $ru$h#? The n%$i%n %+ /a$.a*raha
'%m(ine/ $he i&ea/ %+ $ru$h an& n%nvi%0en'e
32
As a concept &atyagraha ga%e expression to Gandhi$s religious and ethical ideas' as
a techni(ue, it put these ideas into practice' and as a philosophy, it moili)ed *indu
philosophical traditions to eliminate contemporary social injustice
Be*innin* in S%u$h A+ri'a, Gan&hi 0aun'he& Sa$.a*raha a*ain/$ $he 0a-/ %+ $he
Tran/vaa0 *%vernmen$, -hi'h reGuire& ever. In&ian $% ,r%'ure a 'er$i+i'a$e %+
re*i/$ra$i%n %r +a'e &e,%r$a$i%n# An%$her /e$ %+ S%u$h A+ri'an 0a-/ &e'0are& 1in&u,
)u/0im, an& Par/ee marria*e/ i00e*a0# O,,%/i$i%n $hr%u*h Sa$.a*raha inv%0ve& $he
im,ri/%nmen$ %+ $h%u/an&/ %+ In&ian/ an& even$ua00. 0e& $% $he nu00i+i'a$i%n %+ $h%/e
0a-/# A+$er arrivin* in In&ia, Gan&hi im,0emen$e& Sa$.a*raha in D"D@ADB a*ain/$ $he
Bri$i/h in&i*% ,0an$er/ a$ Cham,aran in Bihar, -here ,ea/an$ 'u0$iva$%r/ -ere un+air0.
$rea$e& an& $a6e&# In D"DC Sa$.a*raha -a/ a0/% (r%u*h$ $% (ear %n $he &i/,u$e (e$-een
$he $e6$i0e mi00 %-ner/ an& 0a(%urer/ in Ahme&a(a& an& inv%0ve& a /$rike (. -%rker/#
The $e'hniGue %+ /a$.a*raha -a/ /u(/eGuen$0. ,ra'$i'e& in D"8 %n (eha0+ %+ $he
un$%u'ha(0e/, -h% ha& (een +%r(i&&en $% u/e $he r%a&/ in $he vi'ini$. %+ $he =.k%m
$em,0e in Travan'%re, S%u$h In&ia# 1avin* re+ine& hi/ /$ra$e*. %n re0a$ive0. /ma00er
/$a*e/, Gan&hi 0aun'he& a /erie/ %+ Sa$.a*raha 'am,ai*n/, (e*innin* in D"5!, -hi'h
inv%0ve& ma// ,ar$i'i,a$i%n in 'ivi0 re/i/$an'e an& n%nA'%A%,era$i%n aime& a$ $he
Bri$i/h# In $he ma;%ri$. %+ $he/e 'am,ai*n/ Gan&hi a'hieve& remarka(0e /u''e//,
*ainin* ever *r%-in* ,%,u0ar ,ar$i'i,a$i%n an& /u,,%r$ +%r hi/ &e'0are& %(;e'$ive/
Implicit in &atyagraha "as Gandhi$s assumption that all rulers are dependent for
their position and po"er upon the oedience and cooperation of the ruled. +heir
po"er therefore comes from outside themsel%es. If sujects "ithdra" cooperation
and refuse to sumit, a regime "ill ecome seriously "ea#ened.
A+$er an ana0./i/ %+ +ive ma;%r Sa$.a*raha 'am,ai*n/ 0aun'he& (. Gan&hi &urin* $he
/$ru**0e +%r na$i%na0 in&e,en&en'e, 9%an B%n&uran$ '%n'0u&e/> HIn e6aminin*
Sa$.a*raha in a'$i%n, i$ (e'%me/ '0ear $ha$ /a$.a*raha %,era$e/ a/ a +%r'e $% e++e'$
'han*e?# T% /u''ee&, i$ reGuire& Ha '%m,rehen/ive ,r%*ram %+ ,0annin*, ,re,ara$i%n,
33
an& /$u&ie& e6e'u$i%n,? an& n%$ /im,0. a /,%n$ane%u/ u,/ur*e %+ ma// ,r%$e/$#
Sa$.a*raha +ai0e& -henever H%ne %r m%re %+ $he /$a*e/ %+ $he 'am,ai*n -a/ /0i*h$e&#?
9%an B%n&uran$ main$ain/ $ha$ re0i*i%u/ %r ,hi0%/%,hi'a0 '%m,a$i(i0i$ie/ a0%ne &% n%$
e6,0ain Gan&hi?/ /u''e// in In&ia# In +a'$, $he $he%r. %+ '%n+0i'$ un&er0.in* Sa$.a*raha
an& $he /$ra$e*. i$ .ie0&/ have -i&er a,,0i'a$i%n/ $ha$ *% -e00 (e.%n& In&ia# She 'i$e/
$he 4hu&ai 4hi&ma$*ar (Servan$/ %+ G%&) m%vemen$ am%n* Pa$han )u/0im/ in $he
N%r$h-e/$ Fr%n$ier Pr%vin'e %+ Bri$i/h In&0ea&er, re'rui$e& $h%u/an&/ %+ )u/0im
/u,,%r$er/ an& 'arrie& %u$ a /u''e//+u0 n%nvi%0en$ /$ru**0e# The )u/0im Pa$han/ are
kn%-n +%r $heir (raver., an& $heir *enera0 ,%,u0a$i%n 0ive/ (. $he 'ree& %+ mi0i$ar.
h%n%r an& va0%r in (a$$0e# In&ee&, in %ne ra$her $%u'hin* e,i/%&e &e/'ri(e& (. $he
au$h%r, )u/0im Pa$han -%men, -h% are $ra&i$i%na00. -%n$ $% hi&e (ehin& a vei0, -hen
+%r'e&, $he. 0a. &%-n -i$h '%,ie/ %+ $he Nuran '0u$'he& $% $heir hear$/#
Gene &harp, in his oo#, Gandhi as a ,olitical &trategist, cites se%eral more
instances of &atyagraha and persuasi%ely argues that since Gandhi$s use of it in
India, the techni(ue has een implemented far more "idely than is generally
elie%ed. Among the most important instances he cites is its adoption y Martin
Luther King, Jr., against racist practices in the -nited &tates.
Even in $%$a0i$arian /./$em/, $here have (een in/$an'e/ %+ /imi0ar re/i/$an'e, a0$h%u*h
n%-here ha/ i$ 0e& $% $he %ver$hr%- %+ /u'h re*ime/# The N%r-e*ian re/i/$an'e &urin*
$he NaKi %''u,a$i%n i/ %ne %+ $he m%/$ /i*ni+i'an$ e6am,0e/# O$her 'a/e/ in'0u&e>
Major aspects of the .anish resistance, /012314, including the successful general
stri#e in 5openhagen in /011' major parts of the .utch resistance, /012314' the last
German rising of June /046, in "hich there "as massi%e non%iolent defiance "hich
included "omen in Jena sitting do"n in front of 7ussian tan#s' stri#es in political
prisoners$ camps in the &o%iet -nion /046, "hich are credited "ith eing a major
influence for impro%ing the lot of prisoners' and the major aspects of the *ungarian
3)
re%olution, /048349, in "hich in addition to the military attles there "as
demonstrated the po"er of the general stri#e, the large3scale popular non%iolent
defiance"
Shar, +ur$her ,%in$/ %u$ $ha$ $he &e*ree %+ H/u''e// an& +ai0ure? varie/ in ea'h 'a/e#
GAND"I&I ON POLITICAL OBLIGATION TOWARDS T"E STATE OR
GAND"IAN CI$IL DISOBEDIENCE $S# POLITICAL OBLIGATION
The '%n'e,$ %+ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n i/ $ha$ $he 'i$iKen mu/$ %(e. $he 0a-/ %+ $he /$a$e# A
0a- i/ a *%%& 0a-/ an& /h%u0& (e %(e.e& %n0. i+ an& -hen $he i$ ha/ $rium,he& in a $ria0
%+ /$ren*$h a*ain/$ $he e6,re//e& -i00/ %+ $he %$her *r%u,/, $ha$ i/, i+ an& -hen i$ ha/
(een a0rea&. %(e.e&# A 'i$iKen mu/$ have +ir/$ ren&ere& -i00in* %(e&ien'e $% $he 0a- %+
$he /$a$e# One mu/$ have /h%-n a -i00in*, in$e00i*en$ an& /,%n$ane%u/ %(e&ien'e $% $he
0a-/ %+ $he /$a$e# Civi0 &i/%(e&ien'e i/ a*ain/$ $he '%n'e,$ %+ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n#
1%-ever, 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e -a/ '%n/i&ere& (. Gan&hi;i a/ a ;u/$ an& m%ra0 &u$. %+
'i$iKen/ a*ain/$ an un;u/$ ,%0i$i'a0 %r&er# 1e '%n&emne& Bri$i/h ru0e an& En*0i/hmen?/
ra'i/m an& vi%0en$ me$h%&/ in $he a&mini/$ra$i%n %+ In&ia# 1e '%n&emne& im,eria0i/m
an& '%0%nia0i/m#Gan&hi;i %,ine& i+ $he *%vernmen$ -%u0& n%$ re,re/en$ $he -i00 %+ $he
,e%,0e an& i+ i$ -%u0& re/%r$ $% &i/h%ne/$ mean/ $% /u,,re// $he ,e%,0e an& e6,0%i$
$hem, $hen $he vi%0en'e $he 0a-/ /h%u0& (e &i/%(e.e&# Gan&hi;i +%u*h$ a*ain/$ /$a$e
vi%0en'e -i$h $he +%r'e %+ n%nAvi%0en'e $hr%u*h Sa$.a*raha# A''%r&in* $% him,
Sa$.a*raha mean/ $he e6er'i/e %+ $he ,ure/$ /%u0 +%r'e a*ain/$ a00 in;u/$i'e, %,,re//i%n
an& e6,0%i$a$i%n# Sa$.a*raha -an$/ n%$ $% en&an*er $he %,,%nen$ (u$ $% %ver-he0m him
(. $he +0%%&in* ,%-er %+ inn%'en'e# Gan&hi;i /a./, IA /a$.a*rahi %(e./ $he 0a-/ %+
/%'ie$. in$e00i*en$0. an& %+ hi/ %-n +ree -i00 (e'au/e he '%n/i&ere& i$ $% (e hi/ /a're&
&u$. $% &% /%# I$ i/ %n0. -hen a ,er/%n ha/ $hu/ %(e.e& $he 0a-/ %+ /%'ie$. /'ru,u0%u/0.
