Anide

Public Personnel Management

^ _ . a , Reprints and permissions:
I rinin? SinCl sagepub.com/ iournalsPermissions.nav
D O I : I O .I 177/0091026013487124
SAGE
The Study of Competency-
Based Training and
Strategies in the Public
Sector: Experience
From Taiwan
Jui-Lan Wu'
Abstract
I n the priv ate and public sectors, competency-based training is a popular method
that focuses on improv ing employees' knowledge, abilities, skills, and organizational
performance. Yet, v ^orking in complex organizational env ironments, training
practitioners often neglect certain steps and principles. This article examines
competency-based training and strategies in Taiwan's public sector, from the
concept to the critical success factors in competency-based training. I t then suggests
some practices for training practitioners in the public sector.
Keywords
core competency, competency gap, competency-based training
"Competent employees don't remain competent forever. Skills deteriorate and can
become obsolete. That's why organizations spend billions of dollars each year on for-
mal training" (Stephen, 2001, p. 480). The term training, according to The ASTD
Reference Guide to Workplace Learning and Performance (American Society for
Training & Development, 2000), "is intended to build on individual knowledge, skills
and attitudes to meet present or future work requirements." Competency comprises the
specification of knowledge and skills. The application of knowledge and skills to the
standard of performance requires completing a task.
'Civ il Serv ice Protection and Training Conrimission, Taiv i/ an, Republic of China
Corresponding Author:
Jui-Lan Wu, Civ il Serv ice Protection and Training Connmission, No. I -3, Shihyuan Rd., Wenshan D istrict,
Taipei 11601, Taiwan, Republic of China.
Email: juilan_wu@yahoo.com.tw
260 Public Personnel Management 42(2)
In the 1980s, human resource development (HRD) infroduced competency-based
fraining, which was implemented worldwide later. Competency-based fraining aims to
not only improve employees' knowledge, abilities, and skills, but also upgrade their
organization's performance. In both the private and public sectors, competency-based
fraining is a popular method. However, since fraining often takes place in complex
organizational environments, it is common for fraining practitioners to neglect certain
steps and principles, especially in the public sector.
Purpose and Statennent of the Problem
Based on a literature review and content analysis, this article examines four research
problems related to competency-based training and strategies in the public sector:
Research Question 1: Why is competency-based fraining important? Why not fra-
ditional fraining?
Research Question 2: What are the critical success factors in competency-based
fraining in the public sector?
Research Question 3: What are the sfrategies for competency-based fraining in the
Taiwanese public sector?
Research Question 4: How can critical success factors and competency-based frain-
ing strategies be linked in the public sector?
The purpose of this article is to provide some practical suggestions for training
practitioners in the public sector by examining competency-based fraining and sfrate-
gies in Taiwan's public sector. It consists of four sections: The first presents the con-
cept and critical success factors of competency-based fraining, the second section
examines competency-based fraining and sfrategies in Taiwan's public sector, the
third section demonsfrates the research findings concerning the link between critical
success factors and practice sfrategy, and the last section elaborates research sugges-
tions for fraining practitioners in the public sector. Future research is also discussed in
this section.
Method and Data
This article is based on a literature review and the government documents that it uses
to analyze competency-based fraining and sfrategies in the public sector. The literature
used in this article was identified through a search of previous related studies.
The data selected from government documents comprise (a) official documents in
Cenfral Personnel Adminisfration' (CPA) websites, (b) interviews with two practitio-
ners in Taiwan's public sector who deal with government training affairs, (c) internal
meeting data provided by meeting participants, and (d) research reports commissioned
by the CPA and available in the library.
Wu 261
Literature Review
The Concept of Competency-Based Training
As the concepts and practices of competency-based training have recently been applied
to HRD policies in the private and public sectors, it is first necessary to understand the
definition of "competency-based." When searching for the origin of competency,
researchers generally cite McClelland's (1973) "Testing for Competence Rather Than
for Intelligence," an article that appeared in American Psychologist (pp. 423-447).
