I'd like now to begin our substantive

exploration of issues of democrat

development by thinking about what is
democracy.
What are the different levels of
democracy, the different elements of
equality democracy and how do we distinct
between democracy and authoritarianism
and different types of authoritarian
regimes.
So in this lecture, we'll look at the
definition of electoral democracy.
I'll distinguish between a higher
threshold of democracy that we call
liberal democracy.
we'll look at the different elements of
democratic quality and then we'll briefly
review different types of authoritarian
regimes.
So, to begin, what is democracy?
Well, at the most elementary level of an
electoral democracy, the kind of most
basic level of democracy It's a system of
government.
now we're talking in this course about
government at the level of a nation
state, in which people can choose their
leaders and replace their leaders in
regular, meaningful, free, and fair
elections.
In order for a regime to be a democracy,
it cannot simply have elections.
It can't even simply have multiparty
elections.
Elections must be held at regular
intervals as prescribed by the
constitution.
Elections must be meaningful.
In the sense that they have consequences,
that the people, the parties, the
individuals who win the election actually
have the power to rule.
There can't be some hidden or reserved
domain of power, like the military a
powerful ruling monarchy.
Or some hidden authority that really
exercises substantial decision-making
power.
Elections have to be free, in terms of
people being able to compete and contest
for power without great inhibitions.
And elections need to be fair, in terms
of there being a reasonably level playing
field.
Now this means the ability to monitor
elections in the contemporary era.
It means some degree of access to the
mass media, some reasonable level playing
field.
Lets now go on from the most minimal
condition of an electoral democracy in
which power is regularly open to
competition on a multi-party basis
through free and fair elections to
consider other elements of democracy and
the higher level of what I describe as
liberal, or high-quality, democracy.
This has three elements.
One as Guillermo O'Donnell has identified
them in his brilliant writing on the
subject.
One is democracy as popular sovereignty.
Democracy as what is sometimes referred
to as majority rule, as emerges through
free and fair elections.
And extensive competition for power,
political participation, the ability of
people to hold their government
accountable at the polls, and make a
government responsive the wishes of the
people.
But of course, this is not only majority
rule, it frequently must involve minority
rights as well.
And some democracies are structured as we
will see in this course to be more
majoritarian than other democracies which
privilege consensus.
The second element is liberal government
in the sense of protecting liberty.
Freedom equality of all citizens the
privileging of rights of the minority at
least to have a voice and to have
protection and of course, the elevation
of a liberal environment of tolerance and
mutual respect.
As well as individual empowerment, what
we call a civic culture.
And the third is Republican Government in
the sense of good governance, responsible
governance, bro, broad based entrenchment
of the rule of law.
And the ability of different agencies of
government to restrain the abuse of power
and hold one another accountable.
So having a law based state an
accountable state, and an effective
state, all come under the rubric of good
or republican government.
Now let's look at these different
elements one by one.
First of all, liberty this is very,
fairly elementary.
go to the international covenant on civil
and political rights, or any of the many
other human rights instruments that are
now deeply embedded.
In regional and international practice
and convention and you will see
identified wide range of liberties that
individuals have as basic human rights.
Freedom of speech, freedom of the press,
freedom of association, the right of
individuals to assemble peacefully and
protest.
To move about the country both for their
personal lives and work.
And to campaign in different parts of the
countries.
Freedom of thought and personal belief,
including religious belief and practice.
The right of groups to use their own
language, identity, culture.
Freedom means freedom from, as well.
The unjust and arbitrary deprivations of
the state.
Freedom from torture, the right of
individuals to be secure in their homes,
from warrantless search and seizure.
The right of individuals to have access
to justice as I'll explain under the rule
of law concept through due process.
Freedom of imposition from corrupt
demands and impositions by state
officials who are not responsible lend of
the law.
Freedom from violence and intimidation by
state and non-state actors.
The second element closely related and
these elements of liberal democracy
overlap with one another, re-enforce one
another, interlock in a system of very
high quality democracy.
The rule of law, the right of citizens to
be secure in their persons, and be
treated equally under the law.
So that citizens are free from the danger
of arbitrary arrest, exile, imprisonment.
The secure knowledge that no one is above
the law, not even the president or prime
minister of a country.
that government power is limited.
That no official can violate.
The provisions of the law or the
constitution in order to exercise the
power or seek undue advantage.
For this to happen, the courts must be
independent both in structure and in
fact.