$ha$ he i/ in a ,%/i$i%n $% ;u&*e a/ $% -hi'h ,ar$i'u0ar ru0e/ are *%%& an& ;u/$, an& -hi'h
un;u/$# On0. $hen &%e/ $he ri*h$ a''rue $% him %+ $he 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e %+ 'er$ain 0a-/
in -e00A&e+ine& 'ir'um/$an'e/# The 'a,a'i$. +%r 'ivi0 re/i/$an'e '%me/ +r%m $he
&i/'i,0ine un&er*%ne in $he ,r%'e// %+ %(e.in* $he 'ivi0 an& m%ra0 0a-/ %+ $he /$a$e# A
/a$.a*rahi -hi0e re/i/$in* $he 0a-/ %+ $he *%vernmen$ /h%u0& /ee $ha$ $he /%'ia0
/$ru'$ure i/ n%$ /u(ver$e&#J Civi0 &i/%(e&ien'e %+ $he 0a-/ %+ $he *%vernmen$ -a/ a
30
/$r%n* +%rm %+ /a$.a*raha# Gan&hi;i %,ine& '%m,0e$e &i/%(e&ien'e im,0.in* a re+u/a0 $%
ren&er %(e&ien'e $% /$a$e ma&e 0a-/ 'an (e a ver. ,%-er+u0 m%vemen$# I$ -%u0& (e
m%re &an*er%u/ $han an arme& re(e00i%n, (e'au/e $he /$u,en&%u/ ,%-er %+ inn%'en$
/u++erin* un&er*%ne %n a *rea$ /'a0e ha/ a *rea$ ,%$en'.# Gan&hi;i /a./, IF%r me ever.
ru0e i/ a0ien $ha$ &e+ie/ ,u(0i' %,ini%n#J Gan&hi;i (e0ieve& $ha$ In&ian/ -ere en$i$0e& $%
+ree&%m (e'au/e %+ $he immen/e /u++erin*/ $ha$ $he. ha& un&er*%ne +%r i$# 1e /evere0.
'ri$i'iKe& $he im,eria0i/$i' an& '%0%uria0i/$i' Bri$i/h ru0e %ver $he In&ian/# 1e ;u/$i+ie&
'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e $% Bri$i/h a$r%'i$i' *%vernmen$ 0a-/# Gan&hi;i /$re//e& $ha$ $here -a/
,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n %n ever. 'i$iKen $% a(i&e /$a$e 0a-/, i+ $he. are ;u/$ an& *enuine an&
i+ $he. are (a& an& un;u/$, $he 'i$iKen/ have a ri*h$ $% ,r%$e/$ i$ an& $% &i/%(e. $hem#
A''%r&in* $% Gan&hi H/%u0? i/ /u,eri%r an& n% (a& 0a- '%u0& /$an& (e+%re i$/ m%ra0
va0ue# The &i'$a$e/ an& '%mman&/ %+ an. *%vernmen$, i+ $he. '%n+0i'$e& -i$h $he /en/e
%+ hi*her &u$. %+ a ,er/%n, have $% (e re/i/$e&# Su'h ,er/%n %r /%'ie$. -i00 ri/k a00
&an*er/ +%r $he /ake %+ $ru$h#
CRITICISMS OF GAND"I&I0S DOCTRINE OF SATYAGRA"A
D# The &%'$rine %+ Sa$.a*raha i/ $%% /,iri$ua0# Sa$.a*raha ma. (e a /u,eri%r
me$h%& in $he%r. (u$ in ,ra'$i'e i$ &eman&/ a /$r%n*er /e0+A'%n$r%0, a m%re
en&urin* /%0i&ari$. %+ ,ur,%/e, a *rea$er 'a,a'i$. +%r ,a//ive /u++erin*, a hi*her
e$hi'a0 &eve0%,men$ $han m%/$ human (ein*/ have $hu/ +ar a$$aine&#
# Gan&hi;i -an$e& n% '%er'i%n %+ an. kin&, (u$ a /a$.a*rahi ma. 'rea$e a /i$ua$i%n
in -hi'h $he %$her ,ar$. +ee0/ /%#
SARVODAYA is a term meanin6 Auni"ersa# up#iftA or Apro6ress of a##A. $he term *as
first coined y ;ohandas Bandhi as the tit#e of his 1:(. trans#ation of Cohn Rus5inAs
tract on po#itica# economy- Unto This Last- and Bandhi came to use the term for the
idea# of his o*n po#itica# phi#osophy. 2ater Bandhians- #i5e the Indian non"io#ence
acti"ist Dinoa Eha"e- emraced the term as a name for the socia# mo"ement in postF
independence India *hich stro"e to ensure that se#fFdetermination and e?ua#ity reached
a## strata of India society.
38
ORIGINS AND GAND"I4S POLITICAL IDEAL
Gan&hi re'eive& a '%,. %+ 2u/kinO/ 0nto *his Last +r%m a Bri$i/h +rien&, )r#1enr.
P%0ak, -hi0e -%rkin* a/ a 0a-.er in S%u$h A+ri'a# In hi/ Auto!iograph, Gan&hi
remem(er/ $he $-en$.A+%ur h%ur $rain ri&e $% Dur(an (+r%m -hen he +ir/$ rea& $he (%%k,
(ein* /% in $he *ri, %+ 2u/kinO/ i&ea/ $ha$ he '%u0& n%$ /0ee, a$ a00> QI &e$ermine& $%
'han*e m. 0i+e in a''%r&an'e -i$h $he i&ea0/ %+ $he (%%k# A/ Gan&hi '%n/$rue& i$,
2u/kinO/ %u$0%%k %n ,%0i$i'a0Ae'%n%mi' 0i+e e6$en&e& +r%m $hree 'en$ra0 $ene$/>
D# Tha$ $he *%%& %+ an in&ivi&ua0 i/ '%n$aine& in $he *%%& %+ a00#
# Tha$ a 0a-.er?/ -%rk ha/ $he /ame va0ue a/ $ha$ %+ a (ar(er?/ in a/ mu'h have
a00 have $he /ame ri*h$ %+ earnin* $heir 0ive0ih%%& +r%m $heir -%rk
5# Tha$ $he 0i+e %+ a 0a(%ur, i#e $he 0i+e %+ a $i00er $he /%i0 an& 'ra+$/man i/ $he 0i+e
-%r$h 0ivin*#
F%ur .ear/ 0a$er, in D"!C, Gan&hi ren&ere& a ,ara,hra/e& $ran/0a$i%n %+ 2u/kinO/ (%%k
in$% hi/ na$ive $%n*ue %+ Gu;ara$i# 1e en$i$0e& $he (%%k Sarvodaa, a '%m,%un&
(/an&hi) he inven$e& +r%m $-% San/kri$ r%%$/> sarva (a00) an& udaa (u,0i+$) AA Q$he u,0i+$
%+ a00Q (%r a/ Gan&hi *0%//e& i$ in hi/ au$%(i%*ra,h., Q$he -e0+are %+ a00J)# A0$h%u*h
in/,ire& (. 2u/kin, $he $erm -%u0& +%r Gan&hi '%me $% /$an& +%r a ,%0i$i'a0 i&ea0 %+ hi/
%-n /$am,# (In&ee& Gan&hi -a/ keen $% &i/$an'e him/e0+ +r%m 2u/kinO/ m%re
'%n/erva$ive i&ea/# The i&ea0 -hi'h Gan&hi /$r%ve $% ,u$ in$% ,ra'$i'e in hi/ a/hram/
-a/, he h%,e&, %ne $ha$ he '%u0& ,er/ua&e $he -h%0e %+ In&ia $% em(ra'e, (e'%min* a
0i*h$ $% $he %$her na$i%n/ %+ $he -%r0&# The Gan&hian /%'ia0 i&ea0 en'%m,a//e& $he
&i*ni$. %+ 0a(%r, an eGui$a(0e &i/$ri(u$i%n %+ -ea0$h, '%mmuna0 /e0+A/u++i'ien'. an&
in&ivi&ua0 +ree&%m#
FURT"ER READING
# Sa$.a*raha 7iki,e&ia
5# Sarv%&a.a 7iki,e&ia
8# Ar$i'0e/ %n Gan&hi, /a$.a*raha an& Sarv%&a.a
3,
<# Three ,rin'i,0e/ %+ 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e > Gan&hi, 4in* an& Th%reau (. Ni'k Gier
@# Gan&hi?/ P%0i$i'a0 E$hi'/ Pau0 F# P%-er
BENT"AM0S UTILITARIANISM
QUESTION FORMAT
D# E6,0ain an& 'ri$i'iKe Ben$ham?/ U$i0i$ariani/m# E!!BF
# IGrea$e/$ ha,,ine// %+ $he *rea$e/$ num(er#J E!!@,!!8F
5# E6,0ain $he '%n$ri(u$i%n %+ 9erem. Ben$ham an& 9#S# )i00 $%-ar&/
u$i0i$ariani/m# E!!CF
SYNOPSIS
Ben$ham?/ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n %+ u$i0i$ariani/m
)eanin* %+ u$i0i$.
