CH09 - Polynomials 2

Continuous function: A function is continuous over an
interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value

on the graph the limit exists and equals the function
value
Halving the interval: Taking an x-value halfway between
2 other values and determining the sign of the y-value in
order to fnd an approximate solution to an equation
Interval: A section of a line or curve over a restricted
domain including the endpoints
Iteration: Starting with an initial value, often a guess, and
using a process over and over again to produce a closer
approximation
Newtons method of approximation: An approximation
method to fnd a solution to an equation. If x a = is close
to the root of a polynomial, then the x-intercept of the
tangent at that point will generally be closer
Polynomial: A function of the form
( ) P x a a x
0 1
= + + a x a x
2
2
n
n
+ + where , , a a a
0 1 n

are real numbers and n is a positive integer or zero
Root of a polynomial: The solution of a polynomial
equation. Graphically, it is where the polynomial crosses
the x-axis
TERMINOLOGY
Polynomials 2
9
447 Chapter 9 Polynomials 2
DID YOU KNOW?
The word polynomial means an expression with many terms. (A binomial has 2 terms and a
trinomial has 3 terms). Poly means many, and is used in many words, for example, polyanthus,
polygamy, polyglot, polygon, polyhedron, polymer, polyphonic, polypod and polytechnic. Do you
know what all these words mean? Do you know any others with poly-?
INTRODUCTION
POLYNOMIALS ARE AN IMPORTANT part of algebra and
are used in many branches of mathematics. You studied
polynomials in the Preliminary Course.
In this chapter you will study the estimation of
roots of polynomials by using the methods of halving
the interval and Newtons method.
Estimation of Roots
The roots of a polynomial equation a a x a x a x 0
n
n
0 1 2
2
+ + + + = are the
x-intercepts of the graph ( ) . . . P x a a x a x a x
n
n
0 1 2
2
= + + + +
y
x
P(x) =a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
++a
n
x
n
P(x) =0 so a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
++a
n
x
n
=0
In some cases, we can fnd the roots of the equation by using algebra.
448 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 HSC Course
EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact roots of the quadratic equation . x x 3 1 0
2
+ =
Solution
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x
a
b b ac
2
4
2 1
3 3 4 1 1
2
3 9 4
2
3 5
2
2
=

=

=

=
Note: The roots are the x-intercepts of the graph of the parabola
. y x x 3 1
2
= +
3 + 5
2
y
x
2
3
5
2. For the polynomial ( ) P x x x x 2 5 6
3 2
= +
show that (a) 1 x is a factor of the polynomial.
write the polynomial as a product of its factors. (b)
fnd the roots of the polynomial equation (c) . x x x 2 5 6 0
3 2
+ =
Solution
If (a) x 1 is a factor of the polynomial, then ( ) . P 1 0 =

3 2
( )
( )
x
1
3
( ) ( )
P x x x
P
2 5 6
1 2 1 5 1 6
0
2
= +
= +
=
So 1 x is a factor.
Remember from the
Preliminary Course that
x a is a factor of P(x)
if P(a) = 0.
Divide the polynomial by (b) x 1 to fnd other factors.

x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
1 2 5 6
5
6 6
6 6
0
2
3 2
3 2
2
2
+

