October 2005

N
owadays, a huge amount of electroacoustic transducers are used for
the reproduction of sound, both of the human voice and of musical
instruments. Typically we call these transducers loudspeakers. These
electroacoustic transducers are one of the worlds most
manufactured technical devices. For example, in the year 2004 nearly 700
million cell phones where sold worldwide. Every cell phone has at least one
transducer included. So the cell phone industry alone needs approximately a
billion speakers per year.
It should not therefore come as a surprise that there is a lot of serious engineering
work going on in the design of loudspeakers to develop optimal products both
in terms of acoustic performance as well as manufacturing costs. However, the
focus on the development work is influenced by the viewpoint of an electrical
engineer. This seems to be due to the fact that every loudspeaker is driven by
some kind of electrical device (i.e. an amplifier). But a loudspeaker consists not
only of an electrical device - it is built up of a motor system and a vibration
system, which typically converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force inside
the motor system (also known as voice coil), which in turn excites a vibration
system consisting at least of a diaphragm with some kind of support. The
diaphragm itself excites the surrounding air to radiate sound. That is, in very
simple words, the functional principle of a loudspeaker.
If we take a closer look at the physical domains involved, we figure out the
following fields that a loudspeaker uses:
electromagnetics
structural dynamics
sound radiation
Thus this is often referred to as multiphysics. It is interesting to note that only one
of these domains is a typical electrical domain. A recent panel discussion [1] gave
a good and more general overview about the physical domains involved in a
stimulus to the human ear (see Figure 1). However, in this article we will
concentrate on the mechanical and acoustical domains.
Though different types of loudspeaker exist for different specific applications,
these three physical domains are almost always involved. In general the mass of
electroacoustic transducers can be classified as being of one of the following
types:
woofers
tweeters
horns
small transducers
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Acoustic Matrix Methods fo
and Small Transducers
Figure 1: Physical domains invloved in the path of a stimulus to the human ear
Figure 2: Example of an electromechanical equivalent circuit
Figure 3: Applicable frequency range for lumped parameter models
Alfred J. Svobodnik,
In the last few decades, a lot of effort has
been put into improving the functional
behavior of loudspeakers, especially by
means of numerical simulation
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October 2005 7
We will use this classification here from a physicists viewpoint, though audio
engineers would indicate that this is not a complete list. But for the purposes of
this article, outlining the different parts of the physical domains and how they
interact with each other in different types of loudspeakers, this classification is
sufficient.
In the last few decades, a lot of effort has been put into improving the functional
behavior of loudspeakers, especially by means of numerical simulations. The
focus was, and often enough still is, on improving the electromagnetic behavior
(i.e. the motor system) of loudspeakers. Electromagnetic simulations by means of
finite or boundary elements were the first matrix methods introduced in speaker
development. However, after having reached a nearly perfect motor system it
turned out that the whole system, i.e. the loudspeaker, is far from perfect. Some
engineers have concluded that this is due to the fact that they have only
optimized only one link of the chain in depth using advanced simulation tools.
Systems optimization must also include the treatment of the structural dynamic
behavior of the vibration system and sound radiation behavior by means of
advanced simulation models. Thus we are faced with more of a mechanical
system than an electrical system. However, the fact is that it is a multiphysical
system, and should be treated as such in the search of optimum.
Traditional Lumped Parameter Models
There is a long tradition of treating a loudspeaker as a multiphysics device by
electrical engineers. Back in the 1950s, Olson developed a lumped parameter
model which describes the interaction of an electrical system (motor system) with
a mechanical system (vibration system) by means of electrical analogies. It
should be noted that the mechanical system was already treated as being
nonlinear. An example of an electromechanical equivalent circuit is given in
Figure 2.
In the early seventies several technical papers were presented to the AES [2] that
resulted in a model which electrical engineers know today as the famous Thiele-
Small Parameters. A.N. Thiele and R.H. Small developed parameters defining
the relationship between a loudspeaker and a particular enclosure. Over time
there have been a lot of developments to extend these early lumped parameter
models to more sophisticated models. In particular, the recent work of W. Klippel
on the large signal behavior, including a lot of nonlinearities in the different
physical domains, and the identification of parameters via measurements should
be mentioned here.
However, all these models have one significant drawback - they are based on
lumped parameters which use only a few (or at least one) parameters to describe
a physical domain. For example the mechanical system, the vibration system, is
described by stiffness and mass. From the mechanical engineers viewpoint, the
vibration system is discretized by a single mass system. This leads to the fact that
this model is only capable of describing the piston mode of a vibration system.
This will lead to limitations in the frequency range where the lumped parameter
model is applicable (see Figure 3).
This fact has led to the development of distributed models based on matrix
methods, where the domains are modeled via systems consisting of many
degrees of freedom.
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or Woofers, Tweeters, Horns
Figure 4: Governing equations describing the structural dynamic behavior of a
vibration system
Figure 5: Non-pistonic modes of loudspeaker diaphragms (also known as cones)
Figure 6: Helmholtz equation solved via boundary elements
NAD - Numerical Analysis and Design GmbH & Co KG
October 2005 8
Matrix Methods
At a first glance there seems to be only a small difference
in the governing equations describing for example the
vibration system (see Figure 4) by matrix methods and by
lumped parameter models. But the big difference is the
dimension of the problem. In matrix methods, stiffness and
mass (as well as damping) are described via matrices in the
context of finite elements with a dimension of several of
thousands. Thus it is possible to use these models for the
whole audible frequency range which is typically from 20
Hz up to 20 kHz where a lot of non-pistonic and
asymmetric modes occur (see Figure 5).
