What is Grammar?

The word Grammar has been derived from

French word gramaire or Latin word
grammatical or Greek word grammatika which
means relating to letter or according to F.R
Palmer the word grammar means to write
Grammar is the system of rules by which words
are formed and ut together to make sentence or
grammar is the branch of linguistic which deal with
the relationshi between words and the structure
of sentence
Ten Types of Grammar
Linguists are !uick to remind us that there are
different varieties of grammar""that is# different
ways of describing and analy$ing the structures
and functions of language.
Comparative Grammar
The analysis and comarison of the grammatical
structures of related languages. %ontemorary
work in comarative grammar is concerned with &a
faculty of language that rovides an e'lanatory
basis for how a human being can ac!uire a first
language . . .. (n this way# the theory of grammar is
a theory of human language and hence establishes
the relationshi among all languages.&
Generative Grammar
The rules determining the structure and
interretation of sentences that seakers accet
as belonging to the language. &)imly ut# a
generative grammar is a theory of cometence* a
model of the sychological system of unconscious
knowledge that underlies a seaker+s ability to
roduce and interret utterances in a language.&
Mental Grammar
The generative grammar stored in the brain that
allows a seaker to roduce language that other
seakers can understand. &,ll humans are born
with the caacity for constructing a -ental
Grammar# given linguistic e'erience. this caacity
for language is called the Language Faculty
/%homsky# 01234. , grammar formulated by a
linguist is an ideali$ed descrition of this -ental
Grammar.&
Pedagogical Grammar
Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for
second"language students. &Pedagogical grammar is
a sliery concet. The term is commonly used to
denote /04 edagogical rocess""the e'licit
treatment of elements of the target language
systems as /art of4 language teaching
methodology. /54 edagogical content""reference
sources of one kind or another that resent
information about the target language system. and
/64 combinations of rocess and content.& /7.
Little# &8ords and Their Proerties* ,rguments
for a Le'ical ,roach to Pedagogical Grammar.&
Performance Grammar
, descrition of the synta' of 9nglish as it is
actually used by seakers in dialogues.
&:P;erformance grammar . . . centers attention on
language roduction. it is my belief that the
roblem of roduction must be dealt with before
roblems of recetion and comrehension can
roerly be investigated.&
Reference Grammar
, descrition of the grammar of a language# with
e'lanations of the rinciles governing the
construction of words# hrases# clauses# and
sentences. 9'amles of contemorary reference
grammars in 9nglish include , %omrehensive
Grammar of the 9nglish Language# by Randolh
<uirk et al. /01=34# the Longman Grammar of
)oken and 8ritten 9nglish /01114# and The
%ambridge Grammar of the 9nglish Language
/5>>54.
Theoretical Grammar
The study of the essential comonents of any
human language. &Theoretical grammar or synta' is
concerned with making comletely e'licit the
formalisms of grammar# and in roviding scientific
arguments or e'lanations in favor of one account
of grammar rather than another# in terms of a
general theory of human language.&
Traditional Grammar
The collection of rescritive rules and concets
about the structure of the language. &8e say that
traditional grammar is rescritive because it
focuses on the distinction between what some
eole do with language and what they ought to do
with it# according to a re"established
standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional
grammar# therefore# is eretuating a historical
model of what suosedly constitutes roer
language
Transformational Grammar
, theory of grammar that accounts for the
constructions of a language by linguistic
transformations and hrase structures. &(n
transformational grammar# the term +rule+ is used
not for a recet set down by an e'ternal
authority but for a rincile that is unconsciously
yet regularly followed in the roduction and
interretation of sentences. , rule is a direction
for forming a sentence or a art of a sentence#
which has been internali$ed by the native seaker.&
Universal Grammar
The system of categories# oerations# and
rinciles shared by all human languages and
considered to be innate. &Taken together# the
linguistic rinciles of ?niversal Grammar
constitute a theory of the organi$ation of the
initial state of the mind@brain of the language
learner""that is# a theory of the human faculty for
language.&
Punctuation
Punctuation Rules
End Marks ? !
A9very sentence must end with an end mark.
/Period# <uestion -ark# or 9'clamation -ark4
Commas "
0. ?se commas before the conBunction to
searate two indeendent clauses in a
comound sentence.
5. ?se commas to searate items in a series.
6. ?se commas to searate adBectives of e!ual
rank.
C. ?se commas after an introductory word#
hrase# or clause.
(ntroductory words /Do#4
Douns of 7irect ,ddress /Eon#4
%ommon 9'ressions /Ff course#4
(ntroductory ,dverbs /Fbviously#4
Preositional Phrases G two or more
Particiial Phrases /Euming over the
fence# the horse fell.4
(nfinitive Phrases /To buy things on the
(nternet# a credit card is often
re!uired.4
,dverb %lauses /8hen 8orld 8ar ((
ended# shoing centers became
oular.4
3. ?se commas to set off arenthetical
e'ressions.
, arenthetical e'ression is a word or a
hrase that is unrelated to the rest of
the sentence and interruts the general
flow of the sentence.
ADames of eole being addressed* 7on#
Eudge Hurke# my son
A%onBunctive ,dverbs* also# besides#
furthermore# however# indeed# instead#
moreover# nevertheless# otherwise#
therefore# thus
A%ommon 9'ressions* by the way# ( feel#
in my oinion# in the first lace# of course#
on the other hand# you know
A%ontrasting 9'ressions* not that one#
not there# not mine
2. ?se commas to set off nonessential
e'ressions.
I. ?se a comma when a geograhical name is
made u of two or more arts.
=. ?se a comma when a date is made u of two
or more arts.
1. ?se a comma when a name is followed by one
or more titles.
0>. ?se a comma after each item in an
address of two or more arts.
00. ?se a comma after the salutation in a
ersonal letter and after the closing in all
letters.
05. ?se a comma with numbers of more than
three digits after every third digit starting
from the right.
06. ?se a comma to indicate the words left
out of an ellitical sentence. 9J. 7eveloed
countries buy food from the grocery store.
undeveloed countries# the market.
0C. ?se commas to set off a direct !uotation
from the rest of the sentence.
Punctuation Rules
#emicolons $
0. ?se a semicolon to Boin indeendent clauses
that are not already Boined by a
conBunction.
5. ?se a semicolon to Boin indeendent clauses
searated by either a conBunctive adverb or
a transitional e'ression. /)ee %ommas K3
for list.4
6. ?se a semicolon to avoid confusion when
indeendent clauses already contain commas.
C. ?se a semicolon between items in a series if
the items themselves contain commas.
Colons %
0. ?se a colon before a list of items following
an indeendent clause.
5. ?se a colon to introduce a !uotation that is
formal or lengthy or a !uotation that does
not contain a he said@she said e'ression.
6. ?se a colon to introduce a sentence that
summari$es or e'lains the sentence before
it.
C. ?se a colon to introduce a formal aositive
that follows an indeendent clause.
3. ?se a colon when writing the time.
2. ?se a colon between volume numbers and
age numbers when referring to a eriodical.
I. ?se a colon between the title and subtitles
of books.
=. ?se a colon after a salutation in a business
letter.
&uotation Marks '(irect &uotations) * +
0. ?se !uotation marks to set off direct
!uotes.
5. ?se a comma or colon after an introductory
e'ression.
6. ?se a comma# a !uestion mark# or an
e'clamation mark after a !uotation followed
by a concluding e'ression.
C. ?se a comma after art of a !uoted
sentence followed by an interruting
e'ression. ?se another comma after the
e'ression.
3. ?se a comma# a !uestion mark# or an
e'clamation mark after a !uoted sentence
that comes before an interruting
e'ression. ?se a eriod after the
e'ression.
2. ?se a comma or a eriod inside the final
!uotation mark.
I. ?se a semicolon or colon outside the final
!uotation mark.
=. ?se a !uestion mark or e'clamation mark
inside the final !uotation mark if the end
mark is art of the !uotation.
1. ?se a !uestion mark or e'clamation mark
outside the final !uotation mark if the end
mark is not art of the !uotation.
0>. 8hen writing dialogue# begin a new
aragrah with each change of seaker.
00. For !uotations longer than a aragrah#
ut !uotation marks at the beginning of each
aragrah and at the end of the final
aragrah.
05. ?se single !uotation marks for a !uotation
within a !uotation.
Punctuation Rules
,ther uses of &uotation Marks * +
0. ?se !uotation marks around the titles of
short written works* short stories# chaters
from books# short oems# essays# articles#
eisodes# songs# arts of musical
comositions.
5. 7F DFT underline or lace in !uotation
marks the name of the Hible# its books#
divisions# or versions or the names of other
holy scritures# such as the Loran.
6. 7F DFT underline or lace in !uotation
marks the titles of government charters#
alliances# treaties# acts# statutes# or
reorts.
Underlining ---------
0. ?nderline the titles of long written works
and the titles of ublications that are
ublished as a single work* books# lays#
maga$ines# Bournals# amhlets# newsaers#
long oems
5. ?nderline the titles of movies# television and
radio series# lengthy works of music#
aintings# and sculture.
6. ?nderline the names of individual air# sea#
sace# and land craft.
C. ?nderline foreign words not yet acceted
into 9nglish.
3. ?nderline numbers# symbols# letter# and
words used to name themselves. 9J. (s that
first letter a G or and )M
(ashes .
0. ?se dashes to indicate an abrut change of
thought# a dramatic interruting idea# or a
summary statement. /Page 21= in grammar
book4
5. ?se dashes to set off a nonessential
aositive or modifier when it is long# when
it is already unctuated# or when you want to
be dramatic.
6. ?se dashes to set off a arenthetical
e'ression when it is ling# already
unctuated# or esecially dramatic.
Parentheses ' )
0. ?se arentheses when the material is not
essential or when it consists of one or more
sentences.
5. ?se arentheses to set off numerical
e'lanationsNsuch as dates of a ersonOs
birth and deathNand around numbers and
letter marking a series.
6. 8hen a hrase or declarative sentence
interruts another sentence# do not use an
initial caital or end mark inside the
arentheses.
C. 8hen a !uestion or an e'clamation
interruts another sentence# use both and
initial caital and an end mark inside the
arentheses.
3. 8ith any sentence that falls between two
comlete sentences# use both an initial
caital and an end mark inside the
arentheses.
2. (n a sentence that includes arentheses#
lace any unctuation belonging to the main
sentence after the arenthesis.
Punctuation Rules
/yphens .
0. ?se a hyhen when writing out two"word
numbers from twenty"one through ninety"
nine.
5. ?se a hyhen with fractions used as
adBectives.
6. ?se a hyhen after a refi' that is followed
by a roer noun or adBective.
C. ?se a hyhen in words with the refi'es all"#
e'"# and self" and in words with the suffi' G
elect.
3. ?se a hyhen to connect two or more words
that are used as one word unless the
dictionary gives a contrary selling.
2. ?se a hyhen to connect a comound
modifier that comes before a noun.
I. 7o not use hyhens with comound modifiers
that include words ending in Gly or with
comound roer adBectives or comound
roer nouns acting as adBectives.
=. ?se a hyhen within a word when a
combination of letter might otherwise be
confusing.
1. ?se a hyhen between words to kee the
reader from combining them erroneously.
Using hyphens at the end of lines .
0>. (f a word must be divided# always divide it
between syllables.
00. (f a word contains word arts# it can
almost always be divided between the refi'
and the root or the root and the suffi'.
05. 7o not divide a word so that a single
letter stands alone.
06. (t is referable not to divide roer nouns
and roer adBectives.
0C. 7ivide a hyhenated word only after the
hyhen.
03. 7o not divide a word so that art of the
word is on age and the remainder is on the
ne't age.
0postrophes 1
0. ,dd an aostrohe and s to show the
ossessive case of most singular nouns.
5. ,dd an aostrohe to show the ossessive
case of lural nouns ending in s or es.
6. ,dd an aostrohe and s to show the
ossessive case of lural nouns that do not
end in s or es.
C. ,dd an aostrohe and s to the last word of
a comound noun to form the ossessive.
3. To form ossessives involving time# amounts#
or the word sake# use an aostrohe and s or
Bust an aostrohe if the ossessive in
lural.
2. To show Boint ownershi# make the final noun
ossessive.
I. To show individual ownershi# make each
noun ossessive.
=. ?se an aostrohe and s with indefinite
ronouns to show ossession.
1. 7o not use an aostrohe with the
ossessive forms of ersonal ronouns.
0>. ?se an aostrohe in a contraction to
indicate the osition of the missing letter or
letters.
00. ?se an aostrohe and Gs to write the
lurals of numbers# symbols# letters# and
words used to name themselves.
.
Princile 7ivision Ff Grammar*
0. Frthograhy*. (t treats of letters. (t relate
to correct selling. )elling with reference to
correctness.
5. 9tymology *. The study of the origins and
historical develoment of the words
6. )ynta'* (t treats to arrange the sentence or
the grammatical rules.
The Parts of #peech
Traditional grammar classifies words based on
eight arts of seech* the verb# the noun# the
ronoun# the adBective# the adverb# the
reosition# the conBunction# and the interBection.
9ach art of seech e'lains not what the word is#
but how the word is used. (n fact# the same word
can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or
adBective in the ne't. The ne't few e'amles show
how a word+s art of seech can change from one
sentence to the ne't# and following them is a
series of sections on the individual arts of
seech# followed by an e'ercise
What is a 2oun?
, noun is a word used to name a erson# animal#
lace# thing# and abstract idea. 9'amle .,slam#
Pen# Peshawar etc.
, noun can function in a sentence as a subBect# a
direct obBect# an indirect obBect# a subBect
comlement# an obBect comlement# an aositive#
an adBective or an adverb.
3unction of 2oun%
Douns functions as a head of nouns hrase# in
subBect# obBect# subPcomliment# FbBect
comliment and comliment of reosition for
e'amle
0. the chairman reached the deartment
/subBect4
5. he raised the chairman /direct obBect4
6. they elected him the chairman /obBect
comliment4
C. he is the chairman /subBect comliment4
3. she gave the chairman a dairy/obBect indirect4
2. he was with the chairman /reositional
hrase4
(ependents%
Douns take determiners# adBective and also
restricted relative clause as their deendents for
e'amle
0. The girl /determiner acting as deendent4
5. Tall girls /adBective acting as deendent4
6. The girl# who had reddened her lis was Dasima
/relative clause4
4e5ical morphology%
The most roductive noun forming suffi'es are#
Dess# Ty# 9r# 9e# ,tion# -ent. 9'amles are
04 %leanness.54 sensibility.64 sleeer# 9ater .C4
9mloyee.
34 9ducation.24 7eveloment.
6nflection of 2oun%
(nflection of nouns are contrasted on the basis of
number i.e. )ingular and Plural Hut there are
number of nouns which are either available only in
singular form# for e'amle#(nformation#9!uiment
etc or either lural form for
e'amle#arm#brains#sirits#Dews etc
.
7 2oun Gender
-any common nouns# like &engineer& or &teacher#&
can refer to men or women. Fnce# many 9nglish
nouns would change form deending on their
gender "" for e'amle# a man was called an &author&
while a woman was called an &authoress& "" but this
use of gender"secific nouns is very rare today.
Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer
to occuational categories# as in the following
sentences.
)aeed was a very rominent eighteenth"century
actor.
Dadeem was at the height of her career as an
actress in the 0I=>s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad# but he
couldn+t decide whether he was advertising for a
&waiter& or a &waitress&
5. 2oun Plurals
-ost nouns change their form to indicate number
by adding &"s& or &"es&# as illustrated in the
following airs of sentences*
8hen ,slam was small he rarely told the truth if
he thought he was going to be unished.
-any eole do not believe that truths are self"
evident.
There are other nouns which form the lural by
changing the last letter before adding &s&. )ome
words ending in &f& form the lural by deleting &f&
and adding &ves#& and words ending in &y& form the
lural by deleting the &y& and adding &ies#& as in the
following.
Possessive 2ouns
(n the ossessive case# a noun or ronoun changes
its form to show that it owns or is closely related
to something else. ?sually# nouns become
ossessive by adding a combination of an
aostrohe and the letter &s.&
Qou can form the ossessive case of a singular noun
that does not end in &s& by adding an aostrohe
and &s#& as in the following sentences*
04 The red suitcase is %assandra+s.
54 The only luggage that was lost was the rime
minister+s.
64 The e'hausted recruits were woken before
dawn by the drill sergeant+s screams.
C4 The miner+s face was covered in coal dust.
Qou can form the ossessive case of a singular
noun that ends in &s& by adding an aostrohe
alone or by adding an aostrohe and &s#& as in
the following e'amles*
04 The bus+s seats are very uncomfortable.
54 The bus+ seats are very uncomfortable.
64 The film crew accidentally crushed the
latyus+s eggs.
C4 The film crew accidentally crushed the
latyus+ eggs.
34 Felicia Remans+s oetry was once more oular
than Lord Hyron+s.
24 Felicia Remans+ oetry was once more oular
than Lord Hyron+s.
Using Possessive 2ouns
8hen you read the following sentences# you will
notice that a noun in the ossessive case
fre!uently functions as an adBective modifying
another noun*
The miner+s face was covered in coal dust.
Rere the ossessive noun &miner+s& is used to
modify the noun &face& and together with the
article &the#& they make u the noun hrase that is
the sentence+s subBect.
The concert was interruted by the dogs+ barking#
the ducks+ !uacking# and the babies+ s!ualling.
(n this sentence# each ossessive noun modifies a
gerund. The ossessive noun &dogs&+ modifies
&barking#& &ducks&+ modifies &!uacking#& and
&babies&+ modifies &s!ualling.&
The film crew accidentally crushed the latyus+s
eggs.
(n this e'amle the ossessive noun &latyus+s&
modifies the noun &eggs& and the noun hrase &the
latyus+s eggs& is the direct obBect of the verb
&crushed.&
-y uncle sent many hours trying to locate the
s!uirrels+ nest.
(n this sentence the ossessive noun &s!uirrels&+ is
used to modify the noun &nest& and the noun
hrase &the s!uirrels+ nest& is the obBect of the
infinitive hrase &to locate.&
Types ,f 2ouns
There are many different tyes of nouns. ,s you
know# you caitali$e some nouns# such as &%anada&
or &Louise#& and do not caitali$e others# such as
&badger& or &tree& /unless they aear at the
beginning of a sentence4. (n fact# grammarians
have develoed a whole series of noun tyes#
including the roer noun# the common noun# the
concrete noun# the abstract noun# the countable
noun. the non"countable noun and the collective