McClelland's concept of competency has been the key driver of the competency
movement and competency-based education. The term competency comprises the
specification of knowledge and skills, and the application ofthat knowledge and skill
to the standards of performance required in the workplace (Electrotechnology Training
Package [UEE07], 2011). In other words, it is important to know that "competency-
based training" not only improves employees' knowledge, abilities, skills, and atti-
tudes, but also prepares employees for reaching their organization's goals, and aligns
training and strategies with performance intervention.
To understand the differences between competency-based training and traditional
training, this paragraph introduces the definitions of both kinds of training. Training
differs fi-om education and employee development, both of which prepare people for
work and daily life. There are various types of training, including remedial/basic
skills, orientation, qualifying, second-chance, cross-training, retraining, and outplace-
ment. Training may be unplanned or planned. According to Dubois and Rothwell
(2004), when training is unplanned, it is rarely effective, because people cannot learn
how others perform. When training is planned, it probably follows an approach based
on tbe instructional systems design model (ISD). The ISD model, which is a tradi-
tional training approach, has several important features in common with competency-
based training. There are nine steps in ISDStep 1 : applying the ISD model to analyze
the performance problem, seeking to determine the underlying cause; Step 2: involv-
ing only problems that are rooted in a lack of individual knowledge, skills, or attitudes;
Step 3: conducting a thorough training needs assessment; Step 4: writing instructional
objectives; Step 5: deciding whether to make or buy training content to achieve the
instructional objectives; Step 6: deciding how to deliver the training; Step 7: conduct-
ing a formative evaluation; Step 8: delivering the training, also known as the imple-
mentation phase; and Step 9: conducting a summative evaluation. The ISD model of
traditional training "has been proven to be effective in getting results in improved job
performance. Unfortunately . . . learners and their supervisors may lack ownership of
the training offered" (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 50).
Besides these definitions, the differences between competency-based training and
traditional training are also important to know. According to Naquin and Holton
(2003), competency-based training, which is built around the fimdamental principles
of demonstrating capability, usually requires employees to first demonstrate their abil-
ity to perform specific tasks. Competency-based training focuses on behaviorally
stated and meastxrable objectives. Competencies are gained in multiple ways, such as
262 Public Personnel Management 42(2)
life experience, on-the-job fraining, and fraining and development programs. Dubois
and Rothwell (2004) state that competency-based fraining is an "attempt to make
fraining a joint venture or place greater responsibility on the learner for taking initia-
tives." Yet, fraditional fraining is attentional to work requirements, not to discover
differences between exemplary and successful performers. Basically, these fraining
approaches are not mutually exclusive, but they do represent different emphases.
Competency-based fraining takes a broader view. This means that competency-based
fraining is more than just to provide knowledge, build skills, or improve attitudes.
There are two different emphases: (a) competency-based fraining to guide self-directed
fraining and development, emphasizing an individual's duty to accept increased
responsibility for his or her ovm learning, and (b) competency-based fraining for
work-team development (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004).
Critical Success Factors of Competency-Based Training
The development and implementation of competency-based fraining is merely one
facet of ensuring the success of the fraining program. But Hyland's (1994) critique is
that competency-based fraining is a "theoretically and methodologically vacuous sfrat-
egy." Also, Collins (1983), in his critical analysis of competency-based fraining as a
system in adult education, argues that competency-based fraining is excessively reduc-
tionistic in attempting to explain complex phenomena through discrete standardized
concepts (Kosbab, 2003). Despite confradictory views on the effectiveness or other-
wise of competency-based fraining, it continues to be used as an approach to learning
(Smith, 2000). In studying competency-based fraining, five factors have been identi-
fied as critical success factors in competency-based fraining processes (Figure 1):
1. aligrunent with the organization's sfrategic goal and plans,
2. based on a high performance system,
3. competency model development,
4. individual competency gap, and
5. fraining on the gaptraining package.
Ignoring any of these factors can significantly impair success or produce failtire. To
assess a person's competence, a department needs to demonsfrate the ability to per-
form tasks and duties to the standard expectation in employment. Competency-based
fraining focuses on the development of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to
achieve that competency standard. The competency standard needs to align with the
organization's sfrategic goal and plans, and be based on a high performance system.