Another advantage of matrix methods is that we can
include the influence of asymmetric effects due to loading
or due to interaction of the vibration system with the
environment (think about attaching a speaker to a
nonsymmetrical cabinet).
The principle of using matrices for describing a physical
domain is also used for the acoustical domain where the
Helmholtz equation is solved by means of boundary
elements (see Figure 6).
As already discussed, a loudspeaker is a multiphysics
device, and the theory must account for that. Thus we have
to couple the mechanical systems discretized via finite
elements with the acoustical system discretized via
boundary elements (see Figure 7).
This leads to a very efficient simulation model to predict
the sound radiation of electromagnetic transducers.
Practical applications from industry
In this section we will present some examples from industry
for each different type of transducer as outlined previously.
Woofers
The sound pressure distribution of a typical woofer
embedded in a cabinet is shown in Figure 8. Though a
woofer covers the low frequency range it is also excited at
higher frequencies. Thus, simulations are made up to
several kHz (sometimes up to 20 kHz). If we compare
simulation and measurement we can see an excellent
accuracy of the proposed theory (see Figure 9).
Tweeters
The basic principle of a tweeter is quite similar to that of a
woofer, but a tweeter has to cover the high frequency range
(simulations are made up to 40 kHz). Thus a tweeter is
much smaller than a woofer. A typical sound pressure
distribution of a tweeter is given in Figure 10. Another
advantage of simulations can be seen in this example. The
simulation also gives a view of the inner structure of the
system. Measuring the sound pressure distribution inside
the housing of the tweeter would be nearly impossible.
Horns
Horns are typically used for professional audio systems to
reach a high sound pressure (based on a good efficiency)
paired with a good frequency response and directivity (i.e.
a constant sound radiation in all directions). An example
for the sound pressure distribution inside a horn at two
different frequencies is given in Figure 11.
These models are kept very simple but they are very
efficient for calculating the directivity behavior.
Small Transducers
Due to the tremendous business penetration of cell phones
there has been a lot of development work in the last few
years on small transducers. This has also been prompted
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Figure 8: Typical woofer embedded in a cabinet
(with kind permission of CANTON
Elektronik GmbH & Co. KG)
a loudspeaker is a multiphysics device, and
the theory must account for that.
Figure 7: Coupling of mechanical system and acoustical system
October 2005 9
by the transformation of a cell phone from a pure
speech-based communication device into a true
multimedia device capable of playing music and
video. Thus, special performance features are
required for those mini loudspeakers.
Besides an excellent frequency response it is also very
important to radiate sound at reasonable levels, to
listen to music without headsets or for hands free
applications. But on the other side there is a very
restrictive constraint: the size. Cell phones dropped in
size significantly in the 1990s and so the speaker size
also shrank. However, the easiest way to get a
reasonable radiated sound level is to increase size.
This can be compensated by raising the excursion of
the vibration system. But, as already outlined, the
mechanical system is nonlinear and this will lead to
unwanted effects called distortion.
A typical CAD model of a small transducer for a cell
phone can be seen in Figure 12. Note the size of 7x11
mm. Figure 13 shows the mechanical nonlinearities. It
has proved that matrix methods are very reliable
methods to significantly enhance the nonlinear
behavior of those small transducers within a very
limited time frame. Thus development time and
subsequently time to market can be reduced by a vast
amount.
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Figure 9: Comparison of simulation (red) and measurement
(blue), with kind permission of CANTON Elektronik
GmbH & Co. KG
Figure 10: Sound pressure distribution on inner surfaces of a tweeter (with kind permission of CANTON Elektronik
GmbH & Co. KG)
Figure 11:
Sound pressure distribution inside a horn at two different frequencies (with permission of d&b audiotechnik AG)
Measuring the sound
pressure distribution
inside the housing of
the tweeter would be
nearly impossible
October 2005 10
Business Benefits
The business benefits of matrix methods are
obvious:
deeper knowledge about the physics of
audio devices
significantly improved product
performance in terms of
audio performance
manufacturing costs
reduced development time
reduced time to market
reduced development costs
However, these benefits can only be obtained
when carefully integrating this new technology into
the current development process of a companys
R&D department. Thus the implementation of
matrix methods should also be done with respect
to process flow and especially with respect to
training of the engineers involved. Buying software
is, in that context, the simplest task. Transferring
the software to a highly efficient engineering tool
is the real challenge.
Traps and Pitfalls
One of the most sensitive steps in the successful
implementation of matrix methods into the
development cycle of a company is a carefully
planned strategy for the introduction of the new
method. From a technological point of view, most
traps and pitfalls arise in the field of modeling.
Modeling means to reduce the real application to
a mathematical/physical model based on matrix
methods. A well balanced situation between being
too simple and being too complex must be found.
Only then will the business benefits be realised.
Within that scope material properties are perhaps
the most important factors. Thus, fitting material
properties of mathematical/physical material
models to real world behavior is the most serious
task. Engineers must have enough time to master
this challenge, and this must be included in the
overall investment.
References
[1] Panel Discussion: FEA vs. Lumped Parameter
Modeling, ALMA 2005 Winter Symposium,
www.almainternational.org/wintersymposium2005
[2] AES Audio Engineering Society, www.aes.org
Contact
Alfred J. Svobodnik
NAD Numerical Analysis & Design GmbH & Co
as@NADwork.at
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matrix methods are very reliable
methods to significantly enhance the
nonlinear behavior of those small
transducers within a very limited
time frame
Figure 12:
Typical CAD model of a small transducer as used in cell phones
(with permission of Sonion Horsens A/S)
Figure 13:
Mechanical nonlinear behavior of a small transducer (with permission of Sonion Horsens A/S)
solid line: displacement over force dashed line: displacement over stiffness