P0ea/ureA,ain $he%r.
S%ur'e/ %+ ,0ea/ure %r ,ain
Fa'$%r/ *%vernin* ,0ea/ure an& ,ain
Chara'$eri/$i'/ %+ $he &%'$rine %+ u$i0i$.
Cri$i'i/m/ %+ $he &%'$rine %+ u$i0i$.
Si*ni+i'an'e %+ Ben$ham?/ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n %+ u$i0i$ariani/m
BENT"AM0S POLITICAL OBLIGATION OF UTILITARIANISM
9erem. Ben$ham -a/ $he +a$her %+ u$i0i$arian /'h%%0 %+ $h%u*h$# 1e (a/e& hi/ ,rin'i,0e
%+ u$i0i$. %n $he (a/i/ %+ $he +%00%-in* a//um,$i%n/L
D# A00 ,0ea/ure/ are /imi0ar an& $he. &i++er %n0. in Guan$i$. an& n%$ in Gua0i$.# Pu/h
,in an& ,%e$r. are 'a,a(0e %+ *ivin* eGua0 ,0ea/ure/ $% a man#
# The ,0ea/ure %+ %ne man i/ a/ im,%r$an$ a/ %+ an%$her# Thi/ reGuire/ $he
a''e,$an'e %+ $he ,rin'i,0e %+ eGua0i$.#
5# There i/ n% '%n+0i'$ (e$-een $he in$ere/$/ %+ $he in&ivi&ua0 an& %+ $he
'%mmuni$. a/ a -h%0e, a/ $he in$ere/$ %+ $he '%mmuni$. i/ n%$hin* %r 0e// $han
$he /um $%$a0 %+ $he in$ere/$/ %+ $he mem(er/ -h% '%m,%/e i$#
MEANING OF UTILITY
3.
Ben$ham u/e& $he -%r& Hu$i0i$.? a/ a /.n%n.m +%r $he -%r& H*%%&? %r Hva0ue?#
Ever.$hin* $ha$ (rin*/ ha,,ine// i/ *%%& an& an.$hin* $ha$ &%e/ n%$ (rin* ha,,ine// i/
n%$ *%%&# The &e/ire %+ ever. in&ivi&ua0 i/ $% (e ha,,. an& ,0ea/an$# 1e 0ike/ ha,,ine//
an& &i/0ike/ ha,,ine//# B. na$ure man i/ re,u0/ive $% /%rr%-/ an& mi/erie/# Ever.%ne
-an$/ $% (e ha,,.# Ben$ham /a./,J U$i0i$. i/ ,r%,er$. in an. %(;e'$, -here(. i$ $en&/ $%
,r%&u'e (ene+i$, a&van$a*e, ,0ea/ure, *%%& %r ha,,ine// %+ $he *rea$e/$ num(erJ# 1e
/a./, I an a&heren$ $% $he ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$. h%0&/ $he vir$ue $% (e a *%%& $hin* (.
rea/%n/ %n0. $h%/e %+ ,0ea/ure/ -hi'h re/u0$ +r%m $he ,ra'$i'e %+ i$, he e/$eem/ vi'e $%
(e a (a& $hin* (. rea/%n %n0. %+ $he ,ain/ -hi'h +%00%- in i$/ $rain#J The &%'$rine %+
u$i0i$. i/ $here+%re a he&%ni/$i' $he%r.# 7hen Ben$ham /,%ke %+ $he *%%& an& (a&
'%n/eGuen'e/ %+ an a'$i%n, he %n0. mean$ $he ha,,. %r ,ain+u0 '%n/eGuen'e/ %+ $ha$
a'$i%n#
PLEASURE%PAIN T"EORY
A''%r&in* $% Ben$ham, human (ein*/ are 'rea$ure/ %+ +ee0in* an& /en/i(i0i$.# 2ea/%n i/
%n0. a han& ma&e %+ +ee0in* %r ,a//i%n# A00 e6,erien'e/ are ei$her ,0ea/ura(0e %r
,ain+u0# Tha$ a'$i%n i/ *%%& -hi'h in'rea/e/ ,0ea/ure, an& &e'rea/e/ ,ain# Tha$ a'$i%n i/
(a& -hi'h &e'rea/e/ ,0ea/ure an& in'rea/e/ ,ain# The .ar& /$i'k $% ;u&*in* $he
*%%&ne// %r (a&ne// %+ ever. in&ivi&ua0?/ a'$i%n/ i/ $he ,0ea/ureA,ain $he%r.# Ben$ham
(%rr%-e& $he ,0ea/ure an& ,ain ,rin'i,0e/ +r%m 1e0ve$iu/# A''%r&in* $% Ben$ham,
INa$ure ha/ ,0a'e& mankin& un&er $he *%vernan'e %+ $he /%verei*n ma/$er/, ,ain an&
,0ea/ure# I$ i/ +%r $hem a0%ne $% ,%in$ %u$ -ha$ -e %u*h$ $% &%, a/ -e00 a/ $% &e$ermine
-ha$ -e /ha00 &%# On $he %ne han&, $he /$an&ar& %+ ri*h$ an& -r%n*, an& %n $he %$her
han&, $he 'hain %+ 'au/e/ an& e++e'$/ are +a/$ene& $% $heir $hr%ne# The ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$.
re'%*niKe/ $hi/ /u(;e'$i%n an& a//ume/ i$ +%r $he +%un&a$i%n %+ $ha$ /./$em, $he %(;e'$ %+
-hi'h i/ $% rear $he +a(ri' %+ +e0i'i$. (. $he han&/ %+ rea/%n an& 0a- /./$em -hi'h
a$$em,$/ $% Gue/$i%n i$, i$ 0ea&/ in /%un&/ in/$ea& %+ /en/e/, in 'a,ri'e in/$ea& %+ rea/%n,
in &arkne// in/$ea& %+ 0i*h$J#
A''%r&in* $% Ben$ham, ever.$hin* -a/ $% (e va0ue&, a&;u/$e& an& mea/ure& %n0. in
$erm/ %+ ,0ea/ure an& ha,,ine//# 1e /a./, IThe ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$. '%n/i/$/ in $akin* a/
%ur /$ar$in* ,%in$, in ever. ,r%'e// %+ rea/%nin* $he 'a0'u0u/ %+ '%m,ara$ive e/$ima$e/
3:
%+ ,ain/ an& ,0ea/ure/ an& in n%$ a00%-in* an. %$her i&ea $% in$ervene# An a&heren$ $%
$he ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$. h%0&/ vir$ue $% (e a *%%& $hin* (. rea/%n %n0. %+ $he ,0ea/ure/
-hi'h re/u0$ +r%m $he ,ra'$i'e %+ i$L he e/$eem/ vi'e $% (e a (a& $hin* (. rea/%n %n0. %+
$he ,ain/ -hi'h +%00%-/ in $rain#J F%r Ben$ham a man /h%u0& n%$ %n0. aim a$ hi/ %-n
ha,,ine// (u$ a$ '%00e'$ive ha,,ine// %+ $he *rea$e/$ num(er %+ ,e%,0e#
SOURCES OF PLEASURE OR PAIN
Ben$ham 0i/$/ %u$ $he +%00%-in* +%ur /%ur'e/ %+ ,0ea/ure %r ,ain>
D# P0ea/ure an& ,ain -hi'h %''ur &ue $% ,h./i'a0 %r na$ura0 /an'$i%n> 7e
e6,erien'e %r e6,e'$ $hem in $he %r&inar. '%ur/e %+ na$ure, n%$ ,ur,%/e0.
m%&i+ie& (. an. human in$er,%/i$i%n#
# P0ea/ure an& ,ain $ha$ %''ur &ue $% m%ra0 /an'$i%n/ > The/e are ,0ea/ure an&
,ain -hi'h -e e6,erien'e %r e6,e'$ a$ $he han&/ %+ %ur +e00%-/ ,r%m,$e& (. $he
+ee0in* %+ ha$re& %r *%%&-i00#
5# P0ea/ure an& ,ain $ha$ %''ur &ue $% ,%0i$i'a0 /an'$i%n/> Su'h ,0ea/ure/ %r ,ain
are re'eive& +r%m $he ma*i/$ra$e %r $he 0e*i/0a$%r#
8# P0ea/ure an& ,ain -hi'h %''ur/ &ue $% re0i*i%u/ /an'$i%n#
Ben$ham him/e0+ e6,0aine& $he/e +%ur $.,e/ %+ /%ur'e/ $hu/> ISu,,%/e a man?/ h%u/e i/
&e/$r%.e& (. +ire, i+ i$ i/ &ue $% hi/ %-n im,ru&en'e, i$ i/ $he ,uni/hmen$ %+ $he na$ure#
I+ i$ i/ a$ &ire'$i%n %+ /%me ,%-er, i$ i/ a ,uni/hmen$ %+ ,%0i$i'a0 /an'$i%n# I+ i$ i/ &%ne
(. hi/ nei*h(%r, &ue $% i00A-i00, i$ i/ a ,uni/hmen$ %+ m%ra0 %r ,%,u0ar /an'$i%n# I+ i$ i/
an a'$ +%r %++en&in* &ivini$., i$ i/ a ,uni/hmen$ %+ re0i*i%u/ /an'$i%nJ#
FACTORS GO$ERNING PLEASURE AND PAIN 5OR "EDONISTIC
CALCULUS OF UTILITY6
Ben$ham a0/% ,r%vi&e& a $he%r. kn%-n a/ H1e&%ni/$i' Ca0'u0u/?# 1e '0aim/ $ha$ (.