noun. Qou should note that a noun will belong to
more than one tye* it will be roer or common#
abstract or concrete# and countable or non"
countable or collective. Hut the maBor
classification of noun are concrete noun and
,bstract noun.
. Concrete 2ouns
, concrete noun is a noun which names anything /or
anyone4 that you can erceive through your
hysical senses* touch# sight# taste# hearing# or
smell. , concrete noun is the oosite of a
abstract noun. The highlighted words in the
following sentences are all concrete nouns*
04 The Budge handed the files to the clerk..
54 The book binder relaced the flimsy aer cover
with a sturdy# cloth"covered board
(ts further classified into the following nouns.
04 Proper 2ouns
Proer noun is the name of a secific erson#
lace# or thing. The names of days of the week#
months# historical documents# institutions#
organi$ations# religions# their holy te'ts and their
adherents are roer nouns. , roer noun is the
oosite of a common noun(n each of the following
sentences# the roer nouns are highlighted*
, llama (!bal# <uaid"e",$am.Pakistan.,merica..
54 .Common 2ouns
, common noun is a noun referring to a erson#
lace# or thing in a general sense "" usually# you
should write it with a caital letter only when it
begins a sentence. , common noun is the oosite
of a roer noun.
,slam.Eawad.,sima#en.house.ba$$ar etc.
.8) Collective 2oun
, collective noun is the name of a number of
ersons or things# taken together and soken of as
one whole* For e'amle crowd# army# team# family#
nation# committee# arlimament.class.
0. The olice arrested the thief.
5. , herd of cattle is assing.
9) Material noun
, material noun is the name of a matter or
substance of which anything is made# For e'amle#
)ilver# (ron# Gold# %otton# -ilk# Rice etc
0. This table is made of steel.
5. -ilk is a comlete diet
0:stract 2ouns
,n abstract noun is a noun which names anything
which you can not erceive through your five
hysical senses# and is the oosite of a concrete
noun. The highlighted words in the following
sentences are all abstract nouns* 9'amles#
04 Huying the fire e'tinguisher was an
afterthought.
54 ,sima is amused by eole who are nostalgic
about childhood.
Counta:le 2ouns
, countable noun /or count noun4 is a noun with
both a singular and a lural form# and it names
anything /or anyone4 that you can count. Qou can
make a countable noun lural and attach it to a
lural verb in a sentence. %ountable nouns are the
oosite of non"countable nouns and collective
nouns. (n each of the following sentences. the
highlighted words are countable nouns*
04 8e ainted the table red and the chairs blue...
54 -iriam found si' silver dollars in the toe of a
sock.
2on.Counta:le 2ouns
, non"countable noun /or mass noun4 is a noun
which does not have a lural form# and which
refers to something that you could /or would4 not
usually count. , non"countable noun always takes a
singular verb in a sentence. Don"countable nouns
are similar to collective nouns# and are the oosite
of countable nouns. The highlighted words in the
following sentences are non"countable nouns*
04 7awood discovered o'ygen.
The word &o'ygen& cannot normally be made lural.
F'ygen is essential to human life.
)ince &o'ygen& is a non"countable noun# it takes
the singular verb &is& rather than the lural verb
&are.&
8e decided to sell the furniture rather than take
it with us when we moved.
Qou cannot make the noun &furniture& lural.
The furniture is heaed in the middle of the room.
)ince &furniture& is a non"countable noun# it takes
a singular verb# &is heaed.&
The crew sread the gravel over the roadbed.
Qou cannot make the non"countable noun &gravel&
lural.
What is a ;er:?
, verb is used to show an action or a state of being
and give us information about subBect is called
verb. )uch as* Bum# run# cook and drive. Rashid
bites his victims on the neck.
The verb &bites& describes the action
Rashid takes..
There are three types of ver:s%
action verbs#
linking verbs# and
heling verbs
0CT6,2 ;ER<#% ,ction verbs are words that
e'ress action /e'* give# eat# walk# etc.4 or ossession
/have, own# etc.4. ,ction verbs
can be either
transitive or
intransitive.
TR02#6T6;E ;ER<#
, transitive verb always has a noun that receives
the action of the verb. This noun is called the
direct o:=ect.
9J,-PL9* ,sima raises her hand.
/The verb is raises. Her hand is an obBect receiving the
verbOs action. Therefore# raises are atransitive verb.4
Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect o:=ects#
which name the obBect to whom or for whom the
action was done.
9J,-PL9* Dadeem gave Hushra the encil.
/The verb is given. The direct obBect is the pencil.
:8hat did he giveM the pencil;. The indirect obBect is
Bushra..
62TR02#6T6;E ;ER<#
,n intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect
obBect. ,lthough an intransitive verb may be
followed by an adverb or adverbial hrase# there is
no obBect to receive its action.
9J,-PL9* ,sima rises slowly from her seat.
/The verb is the word# rises. The words# slowly from her
seat# modify the verb. Hut there is no obBect that
receives the action.4
TR02#6T6;E ,R 62TR02#6T6;E?
To determine whether a verb is transitive or
intransitive# follow these two stes*
04 Find the verb in the sentence.
9J,-PL9 0* ,brahim will lay down his book. 8hat
is the actionM
will lay 9J,-PL9 5* Ris book will lie there all day.
8hat is the actionM 8ill lie
7etermine whether the verb has a direct obBect.
,sk yourself# 8hat is receiving the action of the
verbM
(f there is a noun receiving the action of the verb#
then the verb is transitive
(f there is no direct o:=ect to receive the action#
and if the verb does not make sense with a direct
obBect# then it is intransitive
9J,-PL9 0* ,brahim will lay down his book.
,brahim will lay down what?
Ris book. )ince the verb can take a direct obBect#
it is transitive
9J,-PL9 5* Ris book will lie there all day.Ris book
will lie what? Nothing.
It does not make sense to lie something. )ince the verb
does not make sense with a
7irect obBect# it is intransitive
, linking ver: connects the subBect of a sentence
to a noun or ad=ective that
Renames or describes it.This noun or adBective is
called the su:=ect complement .
E>0MP4E#% Rashid :ecame a :usiness ma=or
'The ver:" became" links the su:=ect" Rashid" to
its complement" a business major ) /ina is in love
?ith Rashid
'The ver:" is " links the su:=ect" Hina, to the
su:=ect complement" in love with Rashid " ?hich
descri:es Hina ) The most common linking verb is
the verb to be in all of its forms /am# are# is# was# were,
etc.4. This verb may also be used as a heling verb.
Two other common linking verbs# to become and to seem#
are taken as linking verbs
/E4P62G ;ER<#
/elping ver:s are used before action or linking
verbs to convey additional information regarding
asects of ossibility /can # could # etc.4 or time /was #
did # has # etc.4.They are also called au5iliary ver:s.
The main verb with its accomanying heling verb
is called a verb hrase.
9J,-PL9)* Reema is /heling verb4 going /main
verb4 to ,merica. The tri might /heling verb4 :e
/main verb4 dangerous. The following words# called
modals# always function as heling verbs*
/%an#may#must#shall#will#could# might #ought to#
should# would4
EXAMPLES: Rubina could learn to fly helicoters.
/Could hel the main verb# learn.4 Raheela will drive to
%ar tomorrow. /Will hels the main verb# drive.4
EXAMPLES: Rubina could learn to fly helicoters.
/Could hel the main verb# learn.4
Raheela will drive to (daho tomorrow. /Will hels
the main verb# drive.4
(n addition# the following forms of the verbs to be#
to do# and to have sometimes served as heling verbs.
/Dote* (n other cases# they may serve as action or
linking verbs.4,m# be# being# do# had# have# was#
are# been# did# does# has# is# were
6nflection ,f ;er:%
The great maBority of Serb contains si' inflection
forms. For e'amle the verb / go4
0. Re goes.
5. Re went.
6. They go.
C. Re# )he.They /shall# will# should# would4 go.
3. Re# )he /is4 they are going.
2. Re# )he /has4 they have gone.
(n 6 and C we have used Go twice called
)yncretism.
3unction ,f ;er:%
Serb as head#restrict#the range of others
elements in the clause. The base form head verb
hrase#function in various kind of clausesO
0. Fen the door. /(merative@ commond4
5. clauses may also function as comliment to the
-odle ,u'illary# can#may etc. e.g Re may be
here soon.
6. %lauses may also take infinitives / 4
e.g (t is imortant to read both the coies.
(ependents%
Serb takes a wider range of deendents. For
e'amle a transitive verb takes a direct obBect as
deendent.
0. )he is eating a Pumkin./direct obBect4
5. Re Gave her a diamond ring./7irect
obBect@(ndirect. FbBect4
6. )he considered him a fool./ obBect@ obBect
comliment4.Hecause Foll can not take lace of
subBect in Passive voice so it can not be an obBect.
4e5ical Morphology%
Serb can be derived from other arts of seech in
a number of ways.For e'amle# by adding#()e#(fy
to an adBective.
0. Dational /Doun4 PPPPPPPPPPDationalise. /Serb4
5. Private /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPPPPrivatise. /S4
6. )ynthesis /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPP)ynthesise /S4
C. Heauty /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPPPHeautify. /S4
3. FbBect /D4 PPPPPPPPPPPPPPFbBectify. /S4
#u:=ect and Predicate
9very comlete sentence contains two arts* a
subBect and a redicate. The subBect is what /or
whom4 the sentence is about# while the redicate
tells something about the subBect. (n the following
sentences# the redicate is enclosed in braces #
while the subBect is highlighted.
,$i$TrunsU.
E,$i$ and her dog Trun on the beach every
morningU.
To determine the subBect of a sentence# first
isolate the verb and then make a !uestion by
lacing &whoM& or &whatM& before it "" the answer
is the subBect.
The audience littered the theatre floor with torn
wraings and silled ocorn.
The verb in the above sentence is &littered.& 8ho
or what litteredM The audience did. &The audience&
is the subBect of the sentence. The redicate
/which always includes the verb4 goes on to relate
something about the subBect* what about the
audienceM (t &littered the theatre floor with torn
wraings and silled ocorn.&
?nusual )entences
(merative sentences /sentences that give a
command or an order4 differ from conventional
sentences in that their subBect# which is always
&you#& is understood rather than e'ressed.
)tand on your head. /&Qou& is understood before
&stand.&4
He careful with sentences that begin with &there&
lus a form of the verb &to be.& (n such sentences#
&there& is not the subBect. it merely signals that
the true subBect will soon follow.
There were three stray kittens cowering under our
orch stes this morning.
(f you ask whoM or whatM Hefore the verb /&were
cowering&4# the answer is &three stray kittens#& the
correct subBect.
)imle )ubBect and )imle Predicate
9very subBect is built around one noun or ronoun
/or more4 that# when stried of all the words that
modify it# is known as the simle subBect. %onsider
the following e'amle*
, iece of eeroni i$$a would satisfy his
hunger.
The subBect is built around the noun &iece#& with
the other words of the subBect "" &a& and &of
eeroni i$$a& "" modifying the noun. &Piece& is
the simle subBect.
Likewise# a redicate has at its centre a simle
redicate# which is always the verb or verbs that
link u with the subBect. (n the e'amle we Bust
considered# the simle redicate is &would satisfy&
"" in other words# the verb of the sentence.
, sentence may have a comound subBect "" a
simle subBect consisting of more than one noun or
ronoun "" as in these e'amles*
Team ennants# rock osters and family
hotograhs covered the boy+s bedroom walls.
Rer uncle and she walked slowly through the (nuit
art gallery and admired the owerful scultures
e'hibited there.
The second sentence above features a comound
redicate# a redicate that includes more than one
verb ertaining to the same subBect /in this case#
&walked& and &admired&4.
What is a Pronoun?
, roer noun is used to name a secific erson#
lace or thing. )uch as Hill Gates# Dew Qork and
the Rudson River. , roer noun is always
caitali$ed. . Qou use ronouns like &he#& &which#&
&none#& and &you& to make your sentences less
cumbersome and less reetitive. Grammarians
classify ronouns into several tyes# including the
ersonal ronoun# the demonstrative ronoun# the
interrogative ronoun# the indefinite ronoun# the
relative ronoun# the refle'ive ronoun# and the
intensive ronoun.
7) Personal Pronouns% , ersonal ronoun refers
to a secific erson or thing and changes its form
to indicate erson# number# gender# and case.
#u:=ective Personal Pronouns , subBective
ersonal ronoun indicates that the ronoun is
acting as the subBect of the sentence. The
subBective ersonal ronouns are &(#& &you#& &she#&
&he#& &it#& &we#& &you#& &they.&
(n the following sentences# each of the highlighted
words is a subBective ersonal ronoun and acts as
the subBect of the sentence*
( was glad to find the bus ass in the bottom of
the green knasack.
Qou are surely the strangest child ( have ever met.
8hen she was a young woman# she earned her living
as a coal miner.
,fter many years# they returned to their
homeland.
8e will meet at the %alcutta at 6*6> .m.
,:=ective Personal Pronouns ,n obBective
ersonal ronoun indicates that the ronoun is
acting as an obBect of a verb# comound verb#
reosition# or infinitive hrase. The obBective
ersonal ronouns are* &me#& &you#& &her#& &him#&
&it#& &us#& &you#& and &them.&
Rere the obBective ersonal ronoun &me& is the
obBect of the reosition &to.&
(+m not sure that my contact will talk to you.
)imilarly in this e'amle# the obBective ersonal
ronoun &you& is the obBect of the reosition
&to.&Rehan was surrised to see her at the race..
Rere the obBective ersonal ronoun &her& is the
obBect of the infinitive hrase &to see.&
@) Possessive Personal Pronouns , ossessive
ronoun indicates that the ronoun is acting as a
marker of ossession and defines who owns a
articular obBect or erson. The ossessive
ersonal ronouns are &mine#& &yours#& &hers#& &his#&
&its#& &ours#& and &theirs.& Dote that ossessive
ersonal ronouns are very similar to ossessive
adBectives like &my#& &her#& and &their.&
(n each of the following sentences# the highlighted
word is a ossessive ersonal ronoun* The smallest
gift is mine.
Rere the ossessive ronoun &mine& functions as a
subBect comlement.
This is yours. Rere too the ossessive ronoun
&yours& functions as a subBect comlement.
Ris is on the kitchen counter.
(n this e'amle# the ossessive ronoun &his& acts
as the subBect of the sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
(n this sentence# the ossessive ronoun &theirs& is
the subBect of the sentence.
Furs is the green one on the corner. Rere too the
ossessive ronoun &ours& function as the subBect
of the sentence.
8) 0 demonstrative pronoun oints to and
identifies a noun or a ronoun. &This& and &these&
refer to things that are nearby either in sace or
in time# while &that& and &those& refer to things
that are farther away in sace or time.
The demonstrative ronouns are &this#& &that#&
&these#& and &those.& &This& and &that& are used to
refer to singular nouns or noun hrases and &these&
and &those& are used to refer to lural nouns and
noun hrases. Dote that the demonstrative
ronouns are identical to demonstrative adBectives#
though# obviously# you use them differently. (t is
also imortant to note that &that& can also be used
as a relative ronoun.
(n the following sentences# each of the highlighted
words is a demonstrative ronoun*
This must not continue.
Rere &this& is used as the subBect of the comound
verb &must not continue.&
This is uny. that is the tree ( want.
(n this e'amle &this& is used as subBect and
refers to something close to the seaker. The
demonstrative ronoun &that& is also a subBect but
refers to something farther away from the
seaker.
Three customers wanted these.
Rere &these& is the direct obBect of the verb
&wanted.&
9) 6nterrogative Pronouns
,n interrogative ronoun is used to ask !uestions.
The interrogative ronouns are &who#& &whom#&
&which#& &what& and the comounds formed with
the suffi' &ever& /&whoever#& &whomever#&
&whichever#& and &whatever&4. Dote that either
&which& or &what& can also be used as an
interrogative adBective# and that &who#& &whom#& or
&which& can also be used as a relative ronoun.Qou
will find &who#& &whom#& and occasionally &which&
used to refer to eole#&which& and &what& used to
refer to things and to animals.&8ho& acts as the
subBect of a verb# while &whom& acts as the obBect
of a verb# reosition# or a verbal. The highlighted
word in each of the following sentences is an
interrogative ronoun*
8hich wants to see the dentist firstM
&8hich& is the subBect of the sentence.
8ho wrote the novel RockboundM
)imilarly &who& is the subBect of the sentenceM
8hom do you think we should inviteM
(n this sentence# &who& is the obBect of the verb
&invite.&
To whom do you wish to seakM
Rere the interrogative ronoun &whom is the
obBect of the reosition &to.&
8ho will meet the delegates at the train stationM
(n this sentence# the interrogative ronoun &who&
is the subBect of the comound verb &will meet.& To
whom did you give the aerM (n this e'amle the
interrogative ronoun &whom& is the obBect of the
reosition &to.&
8hat did she sayM Rere the interrogative ronoun
&what& is the direct obBect of the verb &say.&
A) Relative Pronouns
Qou can use a relative ronoun is used to link one
hrase or clause to another hrase or clause. The
relative ronouns are &who#& &whom#& &that#& and
&which.& The comounds &whoever#& &whomever#&
and &whichever& are also relative ronouns.
Qou can use the relative ronouns &who& and
&whoever& to refer to the subBect of a clause or
sentence# and &whom& and &whomever& to refer to
the obBects of a verb# a verbal or a reosition. (n
each of the following sentences# the highlighted
word is a relative ronoun. Qou may invite
whomever you like to the arty. The relative
ronoun &whoever& is the direct obBect of the
comound verb &may invite. The candidate who
wins the greatest oular vote is not always
elected.
(n this sentence# the relative ronoun is the
subBect of the verb &wins& and introduces the
subordinate clause &who wins the greatest oular
vote.& This subordinate clause acts as an adBective
modifying &candidate.
B) 6ndefinite Pronouns an indefinite ronoun is a
ronoun referring to an identifiable but not
secified erson or thing. ,n indefinite ronoun
conveys the idea of all# any# none# or some. The
most common indefinite ronouns are &all#&
&another#& &any#& &anybody#& &anyone#& &anything#&
&each#& &everybody#& &everyone#& &everything#&
&few#& &many#& &nobody#& &none#& &one#& &several#&
&some#& &somebody#& and &someone.& Dote that
some indefinite ronouns can also be used as
indefinite adBectives. The highlighted words in the
following sentences are indefinite ronouns* -any
were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed
u. Rere &many& acts as the subBect of the
comound verb &were invited. The office had been
searched and everything was thrown onto the
floor.
(n this e'amle# &everything& acts as a subBect of
the comound verb &was thrown.&
8e donated everything we found in the attic to
the woman+s shelter garage sale.
(n this sentence# &everything& is the direct obBect
of the verb &donated.&
,lthough they looked everywhere for e'tra coies
of the maga$ine# they found none.
Rere too the indefinite ronoun functions as a
direct obBect* &none& is the direct obBect of
&found. -ake sure you give everyone a coy of the
amended bylaws.