+
+
+
x x 6
g

So
( ) x ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
P x x x
x x x
1 6
1 3 2
2
=
= +
(c)
( ) ( ) ( )
x x x
x x x
2 5 6 0
1 3 2 0
3 2
+ =
+ =
, ,
, ,
x x x
x x x
1 0 3 0 2 0
1 3 2
= = + =
= = =
Note: The roots are the x-intercepts of the graph of the polynomial
( ) x P x x x 2 5 6
3 2
= +
y
x
-2 1 3
It is not always possible to fnd the roots of a polynomial equation
by algebraic methods. We can estimate the roots by looking at the graph.
EXAMPLE
Use stationary points to sketch the curve y x x x 2 3 12 5
3 2
= + + and
use the graph to give a rough estimate of the roots of the equation
x x x 2 3 12 5 0
3 2
+ + =
Solution
y x x x
dx
dy
x x
2 3 12 5
6 6 12
3 2
2
= + +
= +
You learned how to do this
in the Preliminary Course.
CONTINUED
For stationary points .
dx
dy
0 =
( ) ( )
x x
x x
x x
6 6 12 0
2 0
2 1 0
2
2
+ =
+ =
+ =
,
,
x x
x x
2 0 1 0
2 1
+ = =
= =
When x 2 =
3 2
( ) ( ) ( ) y 2 2 3 2 12 2 5
25
= + +
=
When 1 x =
3 2
( ) ( ) ( ) y 2 1 3 1 12 1 5
2
= + +
=
So ( , ) 2 25 and ( , ) 1 2 are stationary points.
dx
d y
x 12 6
2
2
= +
At ( , ) 2 25
( )
dx
d y
12 2 6
18
2
2
= +
=
0 < (concave downwards)
So ( , ) 2 25 is a maximum turning point.
At ( , ) 1 2
( )
dx
d y
12 1 6
18
2
2
= +
=
0 > (concave upwards)
So ( , ) 1 2 is a minimum turning point.
For x-intercept, 0 y =
x x x 0 2 3 12 5
3 2
= + +
This will not factorise so we cannot fnd the x-intercepts.
For y-intercept, 0 x =
3 2
( ) ( ) ( ) y 2 0 3 0 12 0 5
5
= + +
=
There are 3 x-intercepts, so
5
(1, -2)
(-2, 25)
y
x

3 roots of the equation
. x x x 2 3 12 5 0
3 2
+ + =
One root is where , x 2 < say
around . x 3 = Another root
is between 0 x = and , x 1 =
say . . x 0 2 = The third root
is where , x 1 > say . x 3 =
Halving the interval
If ( ) f x is continuous for a x b and ( ) f a and ( ) f b have opposite
signs, then there is at least one root of ( ) f x 0 = in that interval.

There are two iterative methods of estimating roots of polynomial equations
that you will study in this course. These are called halving the interval and
Newtons method of approximation. In these methods, we guess a solution and
then use a process over and over to produce closer approximations.
These methods can also be used to fnd roots of functions that are not
polynomials, as long as the function is continuous over the interval.
DID YOU KNOW?
Niels Abel (180229), a Norwegian mathematician, proved that it is impossible to fnd a general
method to solve quintic equations (equations of degree 5). He was 22 years old when he made
this discovery. Abel established many theorems in his short life, especially in the area of group
theory, which is one of the fundamentals of abstract algebra. He died at the age of 26.
If ( ) 0 f a < and ( ) 0 f b > , then there are three possibilities:
1. f
a b
2
0
+
= c m means
a b
2
+
is a root of the equation
2. f
a b
2
0 <
+
c m means the root lies between x
a b
2
=
+
and
x b =
3.
a b
f
2
0 >
+
c m means the root lies between x a = and
a b
x
2
+
=
This method is also called
bisection.
We can fnd an approximation to the root between a and b by halving
this interval.
If we halve the interval several times, the approximation to the root will
usually, but not always, become more accurate.
EXAMPLES
1.
Show that a root of (a) x x x 3 9 1 0
3 2
+ = lies between x 4 = and . x 5 =
By halving the interval, show that the root lies between 4.75 and 4.875. (b)
Solution
(a) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
f
f
4 4 3 4 9 4 1
19
5 5 3 5 9 5 1
6
3 2
3 2
= +
=
= +
=
Since (4) 0 f < and (5) 0, f > the root lies between 4 and 5.