One of the primary competency-based fraining features is that each learner's achieve-
ment is measured to see whether they reach the competency standard. Under the
competency-based fraining approach, each learner is assessed to find the gap between
the skills they need (as described in the fraining package) and the skills they already
have. The difference between the two is called the competency gap. A fraining pro-
gram is then developed to help the learner acquire the missing skills and close the gap.
Wu 263
Strategie
Goal & Plan
High
Performance
Competency
Model
<^ih"^
Individual
Competency
Gap
-Trai ni ng Package-
/ \
_
Fi gure I. Critical success factors in competency-based training.
Competency-Based Training and Strategies in Taiwan's Public Sector
Human resources play a key rple in administrative effectiveness and quality. To make
the Taiwan govemment more efficient, responsible, and responsive, it has formed the
Govemment Reform Committee to integrate civil service human resources. In Taiwan,
the CPA, a professional staff agency of the Executive Yuan in human resource man-
agement, is responsible for overall personnel administration (including training and
appraisal of civil servants) of all the ministries and agencies under the Executive Yuan.
The CPA also deals with competency-based human resource practices such as those
used by the U.S., the U.K., and the Canadian and Australian governments.
Competency-Setting Process. The CPA initially applies a "competency concept" to deal
with human resource management and development. The steps involved are discussed
below (sourced from the CPA website).
Policy research by an external expert. According to the related competency concept
applied in the private sector, competency-based training has seldom been applied in
the public sector. To introduce the concept, in 2002, the CPA commissioned an exter-
nal expert to conduct policy research. The conclusion of his research suggests using
(a) a competency model, (b) a competency scale list, and (c) a competency-setting
process (Lin, 2003).
264
Public Personnel Management 42(2)
High level (e.g.-Grade 12) =
Middle level (e.g.-Grade 9)!=
' ^
' ^
Strategic
Oriented
Foresight
Planning
High
Low /
Personal
Interaction
/
/ Middle
Middle /
/
Executive
Practice
/
,' Low
High
Operation
Oriented
Figure 2. Duty anal/sis for middle- and high-level civil servants.
Setting principles. Although extemal experts provided some suggestions, in prac-
tice, the CPA's executive meetings suggested that some principles still needed to
be defined, (a) Competency includes personal attitudes and management skills for
achieving the organization's goal, (b) To focus on the importance of competency, the
CPA requires that competency should be no more than five to six items, (e) There
should be a focus on duty analysis for middle- and high-level civil servants.
Duty analysis for middle- and high-level civil servants. There are 14 grades in Taiwan' s
civil service system. Grade 14 (e.g.-Viee Minister) is the highest and Grade 1 is the
lowest. At a high duty level (Grade 12, Director General level), civil servants are more
strategic oriented, while at the middle level (Grade 9, Section Chief level), they are
more operation oriented, as shown in Figure 2.
Questionnaire investigaton. All middle- and high-level civil servants and their col-
leagues are to investigate the opinions and views on management competency cognition.
Dynamic competency analysis. For reaching the organization's goal, the competency
needs dynamic adjustment.
Competency Items. The CPA's vision is to maintain an honest, competent, and fair
administrative team, as well as to provide citizens with first-class public service.
Based on this vision and the principles set out above. Table 1 summarizes the core
competency items for high- and middle-level civil servants, as defmed in 2004 and
edited in 2009.
Competency Gaps Between the Civil Servant and Competency. Gaps are defined on an
organizational level as well as at an individual performer level. The organizational
Wu
Table 1. Competency Items for
2004
High- and Middle-Level Civil Servants
2009
in Taiwan.
265
High level (Grades 10-14)
Middle level (Grades 6-9)
1. Modeling vision with
creativity
2. Strategy analysis
3. Change and crisis
management
4. Team stimulation and
leadership
5. Interdepartmental
coordination
6. Performance management
1. Customer-oriented
service
2. Knowledge management
and utilization
3. Process and time
management
4. Conflict mediation and
communication
5. Coaching and passing on
experience
6. Goal setting and
execution
1. Foreign-domestic environmental
and situational analysis
2. Goal visualization and strategic
thinking
3. Leadership and coordinated
cooperation
4. Risk management and crisis
management
5. Performance management
6. Cultivating legal capability
7. Cultivating Humanism quality
1. Goal and performance
management
2. Knowledge management and
passing on experience
3. Innovative service and process
management
4. Question tracing and solving
ability
5. Expressional ability
6. Emotions management
7. Cultivating legal capability
8. Cultivating humanism quality
level helps to target what is needed across the enterprise to create the right skill sets.