(n this e'amle# &everyone& is the indirect obBect
of the verb &give& "" the direct obBect is the noun
hrase &a coy of the amended bylaws.&
Give a registration ackage to each. Rere &each& is
the obBect of the reosition &to.&
C) Refle5ive Pronouns Qou can use a refle'ive
ronoun to refer back to the subBect of the clause
or sentence. The refle'ive ronouns are &myself#&
&yourself#& &herself#& &himself#& &itself#&
&ourselves#& &yourselves#& and &themselves.& Dote
each of these can also act as an intensive ronoun.
9ach of the highlighted words in the following
sentences is a refle'ive ronoun*
,slam give themselves insulin shots several times a
day.
The Eaved often does the hotocoying herself so
that the secretaries can do more imortant work.
,fter the arty# ( asked myself why ( had fa'ed
invitations to everyone in my office building.Gul
usually remembered to send a coy of his e"mail to
himself.
,lthough the landlord romised to aint the
aartment# we ended u doing it ourselves.
D) 6ntensive Pronouns ,n intensive ronoun is a
ronoun used to emhasi$e its antecedent.
(ntensive ronouns are identical in form to
refle'ive ronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences
are intensive ronouns*
( myself believe that aliens should abduct my
sister.
The Prime -inister himself said that he would
lower ta'es.
They themselves romised to come to the arty
even though they had a final e'am at the same
time.
What 6s 0n 0d=ective?
,n adBective modifies a noun or a ronoun by
describing# identifying# or !uantifying words. ,n
adBective usually recedes the noun or the ronoun
which it modifies.
(n the following e'amles# the highlighted words
are adBectives*
The truck"shaed balloon floated over the
treetos.
-rs. Daheela aered her kitchen walls with
hideous wall aer.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
The back room was filled with large# yellow rain
boots.
,n adBective can be modified by an adverb# or
by a hrase or clause functioning as an adverb.
(n the sentence
-y husband knits intricately atterned cotton.
for e'amle# the adverb &intricately& modifies the
adBective &atterned.&
)ome nouns# many ronouns# and many
articile hrases can also act as adBectives.
(n the sentence
,slam listened to the muffled sounds of the radio
hidden under her illow.
For e'amle# both highlighted adBectives are ast
articiles.
6nflection%
-ost of the adBective take inflection for grad
ability with a three term aradigm. For e'amle.
PositivePPPPPPPPPP%omarativePPPPPPPPPPPPP
PP)uerlative.
Tall Taller
Tallest
Qoung Qounger
Qoungest.
The comarative and )uerlative degree may be
e'ressed either inflectionally or analytically i.e.
more@most.
3unction%
,dBective function as head of adBective hrase.
Hroadly they have three main functions.
04 ,ttributive /54 Predicative /64 Post osed
,ttributive*
8here it comes before a noun or verb. e.g. / ,n
intelligent girl4.
Predicative*
8here it comes after the Serb. e.g. /The girl
is intelligent4.
Post osed*
Post osed comes immediately after the noun
and before Serb.e.g./)ome one intelligent
ublished the book4.
(ependents%
-ost adBective are gradable. )yntactically they
take degree e'ression as deendents i.e. Too# 9r#
9st# -ore# -ost# a bitetc
,ll adBective are not gradable# and such adBectives
reresent categorical rather then scale roerties.
For e'amle# /04 ,tomic )cientist /54 -edical
)tudent.
Le'ical -orhology*
, number of suffi'es derive adBective from nouns
e.g.
)uffi'es. Douns.PPPPP,dBectives.
0.
FullPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPHeautyPPPPPPPPPPPP
Heautiful.
5.
LessPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP-otionPPPPPPPPPPP
P-otionless.
6.
LyPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPFriendPPPPPPPPPPPP
Friendly.
C.
LikePPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP%hildPPPPPPPPPPPPP
%hild like.
3.
,lPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPoliticsPPPPPPPPPPPP
Political.
What is an 0dver:?
,n adverb can modify a verb# an adBective# another
adverb# a hrase# or a clause. ,n adverb indicates
manner# time# lace# cause# or degree and answers
!uestions such as &how#& &when#& &where#& &how
much&.
8hile some adverbs can be identified by
their characteristic &ly& suffi'# most of them must
be identified by untangling the grammatical
relationshis within the sentence or clause as a
whole. ?nlike an adBective# an adverb can be found
in various laces within the sentence.(n the
following e'amles# each of the highlighted words
is an adverb*
The seamstress !uickly made the
mourning clothes.
(n this sentence# the adverb &!uickly& modifies the
verb &made& and indicates in what manner /or how
fast4 the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited atiently through a long
labour.
)imilarly in this sentence# the adverb &atiently&
modifies the verb &waited& and describes the
manner in which the midwives waited..
Rere the adverb &more& modifies the adverb
&e'editiously.&
?nfortunately# the bank closed at three today.
(n this e'amle# the adverb &unfortunately&
modifies the entire sentence.
The #i5 Types of 0dver:s
70dver:s of Manner * ,dverbs of manner
rovide information on how someone does
something. For e'amle* Eack drives very
carefully.
,dverbs of -anner* ,dverbs of manner are laced
after the verb or entire e'ression /at the end of
the sentence4. For e'amle* Their teacher seaks
!uickly.
@0dver:s of Time ,dverbs of time rovide
information on when something haens. For
e'amle* 8e+ll let you know our decision ne't
week.
,dverbs of Time* ,dverbs of time are laced after
the verb or entire e'ression /at the end of the
sentence4.For e'amle* )he visited her friends last
year.
80dver:s of 3reEuency * ,dverbs of fre!uency
rovide information on how often something
haens. For e'amle* They usually get to work at
eight o+clock. ,dverbs of Fre!uency* ,dverbs of
fre!uency are laced before the main verb /not
the au'iliary verb4. For e'amle* Re often goes to
bed late. 7o you sometimes get u earlyM
90dver:s of (egree * ,dverbs of degree rovide
information concerning how much of something is
done. For e'amle* They like laying golf a lot.
,dverbs of 7egree* ,dverbs of degree are laced
after the verb or entire e'ression /at the end of
the sentence4. For e'amle* )he+ll attend the
meeting as well.
A0dver:s of Comment* ,dverbs of comment
rovide a comment# or oinion about a situation.
For e'amle* Fortunately# there were enough
seats left for the concert. ,dverbs of %omment*
,dverbs of comment are laced at the beginning of
a sentence. For e'amle* Luckily# ( was able to
come to the resentation
B0dver: 3ormation+,dverbs are usually formed
by adding +"ly+ to an adBective.For e'amle* !uiet "
!uietly# careful " carefully# careless G carelessly
0d=ectives ending in F.leF change to F.lyF
For e'amle* ossible " ossibly# robable "
robably# incredible " incredibly
0d=ectives ending in F.yF change to F.ilyF .
For e'amle* lucky " luckily# hay " haily# angry "
angrily
0d=ectives ending in F.icF change to F.icallyF .
For e'amle* basic " basically# ironic " ironically#
scientific " scientifically some adBectives are
irregular. The most common irregular adverbs are*
good " well# hard " hard# fast "fast
Con=unctive 0dver:s%
Qou can use a conBunctive adverb to Boin two
clauses together. )ome of the most common
conBunctive adverbs are &also#& &conse!uently#&
&finally#& &furthermore#& &hence#& &however#&
&incidentally#& &indeed#& &instead#& &likewise#&
&meanwhile#& &nevertheless#& &ne't#& &nonetheless#&
&otherwise#& &still#& &then#& &therefore#& and &thus.&
, conBunctive adverb is not strong enough to Boin
two indeendent clauses without the aid of a
semicolon.
6nllection%
-ost adverb are gradable# but maBority of them
take erihrastic forms /-ore@ -ost4 e.g.
)lowlyPPPPPPPPmore slowlyPPPPPPPPPPPPPmost
slowly.
)imilarly most of them take inflection like
adBective e.g. soonPPPsoonerPPPPsoonest.
FastPPPPPPPFasterPPPPPPPPFastest.
3unction%
-any adverbs are gradable# like adBectives e.g.
Sery slowlly# more slowly. -ost slowly# but they are
different from each other between of their
function in hrases.
Le'ical -orhology*
, large number of adverbs derived from adBective
by suffi'ation of ly.e.g
Ly /suffi'4 PPPPPPPPP)low
/adBective4PPPPPPPPPPPPPP)lowly./adverb4
What is a Preposition?
, reosition links nouns# ronouns and hrases to
other words in a sentence. The word or hrase
that the reosition introduces is called the obBect
of the reosition.
, reosition usually indicates the temoral#
satial or logical relationshi of its obBect to the
rest of the sentence as in the following e'amles*
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
)he held the book over the table.
)he read the book during class.
(n each of the receding sentences# a reosition
locates the noun &book& in sace or in time. ,
reositional hrase is made u of the reosition#
its obBect and any associated adBectives or
adverbs. , reositional hrase can function as a
noun# an adBective# or an adverb. The most common
reositions are &about#& &above#& &across#&
&after#& &against#& &along#& &among#& &around#& &at#&
&before#& &behind#& &below#& &beneath#& &beside#&
&between#& &beyond#& &but#& &by#& &desite#& &down#&
&during#& &e'cet#& &for#& &from#& &in#& &inside#&
&into#& &like#& &near#& &of#& &off#& &on#& &onto#& &out#&
&outside#& &over#& &ast#& &since#& &through#&
&throughout#& &till#& &to#& &toward#& &under#&
&underneath#& &until#& &u#& &uon#& &with#& &within#&
and &without.&
What is a Con=unction?
Qou can use a conBunction to link words# hrases#
and clauses# as in the following e'amle*
( ate the i$$a and the asta.
%all the movers when you are ready.
Co.coordinating Con=unctions
Qou use a co"coordinating conBunction /&and#&
&but#& &or#& &nor#& &for#& &so#& or &yet&4 to Boin
individual words# hrases# and indeendent
clauses. Dote that you can also use the
conBunctions &but& and &for& as reositions.
(n this e'amle# the co"coordinating conBunction
&for& is used to link two indeendent clauses.
#u:ordinating Con=unctions
, subordinating conBunction introduces a
deendent clause and indicates the nature of
the relationshi among the indeendent
clause/s4 and the deendent clause/s4.
The most common subordinating conBunctions are
&after#& &although#& &as#& &because#& &before#&
&how#& &if#& &once#& &since#& &than#& &that#&
&though#& &till#& &until#& &when#& &where#& &whether#&
and &while.&
9ach of the highlighted words in the following
sentences is a subordinating conBunction*
,fter she had learned to drive# ,lice felt more
indeendent.
The subordinating conBunction &after& introduces
the deendent clause &,fter she had learned to
drive.&
*6f the paper?ork arrives on time" your
cheEue ?ill :e mailed on Tuesday+
)imilarly# the subordinating conBunction &if&
introduces the deendent clause &(f the aerwork
arrives on time.&
Gerald had to :egin his thesis over
again ?hen his computer crashed+
The subordinating conBunction &when& introduces
the deendent clause &when his comuter crashed.&
What is an 6nter=ection?
,n interBection is a word added to a sentence to
convey emotion. (t is not grammatically related to
any other art of the sentence. Qou usually follow
an interBection with an e'clamation mark.
(nterBections are uncommon in formal academic
rose# e'cet in direct !uotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences
are interBections*
Fuch# that hurtV
Fh no# ( forgot that the e'am was today.
ReyV Put that downV
( heard one guy say to another guy# &Re has a new
car# ehM&
( don+t know about you but# good lord# ( think
ta'es are too highV
#u:=ect * The subBect is the agent of the sentence
in the active voice. it is
The erson or thing that does the action of the
sentence# and it normally
Precedes the verbThe subBect may be a single
noun.9'amle* Coffee is delicious .
Milk contains calcium .
The subBect may be a noun hrase. , noun hrase
is a grou of words
9nding with a noun. /(t cannot begin with a
reosition.4
9'amle* That new# red car is EohnOs.
-ini"test*
0. George likes boats.
5. -ary# Eohn# George# and ( went to a restaurant
last night.
6. The weather was very bad yesterday.
C. The chemistry rofessor cancelled class today.
3. The bank closed at two oOclock.
(n some sentences there is not a true subBect.
Rowever# it and there can often
,ct as seudo"subBects and should be considered
as subBect when rules call for
-oving the subBect of a sentence.
It is a nice day today.
There was a fire in that building last month.
There were many students in the room.
It is raining right now.
Complement * %omlement comletes the verb. (t is
similar to the subBect
Hecause it is usually a noun or noun hrase.
however# it generally follows the
Serb when the sentence is in the active voice.
9'amles of comlements*
Eohn bought a cake yesterday. /8hat did Eohn buyM4
Eill was driving a new car. /8hat was Eill drivingM4
Re wants to drink some water. /8hat does he want to
drinkM
)he saw Asif the movies last night. /8hom did she
see at the -oviesM4
They called Mary yesterday. /8hom did they callM4
Re was smoking a cigarette. /8hat was he smokingM4
Modifier * , modifier tells the time# lace# or
manner of the action. Sery
Fften it is a reositional hrase. , reositional
hrase is a grou of words
That begins with a reosition and ends with a
noun.
9'amle of reositional hrases*
(n the morning# at the university# on the table
, modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial
hrase.
Last night# hurriedly# ne't year# outdoors#
yesterday
9'amle of modifiers*
,slam bought a book at the bookstore. /8here did
,slam buy a bookM4
,rif was swimming in the pool yesterday. /8here was
,rif swimmingM4
,nd /8hen was Eill swimmingM4
)he drove the car on Main Street. /8here did she
driveM4
8e ate dinner at seven oclock. /8hen did we eat
dinnerM4
Dote* The modifier normally follows the
comlement# but not always.
Rowever# the modifier# esecially when it is a
reositional hrase# usually
%annot searate the verb and the comlement.
The 2oun Phrase
The noun hrase is a grou of words that ends with
a noun. (t can contain
7eterminers /the# a# this# etc.4# adBectives#
adverbs# and nouns. (t cannot begin
8ith a reosition. Remember that both subBects
and comlements are generally noun hrases. %ount
and non"count nouns* (t is ossible# however# to
count some no count
Douns if the substance is laced in a countable
container.
Glass of milk"one glass of milk# two glasses of milk
W
What is Tense?
Tense /noun4* a form of a verb used to indicate the
time# and sometimes the continuation or
comleteness# of an action in relation to the time
of seaking. Time4.Tense is a method that we use in
9nglish to refer to timeNast# resent and future.
-any Languages use tenses to talk about time.
Fther languages have no tenses# but of course
they can still talk about time# using different
methods. )o# we talk about time in 9nglish with
tenses. <ut# and this is a very big :ut* 8e can also
talk about time without using tenses /for e'amle#
going to is a)ecial construction to talk about the
future# it is not a tense4 Fne tense does not always
talk about one time.Rere are some of the terms
used in discussing verbs and tenses.
Mood
7) 6ndicative mood e'resses a simle statement
of fact# which can be ositive /affirmative4 or
negative
( like coffee.
( do not like coffee.
@) 6nterrogative mood e'resses a !uestion.8hy
do you like coffeeM
8) 6mperative mood e'resses a command .#it
do?n!
9) su:=unctive mood e'resses what is imagined
or wished or ossible
XThe President ordered that he attend the
meeting.
Voice
Soice shows the relationshi of the subBect to the
action. (n the active voice# the subBect does the
action /cats eat mice4. (n the passive voice# the
subBect receives the action /mice
,re eaten by cats4. ,mong other things# we can use
voice to hel us change the focus of
,ttention.
Aspect
The action or state referred to by the verb is
comleted /and often still relevant4#
For e'amle*
( have emailed the reort to Eane. /so now she
has the reort4
/This is called perfective aspect# using erfect
tenses.4
The action or state referred to by the verb is in
rogress or continuing /that is#
?ncomleted4# for e'amle*
8e are eating.
/This is called progressive aspect# using
rogressive :continuous; tenses.4
(eterminer%
, determiner is a word that determines noun use.
it is a word such is *a" the" this" each" some"
either" my" and" your"+ that aears before any
descritive and decides the kind of reference that
a man has.
There are three classes of determiners*
0. Pre.determiner%
Pre"determiner comes before a determiner. or in
more technical 8ord Pre"determiner a word which
roceeds and !ualifies another determiner# as
both# dose in# both my hand
9'amles* /all# both# half# double# twice# three#
one"third etc4
0. ,ll this money
5. Hoth my hand.
6. Ralf this milk.
5. Central determiner%
%entral determiner comes in the center of a re"
determiner# such as an# the# those
9'amles*
0. ,ll those work.
5. Hoth these sisters.
8 Post.determiner%
These are items which follow determiner but
roceed adBectives# such as other# two# first#
There are three tyes of ost"determiner /04
%ardinal Dumerals /54 Frdinal Dumerals /64
<uantifiers.
E5amples%
0. %ardinal Dumerals /Fne# two threeWW..4
5. Frdinal Dumerals /first# second# thirdW..4
6. <uantifiers. /-any# few# several# much#
little#4
The ;er: Phrases%
, verb hrase consists of a main verb receded by
one or more heling verbs. These heling verbs
work together with main verb as a unit. For
e'amle
0. (s leaving. 5. Rad seemed. 6. -ay become. .C.
%ould Bum.3.)hould moveM 9tc
(irect ,:=ect%
, direct obBect is the word or hrase in the
sentence that indicates somebody or something
directly affected by the action of the verb# such
as %at in )he fed the cat
6ndirect ,:=ect%
(ndirect is the erson or thing action is done to. (f
function as the reciient of the action shown by a
verb and its direct obBect# for e'amle the cat in
she gave the cat a meal
,:=ect Complement%
,n obBect comlement is the comlement that
refers to obBect. (t is a noun# Pronun#or adBective
that is a comlement of a verb and !ualifies its
direct obBect# For e'amle#
,ngry in Re make me angry
0. Re made them hay.
5. They elected him their leader.
Conditional #imple
Use
8e use it for something that might haen.
8e use it in the main clause in tye (( of the
%onditional sentences.
Form
?ould Y infinitive
Example
( ?ould fly to )ydney if ( had the money.
Conditional Progressive
Use
8e use it for something that might haen.
8e use it in the main clause in tye (( of the
%onditional sentences.
Form
?ould Y :e Y infinitive Y ing
Example
( ?ould :e going home if you came with me.
Conditional Perfect
Use
8e use it for something that might have haened
in the ast.
8e use it in the main clause in tye ((( of the if
clauses.
Form
?ould Y have Y past participle
past participle "Z /infinitive Y .ed4 or /8rd
column of the table of the irregular verbs4
Example
( ?ould have phoned you if you hadn+t switched
your mobile off.
Conditional Perfect Progressive
Use
8e use it for something that might have haened
in the ast.
8e use it in the main clause in tye ((( of the if
,clauses.
Form
?ould Y have Y :een Y infinitive Y ing
Example
-aria ?ould have :een singing if there had been
more eole in the church.
Conditional Clause and Main Clause
(f ( have
enough money#
( will go to
Eaan.
conditional
clause
main
clause
( will go to
Eaan#
main
clause
if ( have
enough money
conditional
clause
3irst" #econd" and Third Conditional
7 3irst
conditional%
(f ( have enough money# ( will go
to Eaan.
@ #econd
conditional%
(f ( had enough money# ( would go
to Eaan.
8 Third
conditional%
(f ( had had enough money# (
would have gone to Eaan.