u/in* i$ %ne 'an mea/ure $he ,0ea/ure %+ u$i0i$.# )an &%e/ %n0. $ha$ $hin* -hi'h *ive/
him $he ma6imum u$i0i$. an& $h%u*h$ i$ $he ma6imum ,0ea/ure# I+ -e -an$ $% kn%-
-hi'h $hin* *ive/ $he ma6imum ha,,ine//, -e mu/$ (e a(0e $% mea/ure u$i0i$.#
A''%r&in* $% Ben$ham, -ha$ a,,0ie/ $% in&ivi&ua0 m%ra0/, a,,0ie/ -i$h eGua0 +%r'e $%
/$a$e 'ra+$# Tha$ a'$i%n %+ $he /$a$e i/ *%%& -hi'h in'rea/e/ ,0ea/ure %r &e'rea/e/ $he
,ain %+ $he 0ar*e/$ num(er %+ $he in&ivi&ua0/ '%m,ri/in* i$# A00 a'$i%n/ mu/$ (e ;u&*e&
)(
%n $hi/ 'ri$eri%n# I+ $he /$a$e ,r%m%$e/ $he *rea$e/$ *%%& %+ $he *rea$e/$ num(er i$ i/
*%%&, %$her-i/e i$ i/ (a&# The ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$. i/ he0& $% (e $he ra$i%na0 *ui&e (%$h $
,riva$e m%ra0/ an& $% ,u(0i' ,%0i'.# 1en'e, u$i0i$ariani/m im,0ie/ (%$h in&ivi&ua0i/m
an& &em%'ra'.#
I$ i/ ne'e//ar. $% kn%- -he$her $he ,r%,%/e& 0e*i/0a$i%n *ive/ ,0ea/ure %r ,ain $% $he
,e%,0e, h%- mu'h an& $% h%- man.# The en& %+ 0e*i/0a$i%n /h%u0& (e $he ha,,ine// %+
$he ,e%,0e# In $he ma$$er/ %+ 0e*i/0a$i%n *enera0 u$i0i$. /h%u0& (e $he *ui&in* ,rin'i,0e#
The /'ien'e %+ 0e*i/0a$i%n '%n/i/$/ $here+%re in &e$erminin* -ha$ make/ +%r $he *%%& %+
$he ,ar$i'u0ar '%mmuni$. -h%/e in$ere/$/ are a$ /$ake# A''%r&in* $% Ben$ham, $he
0e*i/0a$%r ha/ ha& $% kee, in vie- $he +%ur en&/ name0., /e'uri$., /u(/i/$en'e,
a(un&an'e an& Gua0i$.#
Ben$ham a$$a'he/ $hree '%n&i$i%n/ $% hi/ ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$.L
i) i$ mu/$ (e '0ear an& ,re'i/e
ii) i$ mu/$ (e /in*0e an& /u++i'ien$ am%un$ %+ m%$iva$i%n
iii) i$ mu/$ (e a,,0i'a(0e (. mean/ %+ a m%ra0 'a0'u0u/
Thu/, Ben$ham?/ &%'$rine %+ u$i0i$. i/ a he&%ni/$i' &%'$rine -hi'h re'%*niKe/ n% hi*her
%r 0%-er ,0ea/ure/# I$ i/ $he%r. '%n'erne& -i$h re/u0$/ an& n%$ m%$ive/# The +%00%-in*
&e&u'$i%n/ 'an (e ma&e +r%m $he &%'$rine %+ u$i0i$.>
D# The ,0ea/ure i/ $he %n0. *%%& $hin* an& &e/ira(0e $hin* +%r a man# A00 %$her
$hin*/ -ea0$h, ,%/i$i%n, hea0$h an& even vir$ue are /e'%n&ar., an& /erve a/ a
mean/ $% $he u0$ima$e a''%m,0i/hmen$ %+ ha,,ine//#
# Tha$, ,0ea/ure an& ,ain 'an (e ari$hme$i'a00. 'a0'u0a$e& -i$h a$ 0ea/$ /% mu'h
a''ura'. an& ,re'i/i%n an& $% ena(0e u/ $% +%rmu0a$e ru0e/ en'%ura*in* %ne /%r$
%+ (ehavi%ur an& &i/'%ura*in* $he %$her/#
5# Tha$ -e /h%u0& n%$ %n0. $hink %+ %ur %-n ,0ea/ure/ an& ,ain/ (u$ a0/% $% /ee $%
$he 0ike0. e++e'$/ %+ %ur a'$i%n/ %n $he ha,,ine// %+ %$her/#
C"ARACTERISTICS OF T"E DOCTRINE OF UTILITY
Ben$ham?/ u$i0i$arian &%'$rine ha/ $he +%00%-in* 'hara'$eri/$i'/>
D# I$ i/ a he&%ni/$i' (,0ea/ure) an& ,ra*ma$i'# I$ i/ n%$ e*%i/$i' an& a0$rui/$i'#
)1
# I$ i/ (a/e& %n Guan$i$. $% ha,,ine// (u$ n%$ %n $he Gua0i$. %+ ha,,ine//#
5# I$ i/ '%n'erne& -i$h $he re/u0$ (u$ n%$ $he m%$ive#
8# I$ $e00/ u/ -h%/e ,0ea/ure %r ha,,ine// i/ $% (e /%u*h$#
<# I$ $e00/ u/ h%- $% re*u0a$e %ur '%n&u'$#
@# I$ i/ univer/a0#
B# I$ i/ %(;e'$ive, veri+ia(0e, uneGuiv%'a0 an& '0ear#
CRITICISMS OF T"E DOCTRINE OF UTILITY
Ben$ham?/ $he%r. %+ u$i0i$. ha/ (een 'ri$i'iKe& %n $he +%00%-in* *r%un&/ >
D# I$ i/ a ma$eria0i/$i' $he%r.# There i/ n% ,0a'e +%r Gua0i$. %r '%n/'ien'e in $hi/
$he%r.# I$ &%e/ n%$ a$$a'h an. im,%r$an'e $% $he m%ra0 a'$i%n/ %+ a ,er/%n#
# 1e +%r*%$ a(%u$ $he /%'ie$.# 1e $h%u*h$ a(%u$ $he in&ivi&ua0 ha,,ine// %n0.#
5# I$ i/ an im,ra'$i'a(0e $he%r.# I$ i/ im,%//i(0e $% mea/ure ha,,ine//#
8# 1i/ ,rin'i,0e i/ '%n+u/in* an& am(i*u%u/# 7e +in& /% man. a0$erna$ive/ +%r $he
/ame i//ue# S% /$rai*h$ 0ine an/-er/ are n%$ a''e,$a(0e in ,%0i$i'/#
<# The '%n'e,$ %+ ,0ea/ure &i++er/ +r%m ,er/%n $% ,er/%n an& ,0a'e $% ,0a'e# I$ ha/
n% univer/a0i$. an& $% *ive i$ a univer/a0 %u$0%%k i/ im,ra'$i'a(0e#
@# I$ make/ ,e%,0e /e0+i/h an& /e0+A'en$ere&# 1i/ $he%r. $ake/ i$ +%r *ran$e& $ha$
ever.%ne i/ /e0+i/h -hi'h mi*h$ (e $rue -i$h /%me ,e%,0e (u$ 'ann%$ (e
univer/a00. /%#
B# Ben$ham?/ $he%r. %+ u$i0i$. i/ '%n/i&ere& a/ im,ra'$i'a(0e (e'au/e i$ i/
im,%//i(0e $% a'hieve *rea$e/$ ha,,ine// %+ $he *rea$e/$ num(er#
C# Ben$ham ha/ i*n%re& $ha$ $here '%u0& (e a '%n+0i'$ (e$-een $he /e0+Ain$ere/$ %+
an in&ivi&ua0 an& *%%& %+ $he '%mmuni$.#
SIGNIFICANCE OF BENT"AM0S POLITICAL OBLIGATION OF
UTILITARIANISM
Ben$ham?/ /$rai*h$ +%r-ar& /$a$emen$/ 'ha00en*in* $he $hen e6i/$in* /%'ia0 an& ,%0i$i'a0
in/$i$u$i%n/ have univer/a0 a,,ea0# 1i/ ,hi0%/%,h. *ave a /evere (0%- $% $he /%'ia0
'%n$ra'$ $he%r., -hen he /ai& $ha$ $he /$a$e -a/ n%$ $he %u$'%me %+ an. '%n$ra'$ (u$
%n0. (e'au/e $he ,e%,0e /a- in i$ $heir a&van'emen$# 1i/ ,hi0%/%,h. ,rea'he&
)2
&em%'ra'. an& &em%'ra$i' in/$i$u$i%n/ -hi'h -a/ a (%0& /$e, in $h%/e &a./# 1i/
u$i0i$ariani/m /h%%k man. %+ $he a*eA%0& in/$i$u$i%n/ +r%m $heir ver. +%un&a$i%n/#
1i/ u$i0i$arian ,rin'i,0e/ -hi'h are a '%mm%n /en/e +%rmu0a %+ $he H*rea$e/$ ha,,ine//
%+ $he *rea$e/$ mem(er? ha& (een %+ immen/e va0ue -hi'h he0,e& $% +a'e $he ,r%(0em/
%+ hi/ &a. an& h%0& *%%& even $%&a.# I$ ha/ *iven $he 0e*i/0a$%r/ /%me-ha$ a mea/urin*
r%& (. -hi'h $he. '%u0& ;u&*e $he u$i0i$. %+ a ,ar$i'u0ar 0e*i/0a$i%n# Th%u*h $he u$i0i$.
'ann%$ (e mea/ure& 'ar&ina00., i$ 'an (e mea/ure& %r&ina00.# Ben$ham $rea$e& a00
,r%(0em/ +r%m $he u$i0i$arian ,%in$ %+ vie- an& a00 hi/ %$her $he%rie/, 0e*a0, ,%0i$i'a0 an&
/%'ia0 are (u$ an e6$en/i%n %+ hi/ e$hi'a0 $he%r.# 1e %++ere& ,ra'$i'a0 /%0u$i%n/ $% re+%rm
$he En*0i/h /%'ie$.# 1e a,,0ie& $he ,rin'i,0e %+ u$i0i$. $% $he Gue/$i%n %+ ,r%,er$.# 1e
'%n$en&e& $ha$ ,r%,er$. -a/ an in/$i$u$i%n -hi'h (r%u*h$ ha,,ine// $% i$/ %-ner# T%
a'hieve $he en& %+ H*rea$e/$ ha,,ine// %+ $he *rea$e/$ num(er? reGuire& $ha$ $he ,r%,er$.