(b)
( . )
. ( . ) ( . )
.
f f
2
4 5
4 5
4 5 3 4 5 9 4 5 1
9 125
3 2
+
=
= +
=
c m
Since (4.5) 0, f < the root lies between 4.5 and 5.
CONTINUED
2
.
( . )
. ( . ) ( . )
.
f f
2
4 5 5
4 75
4 75 3 4 75 9 4 75 1
2 265625
3
+
=
= +
=
c m
Since ( . ) , f 4 75 0 < the root lies between 4.75 and 5.
.
( . )
. ( . ) ( . )
.
f f
2
4 75 5
4 875
4 875 3 4 875 9 4 875 1
1 686
3 2
+
=
= +
=
c m
Since ( . ) , f 4 875 0 > the root lies between 4.75 and 4.875.
Note: Since f (4.875) is closer to 0 than f (4.75), . x 4 875 = is a better
approximation than 4.75.
2.
Show that (a) x x x 3 4 12 1 0
4 3 2
+ = has a root between 3 x =
and 2. x =
Use the method of halving the interval to show that the root lies (b)
between 3 and . . 2 75
Solution
(a)
4 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
f
f
3 3 3 4 3 12 3 1
26
2 3 2 4 2 12 2 1
33
3
4 3 2
= +
=
= +
=
Since ( ) f 3 0 > and ( ) , f 2 0 < the root lies between 3 and 2.
(b)
( . )
( . ) ( . ) ( . )
.
f f
2
3 2
2 5
3 2 5 4 2 5 12 2 5 1
21 3125
4 3 2
+
=
= +
=
c m
Since ( . ) , f 2 5 0 < the root lies between 3 and 2.5.
.
( . )
( . ) ( . ) ( . )
.
f f
2
3 2 5
2 75
3 2 75 4 2 75 12 2 75 1
3 363
4 3 2
+
=
= +
=
c m
Since ( . ) , f 2 75 0 < the root lies between 3 and 2.75.
Note: ( . ) f 2 75 is closer to zero than ( ) . f 3 So 2.75 is a closer
approximation to the root than 3.
This does not always happen. Sometimes the frst or second
value of ( ) f x found can be closer to the root than subsequent values.
Computer Application
The method of approximation by halving is tedious and can easily be done on a
computer. Some computer programs already have this method built in. Otherwise,
you could put the formula into a spreadsheet.
1. Show that there is at least one
root between the x-values given
for each function.
(a) ( ) f x x x 2 5
2
= between
3 x = and 4 x =
(b) ( ) f x x x 7
2
= + between 3 x =
and 4 x =
(c) ( ) p x x x 7
2
= + between
x 3 = and 2 x =
(d) ( ) P x x x x 2 3 72 1
3 2
= +
between 0 x = and 1 x =
(e) ( ) f x x x 5 2
4 2
= + between
2 x = and . x 3 =
2. (a) Show ( ) f x x x 2 5 2
2
= + has a
root between 0 x = and . x 1 =
By halving the interval once, (b)
show that the root lies between
0 x = and 0.5. x =
3. Show that there is no root
between 0 x = and 1 x = on the
curve ( ) . f x x x x 2 3 1
3 2
= + +
4. (a) Show
( ) P x x x 4 15
3 2
= + 21 5 x has a
By halving the interval twice, (b)
show that P(x) has a zero of 1.25.
5. (a) Show ( ) f x x x 3
2
= + has a
By halving the interval once, (b)
1 x = and 1.5. x =
6. The function ( ) f x x x 5 1
2
= + + has
a root between 5 x = and 4. x =
By halving the interval, show
that the root lies between 5 x =
and 4.5. x = Which is the better
approximation?
7. Find an approximation to the
root of the function ( ) f x x 2
7
=
that lies between 1 x = and 2, x =
by halving the interval once.
8. The curve y x x 7
2
= has a
root between 3 x = and 4. x = By
halving the interval twice, fnd
an approximation to the root.
9. The function ( ) f x x x 4 1