The individual level helps each employee develop important skill sets for their current
role, as well as with career planning, which increases their understanding of where
they stand and precisely what is needed to serve in other roles. "Competency" helps
organizations understand and focus on the key factors that actually drive performance.
Competency-based frahiing needs to identify the gap between the civil servant and
competency in the public sector, and then carry out fraining to close that gap.
In Taiwan, there are about 900 agencies in the public sector. For investing needs,
the CPA (2004) designed a management core competency scale and online evaluation
system for high- and middle-level civil servants. This scale enables these agencies to
evaluate their employees' competency. All middle- and high-level civil servants, their
superintendents, colleagues, and subordinates, take part in the system and then receive
individual competency evaluation results. The evaluation methods include 360-degree
feedback, focus groups, and assessment centers.
Competency-Based Training and Strategies. Annual fraining needs and plans were
devised, based on the conclusions of the evaluations made at the 900 agencies, and
then the CPA (2009) designed a general management plan as shovra in Table 2. All the
workshops are open to civil servants attending, if their agencies agree.
266
Table 2.
Workshop
2009 General Management
Objectives
Public Personnel Managennent 42(2)
Plan and Competency Related List.
Target audience
Competency related
Workshop Objective Audience
Government
Service
Innovation
Service for People
To strengthen the innovative
management capacity of
middle- and high-level civil
servants, help them understand
the real practices involved
in government service
innovation, and also find feasible
applications through case
discussion.
To understand the concept of
serving people sympathetjcall/
and the practice of serving
people wi th convenience
t o improve the quality of
government service.
Executives wi th junior
rank and Staff wi th
senior rank in central
and local government
under Executive Yuan.
Civil servants who
directly serve the
public at central and
local government
departments under
Executive Yuan.
Project Planning
and Management
Policy Planning and
Performance
Management
Risk and Crisis
Management
Leadership and
Motivation
Communication
and
Coordination
(executives wi th
junior rank and
staff wi th senior
rank)
To understand the process
of project planning and
management To study how
this should be considered in
project planning and execution.
To increase practical training t o
enhance knowledge and project
management ability.
To understand the meaning of
KPi and the practical concept of
KPI application in performance
management t o guide the
integration of policy planning,
budgeting, evaluation, and
performance. To reach the goal
of government effeaiveness.
To understand the theory and
application of risk and crisis
management and t o enhance
the ability t o handle risk and
crises.
To make executives understand
their key management ability,
management style, and
communication ability. Also
t o motivate subordinates
t o improve the efficiency of
administration.
To strengthen the communication
capacity of middle- and high-
level civil servants and increase
their ability in coordination and
cross-division cooperation.
Civil staff at central and
local governments.
X X
Civil servants
responsible for policy
planning, performance
management,
and budgeting
management and
related wor k at
the central and
local government
departments under
Executive Yuan.
Civil staff of junior
rank or higher at
the central and local
governments.
Executives wi th junior
rank and Civil staff
wi th senior rank at
the central and local
governments under
Executive Yuan.
Executives wi th junior
rank and Staff wi th
senior rank at central
and local governments
under Executive Yuan.
@
@ @ @
CconDnued)
Wu
Table 2. (continued)
Workshop Objectives Target audience
267
Competency related
Workshop Objective Audience
Communication
and
Coordination
(gnerai civii
servants)
Coaching
Benchmark
Learning
Team Buiiding
Time Management
Briefing Skilis
Press Reiease
Wri t i ng
Bargaining and
Negotiation
Skilis
Prcbiem Anaiysis
and Soiving
To understand the principies and
practice of communication and
coordination, and know the
obstacies and solutions t o them.