(e eGua00. &i/$ri(u$e& am%n* $he ,e%,0e# Bu$ he &i& n%$ -an$ $% $ake a-a. $he ,r%,er$.
ri*h$ +r%m i$/ %-ner/ (u$ he -an$e& $% rem%ve $he &i/,ari$. (. im,%/in* 0imi$a$i%n/ %n
inheri$an'e# In $he -%r&/ %+ Fre&ri' P%00%'k, IThe u$i0i$arian ,rin'i,0e -a/ ma&e a (%%k
$% ,u$ in $he n%/$ri0/ %+ Levia$han $han he ma. (e $ame& an& harne//e& $% $he 'hari%$ %+
u$i0i$.J# Ben$ham, un0ike $he i&ea0i/$/ an& $he '%00e'$ivi/$/, em,ha/iKe& $he vie- $ha$ $he
/$a$e e6i/$/ +%r a man an& n%$ man +%r $he /$a$e# Thi/ $he '%rre'$ vie- %+ $he re0a$i%n/
(e$-een $he in&ivi&ua0 an& $he /$a$e# The in$ere/$/ %+ $he in&ivi&ua0 are ,rimar., +%r
-h%/e ,r%$e'$i%n $he /$a$e u/her/ in$% e6i/$en'e#
FURT"ER READING
)# U$i0i$ariani/m> Fr%m En'.'0%,e&ia Bri$anni'a
*# U$i0i$ariani/m 9%hn S$uar$ )i00
,# P%0i$i'a0 O(0i*a$i%n/ Dr# S#2# ).neni
)3
CONTRACTUAL AND PROMISSORY LIABILITY
QUESTION FORMAT
D# Di/'u// $he (a/i/ %+ '%n$ra'$ua0 0ia(i0i$.# E!!CF
# Di/'u// $he (a/i/ %+ ,r%mi//%r. an& h%- are $he/e '%n$ra'$ua0 0ia(i0i$ie/ $% (e
en+%r'e&: E !!@F
5# Di/'u// $he (a/i/ %+ ,r%mi//%r. an& '%n$ra'$ua0 0ia(i0i$.# E!!8F
CONTRACTUAL LIABILITY
Synopsis
))
In$r%&u'$i%n
Na$ure %+ a '%n$ra'$ (re0a$i%n %+ '%n$ra'$ -i$h a*reemen$)
T.,e/ %+ '%n$ra'$/
C0a//i+i'a$i%n %+ '%n$ra'$/ in $erm/ %+ va0i&i$. %r en+%r'ea(i0i$.
F%un&a$i%n/ %+ '%n$ra'$ua0 0ia(i0i$.
Synopsis
Lia(i0i$.
Pr%mi/e
Pr%mi//%r. 0ia(i0i$. %+ $he (ar*ain m%&e0
A''e,$an'e
E//en$ia0/ %+ a ,r%mi/e
A/,e'$/ %+ ,r%mi//%r. 0ia(i0i$.
INTRODUCTION
The -%r& '%n$ra'$ i/ &erive& +r%m $he La$in $erm H'%n$ra'$um? -hi'h mean/ H&ra-n
$%*e$her?# Thu/ $he meanin* %+ '%n$ra'$ i/ a &ra-in* $%*e$her %+ $-% %r m%re min&/ $%
+%rm a '%mm%n in$en$i%n *ivin* ri/e $% an a*reemen$# Ever. ,r%mi/e en+%r'ea(0e (.
0a- i/ a '%n$ra'$, an& a00 '%n$ra'$/ are re*ar&e& in $he m%&ern 0a- a/ +%un&e& %n
,r%mi/e/ e6,re//e& %r im,0ie&, $ha$ i/ $% /a., ei$her +rame& in e6,re// %r im,0ie& +r%m
$he ,r%mi/%r?/ a'$/ %r '%n&u'$# The %(0i*a$i%n %+ '%n$ra'$ i/ &i/$in*ui/he& +r%m %$her
kin&/ %+ %(0i*a$i%n in $hi/, $ha$ i$/ '%n$en$/ are -h%00. &e$ermine& (. $he a/'er$aine&
-i00 %+ $he ,ar$ie/# The 0a- ma. re/$rain $he e++e'$ %+ a ,r%mi/e +%r ,aram%un$ rea/%n/
%+ '%nvenien'e, (u$ i$ -i00 im,%/e n%$hin* $ha$ i/ n%$ i/ '%n$aine& in $he ,r%mi/e, %r (.
'%n/$ru'$i%n %+ 0a- &eeme& /% $% (e# Thu/, '%n$ra'$ i/ a (ar*ain %r a*reemen$
v%0un$ari0. ma&e u,%n *%%& '%n/i&era$i%n (e$-een $-% %r m%re ,er/%n/ 'a,a(0e
'%n$ra'$in* $% &% %r +%re(ear $% &% /%me 0a-+u0 a'$#
NATURE OF CONTRACT 5RELATION OF CONTRACT WIT"
AGREEMENT6
)0
A '%n$ra'$ '%n/i/$ %+ $-% e//en$ia0 e0emen$ name0., %(0i*a$i%n an& a*reemen$# An
%(0i*a$i%n i/ a 0e*a0 $ie, -hi'h (in&/ $he ,ar$ie/ $%*e$her# I$ i/ an un&er$akin* $% &% %r $%
a(/$ain +r%m &%in* /%me &e+ini$e a'$# I$ ma. re0a$e $% ei$her /%'ia0 %r 0e*a0 ma$$er/#
S%'ia0 ma$$er/ are n%$ en+%r'ea(0e# Le*a0 %(0i*a$i%n/ -hi'h have $heir /%ur'e in
a*reemen$/ a0%ne are en+%r'ea(0e#
An a*reemen$ i/ an a''e,$e& ,r%,%/a0# Ever. a*reemen$ i/ ma&e %+ a ,r%,%/a0 +r%m %ne
/i&e an& i$/ a''e,$an'e (. $he %$her# An a*reemen$ i/ re*ar&e& a/ a '%n$ra'$ -hen i$ i/
en+%r'ea(0e (. 0a-# An a*reemen$ i/ a '%n$ra'$ -hen i$ i/ ma&e +%r '%n/i&era$i%n,
(e$-een ,ar$ie/ -h% are '%m,e$en$, -i$h $heir +ree '%n/en$ an& +%r a 0a-+u0 %(;e'$#
Thu/ ever. '%n$ra'$ i/ an a*reemen$, (u$ ever. a*reemen$ i/ n%$ a '%n$ra'$# An
a*reemen$ *r%-/ in$% a '%n$ra'$ -hen $he +%00%-in* '%n&i$i%n/ are /a$i/+ie&>
i) $here i/ /%me '%n/i&era$i%n
ii) $he ,ar$ie/ are '%m,e$en$ $% '%n$ra'$
iii) $heir '%n/en$ i/ +ree
iv) $heir %(;e'$ i/ 0a-+u0
TYPES OF CONTRACT
E(PRESS CONTRACT An e6,re// '%n$ra'$ i/ %ne -here $he in$en$i%n %+ $he
,ar$ie/ an& $erm/ %+ $he a*reemen$ are &e'0are& %r e6,re//e& (. $he ,ar$ie/, in -ri$in*
%r %ra00., a$ $he $ime i$ i/ en$ere& in$%# I$ i/ an e6,re// '%n$ra'$, a0$h%u*h /%me %+ i$/
$erm/ are &e,en&an$ %n $he ha,,enin* %+ $he +u$ure even$#
IMPLIED CONTRACT An im,0ie& '%n$ra'$, in $he ,r%,er /en/e, i/ -here $he
in$en$i%n %+ $he ,ar$ie/ i/ n%$ e6,re//e&, (u$ an a*reemen$ in +a'$, 'rea$in* an
%(0i*a$i%n, i/ im,0ie& %r ,re/ume& +r%m $heir a'$, a/, in $he 'a/e %+ -here a ,er/%n
,er+%rm/ /ervi'e/ +%r an%$her, -h% a''e,$/ $he /ame, $he /ervi'e/ n%$ (ein* ,er+%rme&
un&er /u'h 'ir'um/$an'e/ a/ $% /h%- $ha$ $he. -ere in$en&e& $% (e *ra$ui$%u/, %r -here
a ,er/%n ,er+%rm/ +%r an%$her %n reGue/$# Thu/, '%n$ra'$/ -hi'h '%me in$% (ein* %n
a''%un$ %+ $he a'$ %r '%n&u'$ %+ ,ar$ie/ an& n%$ (. $heir e6,re// -%r&/ are kn%-n a/
im,0ie& '%n$ra'$/#
)8
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTRACTS IN TERMS OF $ALIDITY OR
ENFORCEABILITY
D# $ALID CONTRACT An a*reemen$ en+%r'ea(0e a$ a '%ur$ %+ 0a- i/ 'a00e& a
va0i& '%n$ra'$# I$ i/ 0e*a00. (in&in* an& en+%r'ea(0e# I$ 'rea$e/ ri*h$/ in
,er/%nam# A va0i& '%n$ra'$ ha/ a00 $he e//en$ia0/ $ha$ are a0/% $he e//en$ia0
e0emen$/ %+ a '%n$ra'$#
# $OID CONTRACTS A '%n$ra'$ -hi'h i/ n%$ en+%r'ea(0e (. 0a- i/ v%i&# A
'%n$ra'$ -hi'h 'ea/e/ $% (e en+%r'ea(0e (. 0a- (e'%me/ v%i& -hen i$ 'ea/e/ $%
(e en+%r'ea(0e# I$ ha/ n% 0e*a0 e++e'$/# I$ i/ nu00i$.# I$ &%e/ n%$ *ive ri/e $% an.
ri*h$/ an& %(0i*a$i%n/# I$ i/ rea00. n%$ '%n$ra'$ a$ a00# There are a num(er %+
'%n$ra'$/ -hi'h are &e'0are& v%i& (. 0a- %n *r%un&/ %+ m%ra0i$., /%'ia0
'%n/i&era$i%n/ %r im,ra'$i'a(i0i$.#
5# $OIDABLE CONTRACTS A '%n$ra'$ -hi'h 'an (e 'an'e00e& %r re,u&ia$e&
%r av%i&e& (. %ne %+ $he ,ar$ie/ $% i$ i/ a v%i&a(0e '%n$ra'$# Su'h a '%n$ra'$ i/
va0i& an& *%%& un$i0 i$ i/ av%i&e&# On'e i$ i/ av%i&e&, i$ i/ v%i&# Bu$ i+ $he ,ar$.