3 2
= + +
has a root between 5 x = and
4. x = Halve the interval twice
and fnd an approximation to
the root.
10. (a) Sketch the function
( ) . f x x x x 2 9 12 1
3 2
= + + +
How many zeros does (b) ( ) f x
have? Between which x-values do
they lie?
By halving the interval twice, (c)
fnd approximations to these
zeros.
11. (a) Show that sin e x 3
x
= + has a
Use the method of halving (b)
the interval three times to fnd a
closer approximation to the root.
9.1 Exercises
12. For the polynomial ( ) P x x 12
3
=
show that when (a) ( ) , P x 0 =
x 12 =
3
show that a root of (b) ( ) P x 0 =
lies between 2 x = and 3 x =
use the method of halving (c)
the interval twice to fnd an
approximation to . 12
3
13. (a) Show that a root of
sin
x
x
5
0 = lies between 2 x =
and . x 3 =
estimate of the root.
( ) ln x e 3 0
x
+ = lies between
0.1 x = and . . x 0 2 =
By halving the interval, (b)
0.125 x = and . . x 0 15 =
15. A root of ( ) P x x 2
x 3
= lies
between 1 x = and 2. x = Show
that the root lies between
1.25 x = and 1.375 x = by using
the method of halving the
interval.
Newtons method of approximation
Newtons method is a different way of approximating the root of a polynomial
equation. It generally gives a more accurate approximation than the method
of halving the interval, as well as taking fewer steps to get this approximation.
Sketching ( ), y f x = a continuous function, shows how Newtons method
works.
If x a = is close to the root of the equation ( ) 0, f x = then the x-intercept
(a
1
) of the tangent at a is usually closer to the root.
The function only needs
to be continuous in the
interval near the root.
( )
( )
, a a
a
f a
1
=
f l
where x a = is close to the root
Proof
Let [ , ( )] P a f a = be a point on the curve ( ) y f x = and let point R be the
x-intercept of the tangent at P.
The gradient of the tangent to the curve is given by ( ) x f l
\ the gradient of the tangent at P is given by ( ) a f l
The equation of the tangent at P is given by
( ) ( ) a x a
( )
( )
y y m x x
y f a f
1 1
=
= l
At R, 0 y =
i.e.
( ) a
( ) a x
( )( )
( )
a x a
a x af
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
f a f
f a f
a f a f
a
a f a
x
a
a
a
f a
x
a
a
f a
x
0 =
=
=
=
=
=
af
f
f
af
af
f
f
l
l l
l l
l
l
l
l
l
l
the x-intercept a
1
of the tangent at P is given by
( )
( )
a a
f a
f a
1
=
l
Several applications of Newtons method will often give a closer
approximation.
You could use a computer
for these calculations.
We often halve the
interval to get the frst
approximation of x a. =
EXAMPLES
1. Find an approximation to the root of x x 1 0
3
+ = by using Newtons
method once and starting with an approximation of 0.5. x =
\
CONTINUED
(0.714) 0.079, Z f so
x 0.714 = is a good
approximation.
Sketch (x) y f = by fnding its
axis of symmetry, or using a
table of values.
Solution
( . ) . .
.
( )
( . ) ( . )
.
( )
.
( . )
.
.
.
.
f
x x
a a
f a
f
0 5 0 5 0 5 1
0 375
3 1
0 5 3 0 5 1
1 75
0 5
0 5
0 5
1 75
0 375
0 714
3
2
2
1
= +
=
= +
= +
=
=
=
=