Conditional
clause
Main clause
7 (f Y Present
Tense
will Y inf @ resent
tense @ imerative
a. (f you hel me with the dishes /if Y
res4#
( will hel you with your homework.
/will Y inf4
b. (f the sum of the digits of a number
is divisible by three#
the number is divisible by three
/Pres. tense4
c. (f you see -r Fo' tonight# tell him (
am ill. /imerative4.
@ (f Y Past
Tense
would Y inf
8 (f Y Past
Perfect Tense
would have Y ast
articile
8e do not normally use will or would in the
conditional clause#
only in the main clause.
Uses of the Conditional
7 3irst conditional
a. Dature* Fen condition# what is said
in the condition is ossible.
b. Time* This condition refers either
to resent or to future time.
e.g. (f he is late# we will have to go
without him.
(f my mother knows about this# we
are in serious trouble.
@ #econd conditional
a. Dature* unreal /imossible4 or
imrobable situations.
b. Time* resent. the T9D)9 is ast#
but we are talking about the
resent# now.
e.g. (f ( knew her name# ( would tell
you.
(f ( were you# ( would tell my
father.
Compare: (f ( become resident# ( will
change the social security system.
/)aid by a residential candidate4
(f ( became resident# ( would
change the social security system.
/)aid by a schoolboy* imrobable4
(f we win this match# we are
!ualified for the semifinals.
(f ( won a million ounds# ( would
sto teaching. /imrobable4
8 Third conditional
a. Dature* unreal
b. Time* Past /so we are talking about
a situation that was not so in the
ast.4
e.g. (f you had warned me# ( would
not have told your father about
that arty./Hut you didn+t# and (
have4.
Remember!
7 The conditional construction does not
normally use will or would in if"
clauses. EXCEPTION: (f will or would e'ress
willingness# as in re!uests# they can be used in
if"clauses.
e.g. (f you will come this way# the manager will
see you now.
( would be grateful if you would give me a
little hel.
/[ \ lease# come this way. lease# give me...4
@ For the second
conditional# were relaces was:
(f ( were a rich man...
8 ,fter if# we can either use &some/"one#
"where...4& or &any/"one# "where...4.
(f ( have some sare time ne't weekend....or *
(f ( have any sare time...
9 (nstead of if not, we can use unless.
e.g. (+ll be back tomorrow unless there is a
lane strike.
Re+ll accet the Bob unless the salary is too
low.
AThere is a &mi'ed tye& as well# for the
resent results of an unreal condition in the
ast*
(f Y Past Perfect " would Y inf.
(f you had warned me :then;# ( would not be in
rison :now;.