'h%%/e/ $% a++irm i$, $he '%n$ra'$ '%n$inue/ $% (e va0i&# The ,ar$. en$i$0e& ei$her
$% a++irm i$ %r re;e'$ i$, i/ na$ura00. $he a**rieve& ,ar$.# An a*reemen$ -hi'h i/
en+%r'ea(0e (. 0a- a$ $he %,$i%n %+ %ne %r m%re %+ $he ,ar$ie/ $here$%, (u$ n%$ a$
$he %,$i%n %+ $he %$her %r %$her/, i/ a v%i&a(0e '%n$ra'$# A*reemen$/ 'au/e& (.
'%er'i%n, un&ue in+0uen'e, +rau& %r mi/re,re/en$a$i%n are v%i&a(0e# In /u'h
'a/e/, $he ,ar$. -h%/e '%n/en$ i/ /% 'au/e& (e'%me/ $he a**rieve& ,ar$.# The
a**rieve& ,ar$. ha/ $he %,$i%n $% ei$her a++irm %+ re/'in& $he '%n$ra'$# The %$her
,ar$. &%e/ n%$ have an. /u'h ri*h$#
FOUNDATIONS OF CONTRACTUAL LIABILITY
Lia(i0i$. i/ $he 0e*a0 &u$. $% &% /%me$hin* %r $% a(/$ain +r%m &%in* /%me$hin*# The
,ar$ie/ $% $he '%n$ra'$ have /%me %(0i*a$i%n/ %r 0e*a0 &u$ie/ $% (e +%00%-e&# The ,ar$ie/
-h% en$er in$% an a*reemen$ have 0ia(i0i$ie/ $% (e +%00%-e&# S%me %+ /u'h '%n$ra'$ua0
0ia(i0i$ie/ are $he +%00%-in*>
),
D# The ,ar$ie/ %+ $he '%n$ra'$ /h%u0& en$er in$% an a*reemen$ -i$h $he ,ar$ie/ -h%
are '%m,e$en$ $% $he '%n$ra'$# The ,ar$. /h%u0& have $he 'a,a'i$. $% '%n$ra'$#
The ,ar$ie/ have $he 0ia(i0i$. n%$ $% '%n$ra'$ un&er $he +%00%-in* 'ir'um/$an'e/L
i# I+ he i/ a min%r,
ii# I+ he i/ %+ un/%un& min&
iii# I+ he i/ &i/Gua0i+ie& +r%m '%n$ra'$in* un&er an. 0a-
iv# I+ he i/ '%nvi'$ un&er*%in* im,ri/%nmen$
# The ,ar$. /h%u0& en$er in$% an a*reemen$ $ha$ $here /h%u0& (e +ree '%n/en$ %n
(%$h /i&e/# C%n/en$ i/ /ai& $% (e +ree -hen i$ i/ 'au/e& (. '%er'i%n %r un&ue
in+0uen'e %r +rau& %r mi/re,re/en$a$i%n#
5# The ,ar$ie/ /h%u0& en$er in$% an a*reemen$ %+ va0i&ne// -i$h 0a-+u0 %(;e'$ an&
'%n/i&era$i%n# The. /h%u0& n%$ en$er in$% an. un0a-+u0 a*reemen$/ -hi'h are
+%r(i&&en (. 0a-, %r &e+ea$/ $he ,r%vi/i%n/ %+ an. 0a-, %r are +rau&u0en$ %r
inv%0ve/ %r im,0ie/ in;ur. $% $he ,er/%n %r ,r%,er$. %+ an%$her, %r $he '%ur$
re*ar&/ i$ a/ imm%ra0 %r %,,%/e& $% ,u(0i' ,%0i'.#
8# The a*reemen$ /h%u0& n%$ (e %,,%/e& $% ,u(0i' ,%0i'.# Pu(0i' ,%0i'. i/ $ha$
,rin'i,0e %+ 0a- -hi'h ,r%vi&e/ $ha$ n% ,er/%n 'an 0a-+u00. &% $ha$ -hi'h i/
in;uri%u/ $% $he ,u(0i' %r i/ a*ain/$ $he in$ere/$/ %+ $he /%'ie$. %r $he /$a$e#
<# The ,ar$ie/ $% $he '%n$ra'$ /h%u0& n%$ en$er in$% imm%ra0 a*reemen$/,
a*reemen$/ $ha$ are i00e*a0 an& v%i& %n *r%un&/ %+ ,u(0i' ,%0i'.#
@# The ,ar$ie/ $% $he '%n$ra'$ mu/$ ei$her ,er+%rm %r %++er $% ,er+%rm $heir
re/,e'$ive ,r%mi/e/, un0e// /u'h ,er+%rman'e/ i/ &i/,en/e& -i$h %r e6'u/e&
un&er $he ,r%vi/i%n/ %+ 0a-# A '%n$ra'$ im,%/e/ %(0i*a$i%n %n $he ,ar$ie/ $%
,er+%rm -i$hin $he +i6e& $ime a$ $he +i6e& ,0a'e in $he manner ,re/'ri(e& in $he
'%n$ra'$#
B# 7hen $-% %r m%re ,er/%n/ have ma&e ;%in$ ,r%mi/e, a00 %+ $hem mu/$ ;%in$0.
+u0+i00 $he ,r%mi/e#
C# Lia(i0i$. %r %(0i*a$i%n un&er a '%n$ra'$ 'ann%$ (e a//i*ne& $% an%$her ,er/%n#
).
"# Par$ie/ $% a 0a-+u0 '%n$ra'$ are (%un& $% ,er+%rm $heir re/,e'$ive 0ia(i0i$ie/ %r
%(0i*a$i%n/# I+ an. ,ar$. +ai0/ $% ,er+%rm hi/ %(0i*a$i%n, he i/ /ai& $% have
'%mmi$$e& (rea'h %+ '%n$ra'$# The %$her ,ar$. ha/ $he 0ia(i0i$. $% '0aim reme&ie/
D!# A ma/$er i/ 0ia(0e +%r $he -r%n* %+ hi/ /ervan$ i+ i$ i/ '%mmi$$e& in $he '%ur/e %+
$he /ervan$?/ em,0%.men$# A ,rin'i,0e i/ 0ia(0e +%r hi/ a*en$?/ -r%n* &%ne
-i$hin $he H/'%,e %+ au$h%ri$.?#
LIABILITY
2ia#e means ound or o#i6ed y #a*. 2iai#ity means the state of ein6 #ia#e- that for
*hich one is responsi#e or #ia#e- o#i6ation in 6enera#G that condition of affairs *hich
6i"es rise to an o#i6ation to do a particu#ar thin6 to e enforced y actionG
responsii#ity- #e6a# responsii#ity.
PROMISE
Promise is a dec#aration made to another person *ith respect to the future- statin6 that
one *i## do or refrain from some specified act or that one *i## 6i"e some specified
thin6. Promise is an en6a6ement for the performance or nonFperformance of some
particu#ar thin6.
PROMISSORY LIABILITY OF THE BARGAIN MODEL
'or ma5in6 a promise- there must e an offer. $he person *ho ma5es the offer is
6enera##y ca##ed the offeror and the person acceptin6 the offer is ca##ed the offeree. <n
offer has t*o essentia# parts. It is in the first p#ace- an e9pression of the offerorHs
*i##in6ness to do or to otain from doin6 somethin6. 1econd#y- it shou#d e made *ith
the "ie* to otainin6 the assent of the offeree to the offered act or astinence. <n offer
may e an e9pressed or imp#ied. <n offer *hich is e9pressed y *ords- *ritten or
spo5en- is ca##ed an e9press offer. <n offer *hich is e9pressed y conduct is ca##ed an
imp#ied offer.
):
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID OFFER
1. $he offer must e capa#e of creatin6 a #e6a# re#ation.
2. $erms of an offer must e certain.
3. Offer may e specific or 6enera#.
). Offer must e communicated to the offeree.
0. <n in"itation to an offer is not a "a#id offer.
8. Offer must e made *ith a "ie* to otainin6 the assent.
<n offer may #apse for *ant of acceptance or re"o5ed efore acceptance. <#so offeree
may decide to re!ect the offer efore acceptin6. Inti# an offer is accepted it creates no
#e6a# ri6hts- no #e6a# o#i6ations and it may e terminated at any time.
ACCEPTANCE
<cceptance is the second step of promise. When the person to *hom the offer is made
si6nifies his assent thereto. $he offer is said to e accepted. <n offer *hen accepted
ecomes a promise. Performance of the conditions of an offer or the acceptance of any
consideration for a reciproca# promise *hich may e offered *ith an offer- is an
acceptance of the offer. <cceptance may e e9press or imp#ied.