All of this protects the civil liberties
of citizens.
And very importantly, maintains a climate
of order, predictability, and limited
power.
Limited government, rather than arbitrary
and unlimited power of government is a
crucial element of liberal democracy.
And of frankly, any good and just
government.
The rule of law involves some specific
guarantees and details.
Individuals have the right to know the
charges against them.
There is a right under any principle of
the rule of law, particularly in a
liberal democracy to be presumed innocent
until you are proven guilty.
Through due process in a court of law.
Many countries have democratic
constitutions that affirm in principle,
the rights to due process and a rule of
law.
But if the courts in practice are
overwhelmed with far more cases than they
can process, then the rule of law is
vitiated in practice.
And it doesn't matter what the principle
may provide in the law or the
constitution.
we know that in many developing
democracies there is an enormous backlog
of cases.
in some courts in India, individuals may
have to wait years or even decades for
their court case to be heard.
And there is a powerful principle, under
the rule of law, that justice delayed is
justice denied.
So individuals have a right in a liberal
democracy to a reasonably fair, speedy
and public trial, by an in, in, impartial
court.
It is a principle of the rule of law that
individuals can only be held accountable
for a law that was established in
advance.
There's no retroactive justice for a law
that's introduced and then applies
retrospectively to people who could not
have been guided in their behavior by a
law that didn't exist at the time.
And the same goes for taxation.
And of course no one may be subjected
under a deep principle of a rule of law,
to torture or cruel and inhumane
punishment.
A third and again closely related
principle of the rule of law, is what we
call horizontal accountability.
The term was given us by the great
Argentine political scientist, very
tragically and unfortunately recently
deceased, Guillermo O'Donnell.
And horizontal accountability involves
again the restraint of government power
so that different agencies and branches
of the government are checking and
monitoring one another.
Power is separated and dispersed so we
can think of this as separation of
powers, checks and balances.
But it's a broader concept.
Obviously, in particular, to discipline
and constrain executive power, which is
where power is most often concentrated
and most easily abused.
As I will explain in a later lecture.
Horizontal accountability involves
independent institutions of monitoring
and control of corruption and abusive
power.
Not just the conventional branches of
government, executive, legisilature,
judiciary but some of the new
institutions that have emerged.
To manage and constrain, check and
monitor other executive and legislative
and judicial branches, the counter
corruption commission, in Ombudsman
public constraints commission.
The ability of parliament to investigate
wrongdoing, and a audit agency at the
supreme level of the national system.
If we're worried about checking and
constraining government having limited
government and constraining the abuse of
power, then we need think specifically
about some of the institutions that are
most often implicated in the abuse of
power.
and in a democracy one of these may be
the military, the police, the
intelligence operators.
More generally, the whole sector of
state's security which if it is not
subjected to the rule of law, and the
ultimate authority of democratic elected
civilian authority, then it may be a
problem for democracy rather than a
pillar of democratic legitimacy and
stability.
In a democracy, the armed forces must be
directed by and subordinate to civilian
elected officials and their appointees.
The commander in chief in a liberal
democracy must not be the head of the
military.
The commander in chief is the elected
civilian head of government whether is a
president or prime minister.
And even below the head of the military
other top military command appointments
in a liberal democracy with civilian
control over the military should be made
or at least approved by the civilan
authorities.
A deep structure of civilian control
involves the budgets of the armed forces.
And the intelligence and state security
agencies being reviewed, being
understood, being approved, and
ultimately set by civilian authorities
with expertise, or with advisors who have
expertise, in the executive and
legislative branches.
This requires building up professional
civilian capacity in the defense
ministry, which should be headed by a
civilian.
In the office of the President or the
Prime Minister, and in Parliamentary
committees that begin to develop, some
expertise and monitoring capacity of
their own.
It means that arms forces and
intelligence agencies cannot operate
domestically for political purposes.
And that domestic security should be
maintained by separate policing
functions.
And security agencies that are again
responsible to civilians closely
supervised by them.
And constrained in their authority under
the constitution.
It is vital, in a genuine and deep,
liberal democracy, that the entire
states security sector be neutral and
nonpartisan.
Not a tool or an instrument of the
president and prime minister or ruling
party, that they serve the country and
not the government of the day.
and that they therefore be professional,
depoliticized, and have the strong ethic
of service to the country.
These are some of the initial elements
that I present of the quality of
democracy.