3unctional English
Functional 9nglish is usage of the 9nglish language
re!uired to erform a secific function. This is
tyically taught as a foundation subBect as a good
command of 9nglish is often re!uired for academic
study and career rogression.
4etter
, character reresenting one or more of the
sounds used in seech. any of the symbols of an
alhabet.
Word
, single distinct meaningful element of seech or
writing# used with others /or sometimes alone4 to
form a sentence and tyically shown with a sace
on either side when written or rinted
#tructure
There are two striking features of language that
any scientific theory of this !uintessentially human
behavior must account for.
The first is that we do not all seak the same
language. This would be a shocking observation
were not so commonlace
The second striking feature of language is that
when you consider the sace of ossible languages#
most languages are clustered in a few tiny bands.
That is# most languages are much# much more
similar to one another than random variation would
have redicted.
For instance# in languages with fi'ed word
order# the subBect almost always comes before the
obBect. )SF
)ince we became aware of Bust how tightly the
variation in human language constrained is#
researchers have struggled to find an e'lanation.
Perhas the most famous account is
%homsky+s ?niversal Grammar hyothesis# which
argues that humans are born with innate knowledge
about many of the features of language /e.g.#
languages distinguish subBects and obBects4# which
would not only e'lain cross"linguistic universals
but also erhas how language learning gets off
the ground in the first lace. Fver the years#
?niversal Grammar has become increasingly
controversial for a number of reasons# one of
which is the arbitrariness of the theory
Language rocessing faces similar challenges. 8e
have different streams of information* what words
were uttered and what order they were uttered in.
(t+s easier to bind the order information to the
right word in )SF languages like 9nglish because
the subBect and obBect are far aart /there is a
verb in between4# much as the crowding roblem in
the e'amle above is ameliorated by sacing the
letters out*
The 3our #entence #tructures
7 #imple #entences
, simle sentence contains only one indeendent
clause.
,n indeendent clause is a grou of words /with a
subBect and a verb4 that e'resses a comlete
thought.
I drink coffee.
I drink coffee is an indeendent clause. (t contains a
subBect /I4 and a verb /drink4# and it e'resses a
comlete thought. Learn more about the simle
sentence here.
@ Compound #entences
, comound sentence contains at least two
indeendent clauses. These clauses are Boined by a
coordinating conBunction or a semicolon.
, coordinating conBunction is a word that glues
words# hrases# or clauses together.
She cooked and he cleaned.
She cooked is an indeendent clause. He cleaned is also
an indeendent clause. And is a coordinating
conBunction Boining the two indeendent
clauses. She cooked and he cleaned is a comound
sentence. Learn more about the comound
sentence here.
PsstV 8hen you Boin two indeendent clauses with
only a comma# it+s called a comma splice. ,void comma
slices.
8 Comple5 #entences
, comle' sentence contains a subordinate clause
and an indeendent clause.
, subordinate clause is a grou of words that has a
subBect and a verb but does not e'ress a
comlete thought.
I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast.
I washed the dishes is an indeendent clause. After I ate
breakfast is a deendent adverb clausemodifying the
verb washed. I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast is a
comle' sentence.
)ometimes# it can be hard for eole to tell the
difference between comound sentences and
comle' sentences. Qou can learn more telling the
difference here.
Learn more about the comle' sentence here.
9 Compound.Comple5 #entences
, comound"comle' sentence contains at least
two indeendent clauses and at least one
subordinate clause.
I would have purchased the cheese that you like,
but it was too expensive.
I would have purchased the cheese and it was too expensive are
both indeendent clauses. They are being Boined by
the conBunction but.
That you like is a deendent adBective
clause modifying the noun cheese. The whole
sentence is a comound"comle' sentence. Learn
more about the comound"comle' sentence here.
Phrases
, hrase is a grou of related words that does not
contain a subBect and a verb in combination.
Generally# a hrase is used in the sentence as a
single art of seech. (n this section we will be
concerned with reositional hrases# gerund
hrases# articiial hrases# and infinitive hrases.
7 Prepositional Phrases
The preposition is a single /usually small4 word or a
cluster of words that show relationshi between
the obBect of the reosition and some other word
in the sentence. )ome e'amles of single word
reositions* at, by, up, beneath, over, in, upon, to, under, of,
throughout. )ome hrasal reositions* according to, in
regard to, in spite of, by virtue of. The prepositional phrase, the
most common tye of hrase in 9nglish# begins with
a reosition
and is followed by a noun or ronoun# called the
obBect of the reosition# and any modifiers of the
obBect. Preosition modifiers obBect of the
reosition in my shiny# black urse according to
the syllabus over a dee river Preositional hrases
function in the sentence like adBectives or adverbs.
Dote the following* -uch of his money was made in
9uroe. /The first hrase is used as an adBective to
modify the ronoun much. the second is used as an
adverb to modify made.4 The color of the car on the
street clashes with my new suit. /Ff the car is
used as an adBective to modify the noun color; on the
street is used as an adBective to modify the noun
car. with my new suit is used as an adverb to modify
the verb clashes.4 8hen discussing the function of a
reositional hrase# we say that it has either an
,dBective Phrase /,dBP4 function or an ,dverbial
Phrase /,dvP4 function.
@ ;er: Phrases %
Three kinds of hrases make use of a verbal# a
word formed from a verb but
Functioning like a different art of seech. There
are three kinds of verbals* the gerund# the
articile# and the infinitive
a. Gerund Phrases
, gerund can be recogni$ed by the ending "ing#
either on a simle form /reading4# or on an au'iliary
/having read# being read# having been read4. To be a
gerund# one of these forms must be used as a noun
within the sentence""as a subBect# direct obBect#
subBect comlement# obBect of the reosition#
aositive# etc. 9'amles* )wimming is fun. Re
fears being failed. , gerund phrase consists of the
gerund us its modifiers and@or comlements. Dote
the following e'amles*
Re enBoys walking to school at dawn.
Re enBoys creating sentence diagrams.
Re enBoyed being selected outstanding student of
his class.
)tudying 9nglish grammar demands most of my
time.
Re was accused of having not read the book.
-y main activity is studying.
Remember# the gerund hrase can be used in a
sentence where you would normally use a noun or
noun hrase.
b. Particiial Phrases
The participle is identical in form with the gerund
forms /"ing ending4. in addition# there is a ast
articile form /studied# broken4 and a rogressive
form /having been studying4. The difference the
gerund and the articile is in use# or how it
functions within the sentence* the between gerund is
always used as a noun while the articile is used
as an adBective modifier. 9'amle* The inBured bird
clung to the swaying branch.
The participial phrase# consisting of the articile lus
its modifiers and@or comlements# can be used at
the beginning of the sentence# at the end of the
sentence# or within the sentence immediately
following the noun it modifies. 9'amles* Raving
once been a football coach# Hill could e'lain the
lay to us. The olice removed the man creating
the disturbance.
8 6nfinitive Phrases
,n infinitive is a verbal consisting of the simle stem
of the verb# generally receded by to/which is
called the sign of the infinitive4. 9'amles* to
study# to have studied# to be studying# to be
studied# to go# and to dance. ,n infinitive phrase
consists of an infinitive lus its modifiers and@or
comlements. (nfinitive
Phrases may be used a nouns# adBectives# or
adverbs. Dote the following e'amles* To leave the
arty early will be imossible. /Doun subBect4
8anted to give )alam a second chance. /Doun
direct obBect
( am hay to make your ac!uaintance. /,dverb
modifier4
Clause
, clause is a combination of words containing a
subBect and a verb. (f the clause can stand by
itself as a sentence# it is called an indeendent
clause. (f it cannot stand alone# it is called
deendent /or subordinate4 clause. 8e will be
concerned here with several tyes of deendent
clauses. , deendent clause contains a subBect and
a verb# but it functions as a single art of seech
/as an adBective# an adverb# or a noun4 within the
sentence. Dote the following e'amles* -r. Eones
announced that he had resigned. /noun direct
obBect4
( must leave when the bell rings. /adverb4
8hen ( will be leaving is not yet clear. /noun
subBect4
The test that ( Bust took was easy. /adBective4
7 2oun Clauses
8hen a deendent clause is used as a noun it is
called a noun clause. -ost noun clauses are used as
subBects# as direct obBects# as subBect
comlements# and as obBects of reositions. Dote
the following*
8hat he told us is very convincing. /subBect4
Re believes whatever is told to him. /direct obBect4
This is what he told me. /subBect comlement4
Give it to whoever oens the door. /obBect of the
reosition4
The words that serve as subordinators of noun
clauses are conBunctions /that# if# whether4.
ronouns /who, whom, what, which , whoever, whatever,
whichever4. adBectives /whose, which , what). and adverbs
/when, where, why, how4. The subordinating word always
stands at or near the beginning of the clause. The
conBunction that is !uite commonly not e'ressed in
a noun clause* ( hoe /that4 you are mistaken.
@ 0d=ective Clauses
,n adBective clause modifies or limits or oints out
a noun or ronoun. The normal osition for an
adBective clause is immediately following the noun
or ronoun it modifies*
Re bought one of those houses that have Bust been
built in )ilverlake.
( like a man who has lenty of initiative.
The car is one that you can be roud to drive.
The subordinating words that connect adBective
clauses to the words they modify are called
elatives /hence these are often called relative
clauses4. The relative is a kind of substitute for
the noun or ronoun being modified. Dearly all
adBective clauses will use who# whom# that# which#
whose# where# when# or why as subordinators.
8 0dver:ial Clauses
,n adverbial clause may come before# after# or in
the interior of a main clause# but they are used like
adverbs. they describe the action of the main
clause by telling certain things about it. Like
adverbs# adverbial clauses may modify verbs#
adverbs# or adBectives. The use of adverbial
clauses# together with some of their most common
conBunctions are listed below*
Time /when, before, after, since, while, until, as4
Qou must not talk while you eat.
-anner /as, as if, as though4
Place /where, wherever)
8e arted where the aths searated.
Result /that, so that4
Re was so late that he might have missed the
lecture.
%ause /because, since, as4
)he !uit school because her mother was ill.
Purose /that, in order that)
They died that their countrymen might live.
%ondition /if, unless, provided that, on condition that4
)to me if you have heard this before.
%omarison /than, as4
Gold is heavier than iron /is4.
%oncession /although, though, even if4
( will trust him though he betray me.
ing& verb. (t is customary to refer to this whole
structure.
resent ro!ressive " Use
7) actions happening at the moment of speaking
Peter is reading a book now.
@) fi5ed plan in the near future
)he is going to Hasel on )aturday.
8) temporary actions
Ris father is ?orking in Rome this month.
9) actions happening around the moment of
speaking 'longer actions)
-y friend is preparing for his e'ams.
A) trends
-ore and more eole are using their comuters to
listen to music.
B) repeated actions ?hich are irritating to the
speaker /with always# constantly# forever4
,ndrew is always coming late.
Form
to :e 'am" are" is) Y infinitive Y .ing
Examples#
$ am pla%in! &ootball#
$ am not pla%in! &ootball#
present continuous tense
The continuous and rogressive asects are
grammatical asects that e'ress incomlete
action or state in rogress at a secific time* they
are non"habitual# imerfective asects. (n the
grammars of many languages the two terms are
used interchangeably.
Rules ,u'iliary verb am or is or are is used in
sentence. 0st form of verb or base verb Y ing
/resent articile4 is used as main verb in
sentence.
)tructure of sentence