ESSENTIALS OS A VALID ACCEPTANCE
1. <cceptance must e aso#ute and unconditiona#.
2. It must e communicated.
3. It must e in the mode prescried.
). It must e 6i"en *ithin a reasona#e time.
0. It must e 6i"en on#y y the offeree.
8. It must e after an offer
ESSENTIALS OF A PROMISE
<cceptance of offer formu#ates into promise. <cceptance of offer rin6s promissory
#iai#ity. $he essentia#s of an offer are&
1. $here must e at #east t*o parties.
2. $he promise must re#ate to definite acts.
3. It must re#ate to #e6a# matters.
). $he parties to it must ha"e identity to minds.
0(
0. $he parties must communicate *ith each other.
8. $he parties must e competent.
,. $here must e free consent.
.. $here must e #a*fu# consideration and #a*fu# o!ect.
ASPECTS OF PROMISSORY LIABILITY
Promise creates definite #iai#ity or o#i6ations et*een the parties. 2iai#ity is a #e6a#
tie *hich imposes upon a definite person the necessity of doin6 or astainin6 from
doin6 a definite act. < #iai#ity- thus- is the #e6a# duty or o#i6ation to do somethin6 or
astain from doin6 somethin6. Promissory #iai#ity re#ates to #e6a# matters and definite
acts of promise. $here is a promissory #iai#ity on oth the parties of promise *hen the
promise contains the fo##o*in6 essentia#s.
1. $he party to the promise must ha"e capacity and they shou#d not e persons od
unsound mind or a minor. $hey must e competent to ma5e a promise.
2. $he o!ect and consideration of promise shou#d not e foridden y #a*. $hey
shou#d not defeat the pro"isions of #a*.
3. $he acts shou#d not e in!urious to the person or property- immora# and
fraudu#ent.
). $he acts of promise shou#d not oppose pu#ic po#icy.
0. $he promise shou#d not e "oid and i##e6a#.
8. When consent to a promise is caused y force- fraud or misrepresentation- the
promise has no #iai#ity and is "oida#e at the option of the party *hose consent
*as so caused.
,. $he promise shou#d e in standard form.
Parties to a promise are ound to perform their respecti"e o#i6ations. If any party fai#s
to perform his o#i6ation- he is said to ha"e committed reach of promise and is #ia#e
to #e6a# action and c#aims for remedies. < #iai#ity arises on#y *hen the promisee had
y doin6 some act- on the faith of the promise- a#tered his position. If fo##o*s-
therefore- that *here the promisee has done nothin6- there is no #iai#ity.
FURTHER READING
01
1. Po#itica# O#i6ations 3 =r.1.R.;yneni
PUNIS"MENT
QUESTION FORMAT
1. E9p#ain the theories of punishment and the 5inds of punishment. +2((./
2. E9p#ain the theories of punishment. +2((,/
3. What are the asis of sanctions a6ainst crimes? +2((,/
Short notes
%rimina# sanctions +2((,/
SYNPOSIS
Introduction
What is a crime?
What is the remedy to crime? (punishment)
Nature and scope of punishment
O!ect of punishment (indi"idua# and society)
$heories of punishment
") deterrent
"i) pre"enti"e
"ii) reformati"e
"iii) retriuti"e
%onc#usion
INTRODUCTION
Each society has its o*n *ay of socia# contro# for *hich it frames certain #a*s and a#so
mentions the sanctions *ith them. $heses sanctions are nothin6 ut punishments. $he
5inds of punishments 6i"en are sure#y inf#uenced y the 5ind of society one #i"es in. as
02
punishment 6enera##y is pro"ided in crimina# #a*- it ecomes imperati"e on our part to
5no* *hat crime or an offence rea##y is.
WHAT IS A CRIME?
< crime is any act that "io#ates the #a*. %rime is eha"iour or an action that is
punisha#e y crimina# #a*. < crime is a pu#ic- as opposed to a mora# *ron6. It is an
offence committed a6ainst the state or the community at #ar6e. ;any crimes are
immora#- ut not a## actions considered immora# are i##e6a#
WHAT IS THE REMEDY TO CRIME? PUNISHMENT!
Not a## "io#ations of #a* foriddin6 or commandin6 an act are crimes. $o e a crime
there must e a defined punishment. If the #a* does not set forth the particu#ars of the
punishments for the descried act or omission- then it is not a crime.
MEANING OF PUNISHMENT
Punishment is the inf#iction o pain or #oss of #ife- freedom- ri6hts or property-
de#ierate#y imposed on an indi"idua# *ithout his consent and a6ainst his *i##. $he
term punishment means torture that a person shou#d under6o on account of doin6 a
*ron6. It is the physica# imp#ication of #a*. Punishment is the pena#ty for the
trans6ression of the #a*. It is any dama6e or pain inf#icted on an offender throu6h
!udicia# procedure.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF PUNISHMENT
Punishment may e defined as an e"i# resu#tin6 to an indi"idua# from the direct
intention of another- on account of some act that appears to ha"e een done or omitted.
Punishment has the fo##o*in6 featuresG
i) it in"o#"es the depri"ation of certain norma##y reco6ni>ed ri6hts or other
measures considered unp#easant.
ii) It is the conse?uence of an offence.
iii) It is app#ied a6ainst the author of the offence.
i") It is app#ied y an or6an of the system that made the act an offence.
03
$he concept of punishment inc#udes the fo##o*in6 areasG
i) Punishment inf#icted is a fee#in6 of uncomforta#e and unp#easant
circumstances.
ii) It is a se?ue# of a *ron6fu# act.
iii) $here must e some re#ationship et*een the punishment inf#icted and the
crime committed.
i") Punishment is a form y *hich a crimina# is made ans*era#e to the society.
OB"ECT OF PUNISHMENT
$o*ards the society 3 $he primary purpose of punishment is a method of protectin6 the
society y reducin6 the occurrence of crimina# eha"iour or an end in itse#f. Pre"ention
of crime y punishment is achie"ed y three *aysG
1. Punishment can protect the society y deterrin6 potentia# offenders from
committin6 crimes.
2. Punishment can protect the society y pre"entin6 the actua# offender from
committin6 further offences.
3. punishment can protect the society and minimi>e crime y reformin6 and
turnin6 the crimina# into a #a*Faidin6 citi>en
In these three *ays the dominant o!ect of punishment 3 pre"ention of crimeF is
achie"ed. $he tendency in modern crimina# !urisprudence is the emphasis on the
reformati"e aspect of punishment. $he prison is tendin6 to ecome a p#ace of penitence
and education
$o*ards the indi"idua# 3 Punishment a#so has a susidiary purpose and that is the
e#e"ation of the mora# fee#in6s of the community. $he emotion of retriuti"e
indi6nation stirred up y in!ustice is characteristic of a## hea#thy communities. < no#e
emotion #i5e ri6hteous indi6nation deser"es to e fostered y the state. $hrou6h
crimina# !ustice of the state- satisfaction is found for the mora# senses of the
community.
THEORIES OF PUNISHMENT
Punishment is the inf#iction of pain. If the so#e purpose ehind punishment is to cause
physica# pain to the *ron6 doer- it ser"es #itt#e purpose. Jo*e"er- if punishment is as
0)
such #eads him to rea#i>e the 6ra"ity of the offence committed y him and to repent at
once for it- it maye said to ha"e achie"ed its desired effect. $here are many theories of
concernin6 the !ustification of punishment. It is c#ear that the phi#osophy of punishment
*i## affect the actua# standards of #iai#ity #aid do*n y the #a*. Punishment may e
distin6uished as
i) deterrent
ii) pre"enti"e
iii) reformati"e
i") retriuti"e
DETERRENT THEORY
Punishment is efore a## thin6s deterrent and the chief of end of the #a* of crime
is to ma5e the e"i# doer an e9amp#e and *arnin6 to a## *ho are #i5e minded *ith
him. <ccordin6 to this theory- offences are a resu#t of a conf#ict et*een the
interests of the *ron6 doer and those of the society. $he aim of punishment is to
disso#"e the conf#ict of interests y ma5in6 e"ery offence. $his theory has een
critici>ed on the 6round that it is ineffecti"e in cases *here crime is committed
under se"ere menta# stress. In such cases to punish the *ron6 doer to deter him
is meanin6#ess.
PREVENTIVE THEORY
Punishment is- pre"enti"e or disa#in6. Its primary and 6enera# purpose ein6 to
deter y fear- its secondary and specia# purpose is *here"er possi#e and
e9pedient- to pre"ent a repetition y the *ron6 doer y the disa#ement of the
offender. $he most effecti"e mode of disa#ement is the death pena#ty- *hich in
practice- in time of peace- is confined to the crime of murder- thou6h it is #e6a##y
possi#e for treason and certain form of piracy and arson.
< simi#ar secondary purpose e9ists in suFpena#ties as imprisonment and
forfeiture of office- the suspension of dri"in6 #icenses and the o#d pena#ty of
e9i#e. $he aim of this theory is not to repeat the crime- ut this theory ta5es no
note of the crimina#. It prefers to disa#e the *ron6 doer from committin6 any
00
more crime ut it i6nores one of the asic o!ect of crimina# #a* i.e.- to reform
the crimina#.
REFORMATIVE THEORY
< crime is committed as resu#t of conf#ict et*een the character and the moti"e
of the crimina#. One may commit a crime either ecause the temptation of the
moti"e is stron6er or ecause the restrain imposed y the character is *ea5er.
$he deterrent theory y sho*in6 that crime ne"er pays separates the moti"e-
*hi#e the reformati"e theory seems to stren6then the character of the man so
that he may to not ecome a "ictim of his o*n temptation. $his theory *ou#d
consider punishment to e curati"e or to perform the function of medicine.