To iearn the concepts and
skiiis of coaching and use the
appropriate coaching behavior
at the right time.
To understand the meaning
of benchmark learning. To
improve the efficiency of
the organization's operation
through sharing experiences of
excellent organization.
To understand the importance
of team building. To respect
the differences betv^een team
members, and use the different
roles and contributions of
members t o create team
performances.
To understand the principies
of time management and
take advantage of time
resources t o set priorities for
enhancing vtrork efficiency and
effectiveness.
To understand the basic
components of a successfui
briefing. To improve the
presentation of briefing content
and oral skilis for briefing.
To understand the principles
and methods of press reiease
v/riting and t o improve writing
skiiis.
To learn the theory and
practical skiiis of bargaining
and negotiation, and create
a win-win situation between
government and the general
public.
To identify probiems and
understand the processes and
methods of problem analysis.
To study and use all kinds of
strategies t o solve probiems t o
enhance the abiiity t o make the
right decisions.
Civil staff at the central
and local governments
(executives with
junior rank and civii
staff wi th senior rank
excluded).
Executives at junior rank
at iocal governments
under Executive Yuan.
Civil staff at the
central and local
governments.
Executives wi th junior
rank and civii staff
wi th senior rank
at centrai and local
governments under
Executive Yuan.
Civil staff at the
central and locai
governments.
Civil staff at the
centrai and iocal
governments.
Civil staff at the
central and iocal
governments.
Civii servants wi th
junior rank who
need t o improve
their bargaining and
negotiation skilis ~
at the centrai and
iocal government
departments under
Executive Yuan.
Civii staff wi th junior
rank or higher at
the centrai and iocal
governments.
@
@

@
@
(continued)
268
Table 2.
Workshop
(continued)
Objectives
Public
Target audience
Personnel Management 42(2)
Competency related
Workshop Objective Audience
Project To understand the process Civil staff at the @ @ >*
Management of project management, t o central and local
explore issues that should governments.
be considered during project
planning and execution, and t o
use practical drills t o enhance
project management capability.
File Management For the implementation of File New staff in file x x x
of Central Law and related law, t o improve and information
Government the understanding of file management at central
management and professional government under
ability through practical learning Executive Yuan.
and experience exchange.
Note: KPI = key performance indicate. " @" means "competency related" and "*<" means no "competency related."
Research Analysis
In Taiwan, infroducing a new and different training model to the govemment organi-
zation is difficult, and sometimes the new training model may be misused. In other
words, employees may treat the new method as just the latest fashion. Although, as
seen from the literature review, competency-based training focuses on five critical
factors (organizational goals, high performance, competency model, competency gap,
and training package), in training practice, there are some problems when competency-
based training is conducted. These are described below.
Competency Setting Without a High Performance System
The basic competency-setting processes in Taiwan's public sector have involved policy
research by an extemal expert, definition of principles, duty analysis, a questionnaire
investigation, and dynamic competency analysis to match the competency concept in
literature and practice. Yet, the key point of the competency standard is based on the
high performance system, generated by high performance employees who have certain
distinctive personal characteristics. In the duty analysis and questionnaire investigation
process period, however, all civil servants were involved, whether they were high or
low performance employees. Hence, the competency-setting results may display only
an average level standard, not a high performance standard.
Competency-Based Training Without Integrated Checking of the
Competency Gap and Individual Differences
Checking gaps helps to target what is needed across the enterprise to create the right
skill sets. In Taiwan, the CPA has designed a management core competency scale for
Wu 269
high- and middle-level civil servants. This scale enables about 900 agencies to evalu-
ate their employees' competency. Yet, when the CPA interviewed practitioners in the
public sector, these agencies could not understand the function of the evaluation
method because the competency concepts and skills were new and difficult. The CPA
did not double cheek whether the agencies had completed the evaluation properly. In
addition, the CPA did not integrate its checking of the competency gap with assess-
ment of individual differences.
Annual Training Plan Without Effective Linkage With Competency
Model
In the Taiwan govemment, there is a Govemment Employees Training and
Reorientation Law, which legislates that each agency must set an annual training plan.