Positive #entence
] )ubBect Y au'iliary verb Y main verb"ing
/Present articile4 Y obBect
] )ubBect Y am@is@are Y /0st form of verb or
base verb Y ing4 Y obBect
(f the subBect is ( then au'iliary verb am is
used after subBect in sentence.
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer
name then au'iliary verb is is used after subBect
in sentence.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then au'iliary
verb are is used after subBect in sentence.
The articile ing is added to the 0st form of
verb i.e. going /go4 writing /write4
6 am ?riting a letter
Pakistan is developing
#entence
] )ubBect Y au'iliary verb Y not Y main verb"ing
/Present articile4 Y obBect
] )ubBect Y am@is@are Y not Y /0st form of verb
Y ing4 Y obBect
.
6nterrogative #entences
] ,u'iliary verb Y )ubBect Y main verb"ing
/Present articile4 Y obBect
] ,m@is@are Y )ubBect Y /0st form of verb or
base verb Y ing4 Y obBect
For making interrogative sentences# the sentence
is started with au'iliary verb rather than utting
au'iliary verb inside the sentence. (f the subBect
is ( the sentence starts with au'iliary verb am.
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer
name the sentence starts with au'iliary verb is.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural the sentence
starts with au'iliary verb are.
(s she is loughing at me.
(s he is going to school.
Present Perfect Tense

(t is used to e'ressed an action which haened
or comleted in ast but usually the action which
haened or comleted at a short time before now
/near ast4 not a very long time before now.
)ecific time such as two years ago# last week or
that day is usually not used in the sentences of in
this tense. (t means that this tense e'resses the
action whose time when it haened# is not e'actly
secified but it sounds to refer to some action
that haened or comleted in near ast.
Rules* ,u'iliary verb has or have is used in
sentence. 6rd form of verb /ast articile4 is used
as main verb in sentence.

)tructure of )entence
Positive
] )ubBect Y ,u'iliary verb Y main verb /ast
articile4 Y )ubBect
] )ubBect Y has@have Y 6rd form of verb or
ast articile Y subBect
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer
name then au'iliary verb has is used after
subBect in sentence.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then au'iliary
verb have is used after subBect in sentence.
9'amle
( have eaten meal.
)he has washed the clothes.
2egative
] )ubBect Y ,u'iliary verb Y DFT Y main verb
/ast articile4 Y )ubBect
] )ubBect Y has@have Y DFT Y 6rd form of
verb or ast articile Y subBect
Rules for using au'iliary verb has or have in
negative sentence are same as mentioned above.
)he has not washed the clothes.
( have not eaten the meal.
6nterrogative
] ,u'iliary verb Y )ubBect Y main verb /ast
articile4 Y )ubBect
] Ras@have Y )ubBect Y 6rd form of verb or
ast articile Y subBect
(nterrogative sentence starts with au'iliary verb.
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer
name then the sentence starts with au'iliary verb
has.
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then the
sentence starts with au'iliary verb have.
Rave ( eaten the mealM
Ras she washed the clothesM
Future %ontinuous tense

(t is used to e'ress a continued or an ongoing
action in future. For e'amle# ( will be waiting for
you tomorrow# it conveys ongoing nature of an
action /waiting4 which will occur in future.

Rules. ,u'iliary verb will be is used in sentence.
0st form of verb Y ing /resent articile4 is used
as main verb in sentence.

)tructure of sentence
Positive sentence
] )ubBect Y au'iliary verb Y main verb /resent
articile4 Y obBect
] )ubBect Y will beY 0st form of verb or base
formYing /resent articile4 Y obBect
E5amples
Qou will be feeling well tomorrow.
( will be felling well tomorrow.
2egative sentence
] )ubBect Y not between au'iliary verbsY not
Y main verb /resent articile4 Y obBect
] )ubBect Y will not be Y 0st form of verb or
base formYing /resent articile4 Y
obBect
To make negative sentence not is written
between au'iliary verbs will and be in sentence.
E5amples

Qou will not be feeling well tomorrow.
( will not be feeling well tomorror.
6nterrogative sentence
] ,u'iliary verb Y subBect Y au'iliary verb Y main
verb /resent articile4 Y obBect
] 8ill Y subBect Y beY 0st form of verb or base
formYing /resent articile4 Y obBect
8ill you be feeling well tomorrowM
8ill ( be waiting for youM
Present Perfect %ontinuous tense

(t is used to e'ress a continued or ongoing action
that started in ast and is continued until now.
There will be a time reference# such as since
01=># for three hours etc from which the action
has been started. , sense of time reference is
found in these sentences which gives an idea that
action has been continued from some time in ast
till now. )uch time reference or sense of time
reference is the identity of Present erfect
continuous tense because it tells that action has
started from a articular time in ast. For
e'amle# Re has been reading in this school since
5>>3# so the it means that he has started his
education in this school in 5>>3 and he is studying
in this school till now.

2ote% (f there is not time reference or sense of
time reference then it is not Present erfect
continuous tense because there is no hint about
the time of action when it started in ast and it
seems Bust an ongoing action at resent time which
resembles resent %ontinuous tense. )o the
reference of time differentiates between Present
perfect continuous tense and Present continuous tense.

Rules% ,n au'iliary verb has been or have been is
used in sentence. 0st form of verb /base verb4 Ying
/resent articile4 is used as main verb in
sentence. )ince or for is used before the time
reference in sentence. (f the time reference is
e'actly known such as 0113# C FOclock then since
is used before the time in sentence. (f the time
reference is not e'actly known such as three
hours# si' years# four days# then for is used
before the time in sentence. Time reference such
as 6 hours or 3 days is not e'actly known because
we donOt know that about which three hours a day
is told in sentence or about which 3 days in a
month is told in sentence. 8hile the 0113 is
e'actly known time.

)tructure of sentence.
Positive #entence
] )ubBect Y ,u'iliary verb Y main verb /Present
articile4 Y FbBect Y Time reference
] )ubBect Y has been@have been Y /0st form of verb
or base verb Y ing4 Y obBect Y time reference
E5amples.
Re has been watering the lants for two
hours.
( have been studying since 6 FOclock

2egative #entence
] )ubBect YDot between the ,u'iliary verb Y main
verb /resent articile4 Y FbBect Y Time
reference
] )ubBect Y has not been@have not been Y /0st form
of verb or base verb Y ing4 Y obBect Y time
reference
To make negative sentence# the word not is
written between the au'iliary verbs# so it becomes
like has not been or have not been. The rule for
using au'iliary verb has been or have been in
negative sentences is as same as mentioned above.
E5amples.
Re has not been watering the lants for two
hours.
( have not been studying since 6 FOclock.

6nterrogative #entence
] ,u'iliary verb Y )ubBect Y ,u'iliary verb Y main
verb /resent articile4 Y obBect Y time
reference
] Ras@have Y )ubBect Y been Y /0st form of verb or
base verbYing4 Y obBect Y time reference
(nterrogative sentence starts with au'iliary verb.
(f the subBect is Re# )he# (t# singular or roer
name then the sentence starts with au'iliary verb
has and au'iliary verb been is used after
subBect
(f subBect is Qou# They or lural then the
sentence starts with au'iliary verb have and
been is used after subBect
Ras he been watering the lants for two hoursM
Rave ( been studying since 6 FOclockM
Ras he been watering the lants for two hoursM
Rave ( been studying since 6 FOclockM
Past erfect tense

(t is used to e'ress an action which has occurred
in ast /usually# a long time ago4 and action which
has occurred in ast before another action in ast.

For e'amle#
( had lived in ,merica. /The sense of time in this
sentence refers to a comleted action in ast and
esecially a long time ago4

The students had gone before the teacher came.
/The first art of sentence The student has gone
is sentence of ast erfect tense# it says about an
action which occurred before another action in
ast which is the teacher came. The second art
the teacher came is sentence of ast simle
tense. )o such a sentence which e'ress an action
in ast before another action in ast comrises two
arts where the first art of sentence is ast
erfect tense4

Rules ,u'iliary verb had is used in sentence. 6rd
form of verb /ast articile4 is used as main verb
in sentence

)tructure of sentence.
Positive sentence
] )ubBect Y au'iliary verb Y main verb /ast
articile4 Y obBect
] )ubBect Y had Y 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Y obBect
E5amples.
, thief had stolen my watch.
Re had taken the e'am lt year.
2egative sentence
] )ubBect Y au'iliary verb Y DFT Y main verb
/ast articile4 Y obBect
])ubBect Y had Y not Y 6rd form of verb or
ast articile Y obBect
Dot is written after au'iliary verb in negative
sentence.
E5amples.

, thief had not stolen my watch.
Re had taken the e'am last year
6nterrogative sentence
] ,u'iliary verb Y subBect Y main verb /ast
articile4 Y obBect
] Rad Y subBect Y 6rd form of verb or ast
articile Y obBect
E5amples.
Rad he taken the e'am last year
Rad a thief stolen my watchM
Rad he taken the e'am last yea
Future Perfect tense

(t is used to e'ress an action which will occur in
future and is thought to be comleted in future. (t
e'resses a sense of comletion of an action which
will occur in future. For e'amle# Eohn will have
gone tomorrow. (t shows a sense of comletion of
an action /go4 which will occur in future
/tomorrow4.

Rules ,u'iliary verb will have is used in
sentence. 6rd form of verb or ast articile form
of verb is used as main verb in sentence.