<ccordin6 to this theory crime is #i5e a disease. $his theory maintains that you
can cure y 5i##in6. $he u#timate aim of reformists is to try rin6in6 aout a
chan6e in the persona#ity and character of the offender- so as to ma5e him a
usefu# memer of the society.
RETRIBUTIVE THEORY
Retriuti"e punishment- in the on#y sense in *hich it is admissi#e in any
rationa# system of administerin6 !ustice- is that *hich ser"es for the satisfaction
of that emotion of retriuti"e indi6nation *hich in a## hea#thy communities is
stri"ed up y !ustice. $his *as former#y ased on the theory of Kre"en6e for
re"en6eH and Keye for eyeH.
$he idea ehind the retriuti"e theory is that of the restoration of the mora#
character- the appraisement of the distured conscience of the society itse#f and
the maintenance of the so"erei6n po*er of the state *hich ecomes a66rie"ed
*hen a crime is committed and inf#icts punishments to set matters ri6ht.
In this it is the deterrent princip#es *hich possess predominant inf#uence. It *i##
not e out of p#ace to mention that 6andhi!iHs 4hate the sin and not the sinner7- is
mere#y a phi#osophica# assertion and cannot furnish a practica# 6uide in the
administration of !ustice.
CONCLUSION
08
Punishment is a method of socia# contro#. $here is an attempt to portray
punishment as a method of inf#ictin6 of unp#easant circumstances o"er the
offender. $hou6h certain theories #i5e the reformati"e and pre"enti"e re#y upon
humanitarian modes of punishment- ut these ha"e *ea5nesses a6ainst hardcore
crimina#s. Punishments such as the retriuti"e and deterrence throu6h the use of
fear as an instrument to cur the occurrence of crime he#ps in contro##in6 the
crimina#s up to a certain e9tent. <s these emp#oy the idea of re"en6e and
"en6eance these are much harsher than the others.
COMMUNISM OR SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM
QUESTION FORMAT
1. E9p#ain Lar# ;ar9Hs "ie*Hs on scientific socia#ism. +2((./
2. E9p#ain the princip#es of Lar# ;ar9. +2((8-2((,/
3. E9p#ain the po#itica# ideas of Lar# ;ar9. +2(()/
SYNOPSIS
Introduction
What is communism?
%ommunism & 'eatures or fundamenta# postu#ates
INTRODUCTION
%ommunism stands primari#y associated *ith the names of ;ar9- En6e#s- 2enin- 1ta#in
and ;ao. Initia##y ;ar9 and En6e#s had preferred to use the term K1cientific 1ocia#ismH
in their *or5- the %ommunist ;anifesto. 2ater on in order to distin6uish their ideo#o6y
0,
from the ideas of Itopian 1ocia#ists- socia# reformers- and others- they decided to adopt
the term %ommunism for 1cientific 1ocia#ism.
WHAT IS COMMUNISM?
1ince the term communism is used to e9press many different meanin6s- it ecomes
rather difficu#t to 6i"e a concrete definition of communism. 1ince it is used to denote a
theory of society in *hich a## property is he#d common. 1ome scho#ars- ho*e"er- prefer
to descrie it as a *or5in6 c#ass doctrine *hich stands for ma5in6 the *or5ers
economic and po#itica# po*er ho#ders in the society. It is a#so descried y some as
re"o#utionary socia#ism.
<ccordin6 to Coad- 4%ommunism is essentia##y a theory of method- it see5s to #ay the
princip#es upon *hich the transition from capita#ism to socia#ism is to e accomp#ished
and its t*o essentia# doctrines are the c#ass stru66#e and the re"o#utionary transference
of po*er to the pro#etariat.7
sCOMMUNISM# FEATURES OR FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATES
1ince communism has for its phi#osophica# foundations the ideas and theories
formu#ated y Lar# ;ar9- it is essentia# that *e shou#d e9p#ain these at the "ery
e6innin6 of our discussion of the features of ;ar9ism.
$% MAR&ISM AS THE IDEOLOGICAL BASIS OF COMMUNISM#
%ommunism is ased upon the ideas and theories as propounded y ;ar9 and
supp#emented y 2enin. $he main theories that pro"ide foundations to the
ideo#o6y of communism are as fo##o*sG
'! DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM ( In this theory ;ar9ism
ad"ocates that *hat is rea# is matter i.e- materia# means of #ife.
;atter in the form of materia# means- is #i"in6 and e"o#utionary. It
e"o#"es y the #a*s of dia#ecticsF the #a*s of transformation y
impercepti#e ?uantitati"e mutations. ;atter e"o#"es and reaches its
0.
hi6hest sta6e- and then the dia#ectic #eap(re"o#ution) comes and it
enters the ne9t sta6e. It represents a unity of opposites and e"o#"es
y the #a* ne6ation of ne6ation. In other *ords matter e"o#"es
dia#ectica##y.
''! HISTORICAL MATERIALISM ( Jistorica# materia#ism is the
app#ication of the princip#es of dia#ectica# materia#ism to the
de"e#opment of the society. It is in fact- on economic or materia#istic
interpretation of history. ;ar9 e6ins the theory of the materia#istic
conception of history *ith the e#ief that economic acti"ities are the
asis of po#itica#- #e6a#- cu#tura# and re#i6ious institution and e#ief.
Darious forms of state or "arieties of #e6a# system cannot e ta5en
as resu#ts of de"e#opment of human mind- ut ha"e their ori6in in the
materia# conditions of human #ife. $he theory starts *ith the simp#e
truth that man must eat to #i"e and in order to eat he must produce.
$hus- his sur"i"a# depends on the success *hich he can produce
*hat he *ants from nature. Production is the most important of a##
human acti"ities. 1ociety is the resu#t of these necessities of man.
'''! CLASS STRUGGLE ( ;ar9 ad"ocates the "ie* that each society
has een and sha## continue to e inhaited y t*o c#assesF the ha"es
and the ha"eFnots. $he ha"es o*n the means of production and the
ha"eFnots are the se##ers of their #aour. $he former e9p#oit the #atter.
$he rich are the e9p#oiters and the poor are the "ictims of
e9p#oitation. $he c#ass stru66#e is the creed of e"ery society.
')! SURLPUS VALUE* $his theory is ased on the #aour theory of
"a#ue *hich ho#ds that #aour is the rea# producer of "a#ue. < piece
of rass *hen con"erted into a rass tap y the #aourer- re6isters a
i6 "a#ue hi5e. $he profit earned from se##in6 it is rea##y the share of
the #aour ecause it is the surp#us "a#ue created y him. %apita#ism
is a system of e9p#oitation ecause in it the capita#ist retains this
surp#us "a#ue as his profit. $he capita#ist e9p#oits the fruits of #aour
0:
and use it for e9p#oitin6 #aour. Jence capita#ism is an e"i# system of
e9p#oitation.
+% FAITH IN REVOLUTION ( %ommunism has a firm faith in re"o#ution. It
ho#ds that *hen the socia# e"o#ution at a particu#ar sta6e reaches its saturation- a
re"o#ution comes to usher it into the ne9t sta6e. %ommunism ad"ocates and
see5s to prepare the *or5ers for a re"o#ution a6ainst capita#ism. $hey ar6ue that
since the of capita#ism is certain and it is to come throu6h a re"o#ution- the
*or5ers must prepare and sta6e the re"o#ution and usher the socia# e"o#ution
to*ards its fina# destinationFthe communist society
,% DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT ( %ommunism ho#ds that after
the o"erthro* of capita#ism y a *or5ers re"o#ution- the dictatorship of the
pro#etariat *i## e esta#ished and operationa#ised. It *i## e used to e#iminate
a## remainin6 features of capita#ism. Inder it the *or5ers *i## o*n the means of
production. $hey *i## use and direct the or6ani>ed po*er of the state a6ainst the
capita#ists and other enemies of re"o#ution and socia#ism. $he #i?uidation of the
c#ass of capita#ists and their other supporters *i## e effected under the
dictatorship of the pro#etariat. It *i## a#so 6i"e a death #o* to the state.
-% OB"ECTIVE OF COMMUNISM ( CLASSLESS. STATELESS SOCIETY
( %ommunism stands for the esta#ishment of a communist societyF a c#ass#ess
and state#ess society in *hich each one *i## *or5 accordin6 to his capacity and
each one *i## 6et accordin6 to his needs. <fter the o"erthro* of capita#ism y a
pro#etarian re"o#ution- the dictatorship of the pro#etariat *i#e esta#ished.
Inder it capita#ism *i## e fu##y #i?uidated. $he state *i## a#so *ither a*ay. $he
pre history *i## end and the rea# history *i## e6in after the esta#ishment of the
fina# sta6e of socia# e"o#utionF the communist society. In other *ords
communism stands for the esta#ishment of a c#ass#ess and state#ess society as
its fina# o!ecti"e.
8(
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D# P%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n/ Dr# S#2# ).neni
# F%un&a$i%n/ %+ ,%0i$i'a0 %(0i*a$i%n/ A# S# Bha*.a/hree )a00ikar;un
5# 7iki,e&ia
8# U$i0i$ariani/m> Fr%m En'.'0%,e&ia Bri$anni'a
<# U$i0i$ariani/m 9%hn S$uar$ )i00
@# Sa$.a*raha 7iki,e&ia
B# Sarv%&a.a 7iki,e&ia
C# Ar$i'0e/ %n Gan&hi, /a$.a*raha an& Sarv%&a.a
"# Three ,rin'i,0e/ %+ 'ivi0 &i/%(e&ien'e > Gan&hi, 4in* an& Th%reau (. Ni'k Gier
D!# Gan&hi?/ P%0i$i'a0 E$hi'/ Pau0 F# P%-er
81
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POLITICAL SCIENCE II

(FOUNDATIONS OF POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS)

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