The CPA deals with annual training for middle- and high-level civil servants. Without
identifying individual differences in the competency gap, the CPA annual training
plan requires all civil servants to attend, regardless of whether they have a gap.
Moreover, while the annual training plan has 18 workshops, only 4 of them exactly fit
the competency model and the designs for middle- and high-level civil servants. Some
workshop objectives are not management competencies but general competencies,
such as "Briefing Skills" and "Press Release Writing." This means that the annual
training plan does not consider the association between competency and individual
competency deficiencies properly.
Research Suggestions
For Training Practitioners in the Public Sector
Competency-based training is not a fashionable term. However, as shown in this arti-
cle, competency-based training is an effective training approach for both the private
and public sectors. Because there are so many govemment employees who need train-
ing, it is difficult to manage class design and time schedules to meet every individual's
needs. With reference to Dubois and Rothwell's (2004) emphasis on "increased
responsibility for his or her own leaming," here are some suggestions conceming
competency-based training: (a) understanding what high performance in the public
sector is, (b) identifying the best civil servants and their attitudes, (c) evaluating differ-
ent individual training needs, (d) designing training packages for individual gaps,
and (e) developing a training roadmap for self-directed leaming.
For Future Research
In fact, human resource management and development in Taiwan's public sector does
emphasize competency setting and competency-based training, and revised compe-
tency items were issued in July 2009. But in the implementation period, the CPA is
still meeting obstacles. Suggestions for future research to address these are as follows:
(a) conduct research on the obstacles and why these obstacles occur, (b) focus on other
270 Public Personnel Management 42(2)
countries' implementation period, (c) design a fraining package and roadmap that is
effective for those agencies that have too many civil servants to operate the fraining
successfully, (d) conduct an experimental study to understand the results after
competency-based fraining has been given.
Author's Note
This paper was presented at The 8th International Conference of the Academy of Human
Resource Development (Asia Chapter), Manama, Bahrain, in December 2009.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Note
1. In 2012, Central Personnel Administration changed its name to "Directorate-General of
Personnel Administration." But its function and work did not change. The Directorate-
General of Personnel Administration is still responsible for the training of civil servants.
References
American Society for Training & Development. (2000). The American Society for Training
and Development reference guide to workplace learning and performance. Amherst, MA:
HRD Press.
Central Persormel Administration. (2004). Core value and core competency in middle and high-
level civil servant. Retrieved from dpa.mofgov.tw/public/Datay610101654746.doc
Central Personnel Administration. (2009). General management plan. Retrieved from http://
www.hrd.gov.tw/e_content/public/Public02in.aspx?Pid=4
Collins, M. (1983). A critical analysis of competency-based systems in adult education. Adult
Education Quarterly, 33, 174-183.
Dubois, D., & Rothwell, W. (2004). Competency-based or a traditional approach to training?
T+D, 58,46-57.
Electrotechnology Training Package (UEE07). (2011). Volume 2, Part 1. Retrieved from http://
www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/pdf_doc/electrotechnology08/Appendix-4-
Definitions-Glossary.pdf
Hyland, T. (1994). Competence, education and NVQs: Dissenting perspectives. London,
England: Cassell.
Kosbab, D. J. (2003). Dispositional and maturational development through competency-based
training. Education & Training, 45, 526-541.
Lin, J. (2003). Research report: Management core competency and professional competency-
setting for middle and high level CPA civil servants. Taipei: Central Personnel
Administration.
McClelland, D. C. (1973). Testing for competence rather than for intelligence. American
Psychologist, 28, 423-447.
Naquin, S. S., & Holton, E. F. (2003). Redefining state leadership and management develop-
ment: A process for competence-based development. Public Personnel Management, 32,
23-46.
Smith, P. I. B. (2000). Preparing for flexible delivery in industry: Learners and their work-
places. Geelong, Australia: Deakin University.
Stephen, P. R. (2001). Organizational behavior (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Author Biography
Jui-Lan Wu, PhD, graduate institute of human resource management of National Central
University, Taiwan, is the director of the Department of Training Assessment, Civil Service
Protection and Training Commission, R.O.C. (Taiwan).