)tructure of sentence
Positive sentence
] )ubBect Y au'iliary verb Y main verb /ast
articile4 Y obBect
] )ubBect Y will have Y 6rd form of verb or
ast articile Y obBect
E5ample
0 6nformal communication* (nformal communication
is casual and sontaneous. (nformal communication
comes from communication activities outside of
those formally learned through disciline or at
school through education# or in business through
related e'eriences and formal training. (t comes
from the social communication of home family
culture# casual conversations and graevines#
rumors# inter"relational activities outside of the
formal or ublic arenas. 8e do not behave the
same way at work as we do at home or at lay. (
always say that eole are at their best at work.
8e really don+t know someone until we+ve stayed
with them outside of work for a few days "" or
even a few hours with some eole. (nformal
communication may not be as reliant as formal
communication. (nformal communication may be
vulnerable to being decetive and imrecise in its
casualness " "consciously or unconsciously. (n an
informal setting# the !uality of communication may
be affected by the more rela'ed or careless
attitude or behavior. (nformal communication is
what takes lace without the formal addition of
conventions and ceremonies. (n order to
understand the difference between formal and
informal communication# we need to look at both
and comare some of the variances between the
two. )o let+s now take a look at formal
communication.
@3ormal communication% Formal communication is
more thought"out and reared from learned
e'eriences or organi$ed training that resent
rules and conventions authorities by business and
formal eti!uette. 8ith formal communication# more
accountability is e'ected. (n an organi$ational
setting# such as business# cororations or
associations and the like# communication is
connected with official status"!uo or rotocols of
the formal channels of structure and comany
culture which the line of manager@subordinate
reorting system is e'ectedly acceted. (n
business# the different forms of formal
communication including deartmental
functionality# activities taking lace within meeting
and conference settings# verbal and written
communication through telehone# memos# letters
and bulletins# etc.# all add u to the formality. (n a
formal setting# eole take the time to recogni$e
the conse!uences of transmitting any wrong or
incomlete information. Rowever# both formal and
informal communication is found in an organi$ation#
deending on the level of business e'erience and
training one ossesses in his or her ersonal life.
,n organi$ation can make efficient use of informal
communication by confirming and affirming that
which is being communicated by the less trained
individual.
#i5 Golden Rules for E5cellent Comprehension
Reading comrehension strategies are tools that
everyone can use to hel understand the meaning
of what they read. %omrehension deends on the
comle'ity of the te't# or the sohistication of
vocabulary. )ome te'ts# like 7r. )euss &%at in the
Rat& are very simle to understand. Fther te'ts#
such as &The ,merican %onstitution& are very
difficult to comrehend as they contain comle'
words and long sentences. (n the last twenty years
there has been a focus in the business world to
simlify the use of language in all forms of
documentation. Legal contracts have become much
easier to read. Husiness letters are less rosaic
and more direct. Gone are the days where a single
sentence contained four hundred words and si'
comound clausesV These are the days of &lain
9nglish&. 7esite this trend# we are faced with the
onerous task of having to comrehend iles of
notes# books# emails# letters and reorts. ,lthough
the format may be simler# the amount of
information we have to digest in these modern
times is unrecedented.
Golden Rule 7 0nalyGe the 2on ;er:als
Hefore commencing reading you should take a few
moments to look at the non"verbal forms of
communication in the document you wish to
comrehend. The non"verbals are the messages
that are not contained in the words# but rather in
the design of the document. Qou should flick
through the document and first look at the
hotograhs# ictures# charts and grahs.
)crutini$e these items and build a mental icture
of what the document is saying. Pictures allow a
very raid way of comrehending material and the
human brain is tyically much better at
remembering ictures than words and verbal
concets. Look at the !uality of the document.
7oes it have a rofessional layoutM (s it well
structuredM Siewing the non verbals is an
imortant relude to the ne't hase as it reares
our mind to receive and analy$e information.
Golden Rule @ Gain an overvie?
, golden rule of great comrehension is to gain an
overview of the document you wish to read. This
means reading selective arts of the document
until you gain a ersective. Read the headings.
Look through the table of contents. Peruse the
inde'. Read highlighted oints. Read the first and
last aragrah. Read emhasi$ed words in the
document. 9'amine the cations on ictures#
grahs and tables. Fnce you have gained a mental
icture of the document you can then decide what
to do with itV
Golden Rule 8 Understand Purpose
8hen reading it is imortant to consider two
things. First# what knowledge do you want to
e'tract from the te'tM
7o you want to read the te't for enBoymentM
7o you wish to memori$e the informationM
7o you wish to gain an overview of the
informationM
7o you need to erform a detailed analysisM
7o you need to !uickly sift through the te't to
see if it contains any references to a articular
subBectM
7o you want an obBective reviewM
)econd# what did the author set out to achieve in
writing the te'tM
8ere they trying to describe somethingM
8ere they writing an informative te'tM
8ere they e'laining somethingM
,re they writing instructionsM
,re they trying to ersuade you to a oint of
viewM
Fnce you recogni$e what you need from the
information and also what the author.s urose was
for writing the te't you see if there is a match. (f
you are seeking an obBective review of a subBect
and it is clear that the author is trying to ersuade
you to one oint of view# the document is at cross
uroses with your needs. Qou could reBect the
document and seek a better source. (f you are
hay with the match# then you can roceed with
more detailed reading.
Golden Rule 9 (ecide on your response
Heing an effective reader is not about reading and
understanding everything that comes your way. (t
is about matching your resonse to information
with its relevance and imortance. The time"tested
=> @ 5> rule alies to reading too. Fnly 5>^ of
the information ushed your way needs to be read
with high comrehension. The other =>^ can be
thrown away# delegated to others to read# or ut
on file. Hecoming a great reader means identifying
the information that re!uires detailed# high
comrehension reading. From this information# you
might want to take notes# aly a colored
highlighter# and reare action items after you
read it. Qou may want to immediately make
calendar entries# reare emails or add toics to
your to"do list.
Golden Rule A /igh Comprehension Reading
,t this stage you have gained an overview of the
document by viewing the non verbals# and by
building a mental summary of the document by
reading the key arts. Qou have decided that this
document is imortant and is worth reading to gain
a first"rate understanding. Dow you are motivated.
-otivation is critical for great comrehension as
motivation leads to focus and concentration# both
of which are essential ingredients necessary to
engage your memory into .learning mode&. Qou need
to read it. Qou are ready. )tart readingV ,s you are
reading involve as many senses as you can in the
reading rocess. this will greatly contribute to
your understanding and recall*
make notes
draw ictures of the information# eg mind
mas
highlight key words
scribble notes in the margin
say out the key hrases to yourself
,dditionally# as you read you should build a
se!uence of ictures to reresent the information
you are reading. 8e remember ictures much
better than wordsV
Fnce you have finished reading attend to your
action items. send emails# udate your schedule#
add calendar items.
Golden Rule# /ighest Comprehension Reading
This last ste is a little known secret in the
business world. )ome information is so imortant
that it re!uires the very highest level of
comrehension and retention. (t may be
information that you need to use and aly every
day as a core art of your studies or career. The
secret to the highest comrehension reading is
reinforcement. (f you wait two or three days and
re"read the original information# your long term
comrehension and memory of the information will
be imroved significantly. 9ach time involve your
senses by making notes and voicing out the
information and ideas to yourself. (f you aly this
kind of reinforcement three or four times# you will
enBoy the highest comrehension.
Te'tual cohesion
0s ?e already mentioned" an authentic
translation involves more than =ust translating
sentences" ho?ever grammatically accurate
,ne has also to :ear in mind the interaction
:et?een these sentences" and the semantic
and stylistic implications of this interaction
<esides the thematic and information structure
of a te5t" another important element is
textual cohesion#
Cohesion can :e defined as the property that
distinguishes a seEuence of sentences that
form a discourse from a random seEuence of
sentences 6t is a series of le5ical"
grammatical and other relations ?hich provide
links :et?een the various parts of a te5t 6n
studying cohesion ?e should make a distinction
:et?een *linguistic cohesion+ and *pragmatic
cohesion+ or coherence
Consider the follo?ing e5changes%
'a)Hohn likes /elen
':)#he" ho?ever hates him
'c)(o you have coffee to go?
'd)Cream and sugar?
6n the first case the link :et?een 'a)
and ':) is provided :y
pronominaliGation" ?hich is a purely
linguistic link$ in the second" the
connection :et?een 'c) and 'd)
depends on kno?ledge and e5perience
of the real ?orld
4inguistic presupposition and pragmatic
presupposition differ in a similar manner
While in linguistic presupposition the
information can :e e5tracted from the
linguistic conte5t" in the case of pragmatic
presupposition" the information is deduced
from outside the linguistic conte5t
E5ample%
Hohn gave his :rother t?o :ooks
4inguistic presupposition% Hohn has a :rother
Possi:le pragmatic presupposition% HohnIs
:rother likes :ooks
We shall start from linguistic cohesion
/alliday and /asan have identified five kinds
of cohesive devices in English%
Reference# substitution# ellisis# conBunction and
le'ical cohesion
Reference
The term reference is traditionally used in
semantics to define the relationship :et?een a
?ord and ?hat it points to in the real ?orld"
:ut in /alliday and /asanIs model it simply
refers to the relationship :et?een t?o
linguistic e5pressions
6n the te5tual sense" though" reference occurs
?hen the readerJlistener has to retrieve the
identity of ?hat is :eing talked a:out :y
referring to another e5pression in the same
conte5t
References to the *shared ?orld+ outside a
te5t are called e5ophoric references
References to elements in the te5t are called
endophoric references
,nly the second ones are purely cohesive"
although :oth of them are important to create
te5ture
There are times ?hen the reference is not
e5plicit in the te5t itself" :ut it is o:vious to
those in a particular situation This is called
e5ophoric reference
For he's a joll% !ood &ellow
And so sa% all o& us#
0s outsiders" ?e donIt kno? ?ho the he is"
:ut" most likely" the people involved in the
cele:ration are a?are of the he that is :eing
referred to" and therefore" can find te5ture
in the sentences
0nother type of reference relation that is not
strictly te5tual is co"re&erence#
0 chain of co.referential items such as Mrs
Thatcher the Prime Minister The 6ron
4ady Maggie reveals that co.reference is
not strictly a linguistic feature :ut depends on
real.?orld kno?ledge Kou need some e5ternal
information to realiGe that the terms refer to
the same person
0t the level of te5tual co.reference" there is
a continuum of cohesive elements that can :e
used for referring :ack to an entity already
mentioned This continuum goes from full
repetition to pronominal reference" through
synonym" superordinate and general ?ord
6 sa? a :oy in the gardenThe :oy
'repetition)?as clim:ing a tree 6 ?as ?orried
a:out the child 'superordinate)The poor lad
'synonym)?as o:viously not up to it The idiot
'general ?ord) ?as going to fall if he
'pronoun)didnIt take care
Patterns of reference can vary considera:ly
:oth ?ithin and across languages Within the
same language" te5t type seems to :e an
important factor in determining the choice of
pattern
Each language has general preferences for
some patterns of reference as ?ell as specific
references according to te5t type
Endophoric referencing can :e divided into
three areas% anaphoric" cataphoric" and
esphoric
0naphoric refers to any reference that *points
:ack?ards+ to previously mentioned information
in te5t
Cataphoric refers to any reference that
*points for?ard+ to information that ?ill :e
presented later in the te5t
Esphoric is any reference ?ithin the same
nominal group or phrase" a 2P
that *is formally definite :ut in
fact realiGes presenting
rather than presuming referenceL 'pseudo.
definite 2P in unmarked e5istential
constructions)
Va!uel%, he saw the &orm o& a man#
$n a room outside the court he
tal(ed with the French prosecutin!
counsel#
3or cohesion purposes" anaphoric referencing is
the most relevant as it *provides a link ?ith a
preceding portion of the te5t+
3unctionally speaking" there are three main
types of cohesive references% personal"
demonstrative" and comparative
Personal reference keeps track of function
through the speech situation using noun
pronouns like *he" him" she" her+" etc and
possessive determiners like *mine" yours" his"
hers+" etc
0ll languages have certain linguistic items
?hich they use as a reference in the te5tual
sense
6n English the most common are personal
pronouns 'su:=ect and o:=ect)" determiners
and possessives
Third person pronouns are often used to
refer :ack" and sometimes for?ard" to a
participant that has already :een introduced
or ?ill :e introduced into the discourse
The prime minister has resigned He
announced his decision this morning
)ash and core six coo(in! apples# ut them into
a &ireproo& dish#
These are :oth cases of endophoric
reference ?hich signals to the reader that
he or she needs to look :ack in the te5t to
find its meaning
Unlike English" ?hich tends to rely heavily on
pronominal reference in tracing participants"
6talian" ?hich inflects ver:s for person and
num:er 'like 3rench" #panish and German)"
generally seems to prefer le5ical repetition or
co.reference
7emonstrative reference
(emonstrative reference keeps track of
information through location using pro5imity
references like *this" these" that" those"
here" there" then" and the+
$ alwa%s drin( a lot o& beer when $ am in
En!land# *here are man% lovel% pubs there#
*his is not acceptable
%omarative reference
Comparative reference keeps track of identity
and similarity through indirect references using
ad=ectives like *same" eEual" similar"
different" else" :etter" more+" etc and
adver:s like *so" such" similarly" other?ise"
so" more+" etc
A similar view is not acceptable#
)e did the same
+o the% said#
)ubstitution and ellisis
Whereas referencing functions to link semantic
meanings ?ithin te5t" su:stitution and ellipsis
differ in that they operate as a linguistic link
at the le5icogrammatical level #u:stitution
and ellipsis are used ?hen *a speaker or ?riter
?ishes to avoid the repetition of a le5ical item
and dra? on one of the grammatical resources
of the language to replace the item+