=
( )
f
a
f
( . )
f
0 5 f
l
l
l
l
2.
Sketch (a) ( ) f x x x 4 1
2
= and show on your sketch that one root of
x x 4 1 0
2
= lies between 4 x = and 5. x =
By choosing an approximation of (b) 4.5, x = use Newtons method once
to fnd an approximation to this root.
Solution
(a)
(b)
( . ) . ( . )
.
( )
( . ) ( . )
f
x x
4 5 4 5 4 4 5 1
1 25
2 4
4 5 2 4 5 4
5
2
=
=
=
=
=
f
f
l
l
( . ) 4 5 f
( ) a
( )
.
( . )
.
.
.
a a
f
f a
f
4 5
4 5
4 5
5
1 25
4 25
1
=
=
=
=
l
l
So an approximation to the root is 4.25. x =
3. Find an approximation to the root of cos x
x
3
= near . . x 1 1 =
Solution
cos x
x
3
=
i.e. cos x
x
3
0 =
Let ( ) cos f x x
x
3
=
Then ( ) sin x x = f
3
1
l
Use 1.1 x = as the frst approximation.
. 1 17
( ) 1 1
( . ) .
.
.
( . ) .
.
( )
( )
.
( . )
cos
sin
f
a a
f a
f a
f
f
1 1 1 1
3
1 1
0 0869
1 1 1 1
3
1
1 2245
1 1
1 1
1
Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
f
.
l
l
l
f (4.25) 0.0625, = so x 4.25 = is
a good approximation.
1.17 is a much closer
approximation to the
root than 1.1.
Newtons method doesnt work in some cases.
The approximate root of
3
cos x =
x
was found
graphically to be x 1.1 = in
Chapter 5.
EXAMPLE
Find an approximation to the root of y x x 1
3
= + by using Newtons
method once and starting with an approximation of 0.2. x =
Solution
( . ) . .
.
( )
( . ) ( . )
.
f
x x
0 2 0 2 0 2 1
0 792
3 1
0 2 3 0 2 1
1 12
3
2
2
= +
=
= +
= +
=
f
f
l
l
( )
( )
.
( . )
.
.
.
.
a a
f a
f a
f
f
0 2
0 2
0 2
1 12
0 792
0 907
1
=
=
=