)ubstitution
There are three general ?ays of su:stituting
in a sentence% nominal" ver:al" and clausal 6n
nominal su:stitution" the most typical
su:stitution ?ords are *one and ones+ 6n
ver:al su:stitution" the most common
su:stitute is the ver: *do+ ?hich is sometimes
used in con=unction ?ith *so+ as in *do so+
,et's !o and see the bears# *he polar ones are over
on that roc(#
-id Mar% ta(e that letter. +he mi!ht have done#
6n clausal su:stitution" an entire clause is
su:stituted#
$& %ou/ve seen them so o&ten, %ou
!et to (now them ver% well#
$ believe so
Ever%one thin(s he/s !uilt%# $& so, no doubt he/ll
resi!n#
)e should reco!nise him when we see him#
0es, but supposin! not1 what do we do.
9llisis
Ellipsis 'Gero su:stitution) is the omission of
elements normally reEuired :y the grammar
?hich the speakerJ?riter assumes are o:vious
from the conte5t and therefore need not :e
raised
6f su:stitution is replacing one ?ord ?ith
another" ellipsis is the a:sence of that ?ord"
Lsomething left unsaidL Ellipsis reEuires
retrieving specific information that can :e
found in the preceding te5t
There are three types of ellipsis too%
nominal" ver:al" and clausal
'a) (o you ?ant to hear another song? 6 kno?
t?elve more MsongsN
':) #ue :rought roses and Hackie M:roughtN
lilies
'c) 6 ran A miles on the first day and D on the
second
0 translator needs only :e a?are that there
are different devices in different languages
for creating *te5ture+ This has clear
implications in practice Usually ?hat is
reEuired is re?orking the methods of
esta:lishing links to suit the te5tual norms of
the target language and of each genre
7iscourse markers and conBunctions
0 third ?ay of creating cohesion is through
discourse markers and con=unctions (iscourse
markers are linguistic elements used :y the
speakerJ?riter to ease the interpretation of
the te5t" freEuently :y signalling a relationship
:et?een segments of the discourse" ?hich is
the specific function of con=unctions They are
not a ?ay of simply =oining sentences Their
role in the te5t is ?ider that that" :ecause
they provide the listenerJreader ?ith
information for the interpretation of the
utterance$ that is ?hy some linguists prefer to
descri:e them as discourse markers
Con=unction acts as a cohesive tie :et?een
clauses or sections of te5t in such a ?ay as
to demonstrate a meaningful pattern :et?een
them" though con=unctive relations are not
tied to any
particular seEuence in the e5pression
Therefore" amongst the cohesion forming
devices ?ithin te5t" con=unction is the least
directly identifia:le relation
Con=unctions can :e classified according to
four main categories% additive" adversative"
causal and temporal
0dditive con=unctions act to structurally
coordinate or link :y adding to the
presupposed item and are signalled through
*and" also" too" furthermore" additionally+"
etc 0dditive con=unctions may also act to
negate the presupposed item and are signalled
:y *nor" andnot" either" neither+" etc
0dversative con=unctions act to indicate
*contrary to e5pectation+ and are signalled :y
*yet" though" only" :ut" in fact" rather+" etc
Causal con=unction e5presses *result" reason
and purpose+ and is signalled :y *so" then"
for" :ecause" for this reason" as a result" in
this respect" etc+
The last most common con=unctive category
is temporal and links :y signalling seEuence
or time #ome sample temporal con=unctive
signals are *then" ne5t" after that" ne5t
day" until then" at the same time" at this
point+" etc
The use of a con=unction is not the only
device for e5pressing a temporal or causal
relation 3or instance" in English a temporal
relation may :e e5pressed :y means of a ver:
such as &ollow or precede" and a causal
relation :y ver:s such as cause and lead
Moreover" temporal relations are not
restricted to seEuence in real time" they may
also reflect stages in the te5t 'e5pressed :y
&irst, second, third, etc#2
E5amples% time.seEuence
A&ter the battle, there was a snowstorm#
*he% &ou!ht a battle# A&terwards, it snowed#
*he battle was &ollowed b% a snowstorm#
0 more comprehensive list of con=unctions
could :e the follo?ing%
#ome languages 'like 6talian) tend to e5press
relations through su:ordination and comple5
structures ,thers 'like English)prefer to use
simpler and shorter structures and present
information in relatively small chunks
Whether a translation has to conform to the
source.te5t pattern of cohesion ?ill depend on
its purpose and the freedom the translator has
to reorganiGe information
Le'ical %ohesion
4e5ical cohesion differs from the other
cohesive elements in te5t in that it is non.
grammatical 4e5ical cohesion refers to the
*cohesive effect achieved :y the selection of
voca:ulary+ We could say that it covers any
instance in ?hich the use of a le5ical item
recalls the sense of an earlier one
The t?o :asic categories of le5ical cohesion
are reiteration and collocation
Reiteration is the repetition of an earlier
item" a synonym" a near synonym" a
superordinate or a general ?ord" :ut it is
not the same as personal reference" :ecause
it does not necessarily involve the same
identity
0fter the seEuence%
6 sa? a :oy in the gardenThe :oy
'repetition)?as clim:ing a tree 6 ?as ?orried
a:out the child 'superordinate)The poor lad
'synonym)?as o:viously not up to it The idiot
'general ?ord) ?as going to fall if he
'pronoun)didnIt take care
We could conclude :y saying% *<oys can :e
so silly+ This ?ould :e an instance of
reiteration" even though the t?o items ?ould
not :e referring to the same individual's)
0s ?e have already seen" collocation
pertains to le5ical items that are likely to :e
found together ?ithin the same te5t 6t
occurs ?hen a pair of ?ords are not
necessarily dependent upon the same
semantic relationship :ut rather they tend to
occur ?ithin the same le5ical environment
E5amples
,pposites 'manJ?oman" loveJhate" tallJshort)
Pairs of ?ords from the same ordered series
'days of the ?eek" months" etc)
Pairs of ?ords from unordered le5ical sets"
such as meronyms%
part.?hole ':odyJarm" carJ?heel)
part.part 'handJfinger" mouthJchin)
or
co.hyponyms ':lackJ?hite" chairJta:le)
0ssociations :ased on a history of co.
occurrence 'rain" pouring" torrential)
3ohn drove up in his old estate wa!on# *he car had
obviousl% seen a lot o& action# 4ne hubcap was
missin!, and the exhaust pipe was nearl% eaten up
with rust#
4e5ical cohesion is not only a relation :et?een
pairs of ?ords 6t usually operates :y means
of le5ical chains that run through a te5t and
are linked to each other in various ?ays
The notion of le5ical cohesion provides the
:asis for ?hat /alliday and /asan call
instantial meanin!
The importance of this concept for translators
is o:vious 4e5ical chains do not only provide
cohesion" they also determine the sense of
each ?ord in a given conte5t
3or e5ample" if it co.occurs ?ith terms such
as *universe" stars" gala5y" sun+" the ?ord
*earth+ must :e interpreted as *planet+ and
not as *ground+
6n a target te5t" it is not al?ays possi:le to
reproduce net?orks of le5ical cohesion ?hich
are identical to those of the source te5t" for
e5ample :ecause the target language lacks a
specific item" or :ecause the chain is :ased on
an idiom that cannot :e literally translated
'e5 6t ?as raining cats and dogs and the dogs
?ere :arking) 6n this case one has to settle
for a slightly different meaning or different
associations
Cohesion is also achieved :y a variety of
devices other than those ?e have mentioned
These include" for instance" continuity of
tense" consistency of style and punctuation
devices like colons and semi.colons ?hich" like
con=unctions indicate ho? different parts of
the te5t relate to each other
6n the approach to te5t linguistics :y de
<eaugrande O (ressler '7PD7)" te5t" oral or
printed" is esta:lished as a communicative
occurrence" ?hich has to meet seven standards
of te5tuality 6f any of these standards are
not satisfied" the te5t is considered not to
have fulfilled its function and not to :e
communicative
5ohesion and coherence are te5t.centred
notions Cohesion concerns the ?ays in ?hich
the components of the surface te5t 'the
actual ?ords ?e hear or see) are mutually
connected ?ithin a seEuence Coherence" on
the other hand" concerns the ?ays in ?hich
the components of the te5tual ?orld" ie the
concepts and relations ?hich underlie the
surface te5t" are relevant to the situation
The remaining standards of te5tuality are
user.centred" concerning the activity of
te5tual communication :y the producers and
receivers of te5ts%
$ntentionalit% concerns the te5t producerIs
attitude that the set of occurrences should
constitute a cohesive and coherent te5t
instrumental in fulfilling the producerIs
intentions
Acceptabilit% concerns the receiverIs attitude
that the set of occurrences should constitute
a cohesive and coherent te5t having some use
or relevance for the receiver
$n&ormativit% concerns the e5tent to ?hich the
occurrences of the te5t are e5pected vs
une5pected or kno?n vs unkno?n
+ituationalit% concerns the factors ?hich make
a te5t relevant to a situation of occurrence
$ntertextualit% concerns the factors ?hich make
the utilisation of one te5t dependent upon
kno?ledge of one or more previously
encountered te5ts
The a:ove seven standards of te5tuality are
called constitutive principles" in that they
define and create te5tual communication as
?ell as set the rules for communicating
There are also at least three regulative
principles that control te5tual communication%
the e&&icienc% of a te5t is contingent upon its
:eing useful to the participants ?ith a minimum
of effort$ its e&&ectiveness depends upon
?hether it makes a strong impression and has
a good potential for fulfilling an aim$ and its
appropriateness depends upon ?hether its o?n
setting is in agreement ?ith the seven
standards of te5tuality
/o? to ?rite a formal letter?
(t is very imortant# therefore# that your letters
have the desired effect on the reader. (n order to
achieve this# they should be*
in the correct format
short and to the oint
relevant
free of any grammatical or selling mistakes
olite# even if youOre comlaining
well resented
This guide will give some general advice on letter
writing and includes some samle letters.
(f you are relying to a letter it can be a good idea
to note how that letter has been formatted and
e'ressed.
1. Qour address# but not your name# usually
goes in the to right hand corner. Qou
would not
usually include your telehone number or
email address here# but this would be
ermissible.
2. The name and address of the erson
youOre writing to goes below this# on the
left. (f
you donOt have a secific name# always at
least try to ut some sort of title. Qou
should always# however# address the letter
to a articular erson if at all ossible.
3. The osition of the date is more fle'ible.
(t can go on the left or the right# usually
below
the addressee details. The format of the
date is also fle'ible. it could be written
3 ,ril 5>>6# 3th ,ril 5>>6# 3@C@>6 or
>3@>C@>6. ,void utting the day and
month the
other way round.
4. The salutation at the beginning of the
letter deends on whether or not you have
the
name of the erson.
(f you do# write 7ear -r. Fchs# 7ear -rs. Hae$#
7ear -iss Perhacs# or# if you donOt know
the marital status of a woman# or if she has
written this# 7ear -s. Hunyan. (t is ossible
to write 7ear Robert Fri or 7ear ,lison )tatton#
but many eole consider this
awkward. (f the erson has a secific title# use
this* 7ear 7r. Rammill.
(f you donOt know the name of the erson# you
would traditionally write 7ear )ir. This
is clearly somewhat se'ist# so many eole refer
7ear )ir@-adam or 7ear )ir or -adam.
The ending of the letter deends on how you have
started* see below.
5. (t is common now to ut the subBect of
the letter directly below the salutation.
This
would be in bold or underlined. The
urose is to give the reader an idea of
what the
letter is about before reading it# and to
be able to ass it on to a more
aroriate
erson if necessary.
(f you are relying to a letter which had a
reference /or ref.4 on it# you should reeat this
on your letter# robably on the same line as the
date# but on the other side of the age.
8rite Qour refrence.
6. The content of your letter should be as
short as ossible# divided into short# clear
aragrahs.
7. (t is common to end your letter with a
hrase such as ( look forward to hearing
from
you. (tOs FL to do this# but itOs a bit
meaningless.
8. To end the letter# you would normally
write Qours sincerely if you have started
the
letter with the name of the erson# or
Qours faithfully if you have started with
something like 7ear )ir.
<rief ,vervie? on the Essay Writing
Helow are brief summaries of each of the ten
stes to writing an essay. )elect the links for more
info on any articular ste# or use the blue
navigation bar on the left to roceed through the
writing stes. How To Write an Essay can be viewed
se!uentially# as if going through ten se!uential
stes in an essay writing rocess# or can be
e'lored by individual toic.
0. Research* Hegin the essay writing rocess by
researching your toic# making yourself an e'ert.
?tili$e the internet# the academic databases# and
the library. Take notes and immerse yourself in the
words of great thinkers.
5. ,nalysis* Dow that you have a good knowledge
base# start analy$ing the arguments of the essays
you+re reading. %learly define the claims# write out
the reasons# the evidence. Look for weaknesses of
logic# and also strengths. Learning how to write an
essay begins by learning how to analy$e essays
written by others.
6. Hrainstorming* Qour essay will re!uire insight of
your own# genuine essay"writing brilliance. ,sk
yourself a do$en !uestions and answer them.
-editate with a en in your hand. Take walks and
think and think until you come u with original
insights to write about.
C. Thesis* Pick your best idea and in it down in a
clear assertion that you can write your entire
essay around. Qour thesis is your main oint#
summed u in a concise sentence that lets the
reader know where you+re going# and why. (t+s
ractically imossible to write a good essay without
a clear thesis.
3. Futline* )ketch out your essay before
straightway writing it out. ?se one"line sentences
to describe aragrahs# and bullet oints to
describe what each aragrah will contain. Play
with the essay+s order. -a out the structure of
your argument# and make sure each aragrah is
unified.
2. (ntroduction* Dow sit down and write the essay.
The introduction should grab the reader+s
attention# set u the issue# and lead in to your
thesis. Qour intro is merely a buildu of the issue#
a stage of bringing your reader into the essay+s
argument.
(Note: The title and first paragraph are probably the most
important elements in your essay. This is an essay-writing point
that doesn't always sink in within the context of the classroom. In
the first paragraph you either hook the reader's interest or lose it. Of
course your teacher, who's getting paid to teach you how to write
an essay, will read the essay you've written regardless, but in the
real world, readers make up their minds about whether or not to
read your essay by glancing at the title alone.)
I. Paragrahs* 9ach individual aragrah should be
focused on a single idea that suorts your thesis.
Hegin aragrahs with toic sentences# suort
assertions with evidence# and e'ound your ideas in
the clearest# most sensible way you can. )eak to
your reader as if he or she were sitting in front of
you. (n other words# instead of writing the essay#
try talking the essay.
=. %onclusion* Gracefully e'it your essay by making
a !uick wra"u sentence# and then end on some
memorable thought# erhas a !uotation# or an
interesting twist of logic# or some call to action. (s
there something you want the reader to walk away
and doM Let him or her know e'actly what.
1. -L, )tyle* Format your essay according to the
correct guidelines for citation. ,ll borrowed ideas
and !uotations should be correctly cited in the
body of your te't# followed u with a 8orks %ited
/references4 age listing the details of your
sources.
0>. Language* Qou+re not done writing your essay
until you+ve olished your language by correcting
the grammar# making sentences flow# incoorating
rhythm# emhasis# adBusting the formality# giving it
a level"headed tone# and making other intuitive
edits. Proofread until it reads Bust how you want it
to sound. 8riting an essay can be tedious# but you
don+t want to bungle the hours of concetual work
you+ve ut into writing your essay by leaving a few
sliy misallings and ourly wordedd hra$ies..
Mr #yed 0lam 4ecturer in English Govt college
Pesha?ar ' Male)
M# in 4inguistics from <acha khan
University
M0'4iterature and 0pplied to 4inguistic
from 2UM44
<Ed and MEd from university Pesha?ar

9mail* )yedalam.khan_gmail.com
%ontact Do*Y156651C56I50