=
( . ) 0 2
l
l
This is not a close approximation to the root.
The root lies between
x 0 = and x 1. = The
approximation of x 0.2 =
is not a good choice as it
is too far from the root.
f (0.907) 0.6 , 5 Z which
is not very close to 0.
Class Investigation
Here are some examples where the approximation of a root either is not
very close to the root, or cannot be found. Discuss these examples.
1.
In this case, the approximation of a
1
will be further away from the root
than a. Can you see why?
1. The polynomial equation
x x 2 9 0
2
= has a root near
2.5. x = Find an approximation
to the root, correct to 2 decimal
places, by using 1 application of
Newtons method.
2. The equation ( ) 0 f x = where
( ) f x x x 3 9
3 2
= + has a zero near
1.5. x = By using 1 application
of Newtons method, fnd an
approximation to the root,
correct to 2 signifcant fgures.
3. The polynomial equation
x x x 4 2 0
3 2
+ = has a root
near 0.6. x = Use 2 applications
of Newtons method to fnd
an approximation to the root,
correct to 3 decimal places.
4. (a) Show that the polynomial
equation x x x 2 6 3 0
3 2
+ = has
a root between 0 x = and . x 1 =
Use Newtons method (b)
with 1 application to fnd an
correct to 3 decimal places, using
0.5 x = as an approximation to
the root.
5. (a) Show that
2
x x 1 0 + =
1
has a
Use 1 application of Newtons (b)
method to fnd an approximation
of the root to 3 decimal places.
9.2 Exercises
2.
In this case, a
1
cannot be found.
3.
The x-intercept a
1
is too far away from the root in this case.
Can you fnd any more examples where Newtons method doesnt work?
6. (a) Show that the equation
x x x 2 5 0
3 2
+ + = has a root
between 2 x = and . x 1 =
approximation to this root of the
equation.
Use Newtons method once (c)
to fnd an approximation to this
root of the equation, correct to
2 decimal places, starting with
. x 1 5 = .
7. (a) Show that the equation
x x 2 2 0
2
+ = has a root between
0 x = and . x 1 =
approximation to this root of the
equation.
Use Newtons method once (c)
to fnd an approximation to this
root of the equation, correct to 1
decimal place.
Use the quadratic formula to (d)
fnd an approximation to this
root of the equation, correct to
2 decimal places.
8. (a) For the polynomial
( ) , P x x 9
3
= show that the
equation ( ) P x 0 = can be written
as . x 9 =
3
Between which 2 integers (b)
does 9
3
fall?
By using Newtons method (c)
once, fnd an approximation to
, 9
3
9. Use Newtons method with
1 application to fnd, correct to
2 decimal places,
(a) 5
3
(b) 400
5
(c) 55
4
(d) 50
7
10. The curve
5
( ) y x x 2 3 =
has a root between 2 x = and
3. x = Use Newtons method
with 1 application to fnd an
correct to 2 decimal places. Is this
a good approximation?
11. The equation log x x 2
e
3
= has
a root between 1 x = and 2. x =
Use ( ) log f x x x 2
e
3
= + and
Newtons method once to fnd
an approximation to the root,
12. The root of the equation
e x 0
x 3
= lies between x 1 = and
. x 2 = Use Newtons method once
to fnd an approximation to the
root, correct to 2 decimal places.
13. Use a frst approximation of
0.6 x = with 1 application of
Newtons method to solve
, a x x t n = correct to 2 decimal
places.
14. (a) Find two integers
between which the root of
( 3) 1 ln x x + = lies.
Use Newtons method once to (b)
fnd an approximation, correct to
2 decimal places.
15. Use 0.5 x = to fnd an
approximation to the root of
, cos x x = correct to 2 decimal
places, using 2 applications of
Newtons method.
Test Yourself 9
1. The polynomial equation x x 3 2 3 0
2
=
has a root near 1 x = . Use two
applications of Newtons method to
fnd a closer approximation to the root,
2. Use one application of Newtons
method to fnd an approximation to the
root of , e x 0
x 3
= starting with a frst
approximation at 2. x =
3. (a) Show that there is a root of
( ) f x x x 3 5
4 2
= between 2 x = and
. x 3 =
Using (b) 2 x = as a frst approximation,
use Newtons method to fnd a closer
approximation.
4. (a) Show that the function
( ) f x x x 5 7
3
= + has a root between
3 x = and . x 2 =
By halving the interval twice, fnd (b)
the closest approximation to the root.
5. (a) Sketch the curve y x x 2 9 7
3 2
= +
showing any stationary points.
Find the (b) x-intercepts on the curve,
using Newtons method where necessary,
to fnd an approximation to 1 decimal
place.
6. Find an approximation to the root of
x x 3 7 0
3
+ = by halving the interval
3 times.
7. Solve log x x 2
e
3
= by using two
applications of Newtons method,
starting with a frst approximation
of 1. x =
8. (a) Use 2 x = as a frst approximation to
fnd the solution to , x 10
5
= using two
applications of Newtons method (answer
correct to 2 decimal places).
Find the solution of (b) x 10
5
= directly.
9. (a) Show that a root of x x 3 1 0
3
+ = lies
between 0 x = and . x 1 =
Explain why Newtons method will (b)
not work with a frst approximation
of . x 1 =
Use Newtons method with (c) 0 x = as
a frst approximation to fnd the root of
the equation.
Halve the interval twice to fnd an (d)
approximation to the root.
10. A root of sin
x
x
3
= lies between 2 x = and
3. x =
Halve the interval twice to fnd an (a)
approximation to the root.
Use one application of Newtons (b)
method to fnd the root, starting with
2 x = as a frst approximation.
1. (a) Sketch the curve . y x x x 6 8 1
4 2
= + +
Estimate the roots of equation (b)
, x x x 6 8 1 0
4 2
+ + = by choosing
appropriate approximations for the roots
and using 1 application of Newtons
method.
One of the roots is a poor estimation. (c)
Which one is it?
By halving the interval twice, fnd (d)
the best estimate of this root.
2. Given ( ) , P x x a
3
= the equation ( ) P x 0 =
has a root near x b = where . b 0 Show
that an approximation to the root is
given by
b
b a
x
3
2
3
3
1
+
= .
sin
x
x
3
0
= lies
between 6 x = and . . x 6 5 =
Use the method of halving the (b)
interval to show that this root lies
between 6.25 x = and . . x 6 375 =
Use Newtons method to fnd an (c)
approximation of this root correct to
3 decimal places using a frst
approximation of 6.25.
Challenge Exercise 9

CH09 - Polynomials 2

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CH09 - Polynomials 2

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Continuous function: A function is continuous over an

interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value

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