The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Scientific Paper

Most journal-style scientific papers are subdivided into the following sections
Title
Table of Contents
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Literature Cited (Bibliography)
Appendices Tables and raphs
Title
Title !our "uestion#problem being solved with $ndependent and %ependent variables &'(ow
does the type of fertili)er affect the growth height of a soybean plant*+,
Format centered at the top of page -
The title is ./T underlined or italici)ed0
The authors1 names are double-spaced from and centered below the title0 2hen more then two
authors, the names are separated by commas
I!TR"D#CTI"!
Function introduce your e3periment by discussing your bac4ground research literature &with
M56 citations, and summari)ing your current understanding of the problem you are
investigating7
State the purpose of the investigation in the form of the "uestion, or problem you investigated
%iscuss your predicted results &hypothesis, and the reasons behind your predictions
The $ntroduction must answer the "uestions
-0 2hy was this study performed*
- 8sually this stems from a previous e3periment or some observation of nature0
90 2hat is the hypothesis*
- 6 hypothesis is a general, testable statement about a phenomenon or behavior0
- :30 ;uestion 2hy are mature chiles red*
(ypothesis Mature chiles are red to attract birds0
<0 2hat information already e3ists on this topic*
- :30 The hypothesis was developed out of the 4nowledge that many
other plants produce bright red colored fruits with
seeds that birds are attracted to and eat, thus allowing for
dispersal of the seeds0
=0 2hat is the e3perimental design*
- :30 >irds were allowed to select between red and green mature chiles0
?0 2hat are the predicted results*
- 6 prediction is what one e3pects to see when the e3periment is performed if the
hypothesis is correct0
- :30 $t was predicted that the birds would select the red chiles over the
green chiles0
Structure an inverted triangle - the broadest part at the top representing the most general
information and focusing down to the specific problem you studied0
o >egin by clearly identifying the subject area of interest0 %o this by using 4ey words from
your Title in the first few sentences
o Provide a brief review of the @esearch literature that you have done on the subject0
Summari)e &for the reader, what is 4nown about the specific problem before you
did your e3periments or studies0 @eview the research literature &with citations,
but do not include very specific, lengthy e3planations
5ead the reader to your statement of purpose#hypothesis by focusing your
literature review from the big picture to the more specific topic of interest to you
Do not discuss here the procedures used in your study (this $ill be done in
the Materials and Methods)
MAT%RIAL& A!D M%T'"D&
This section is variously called Methods or Methods and Materials0
Function e3plain clearly how you carried out your study
o %escribe the organism&s, studied &plant, animal, human, etc0, and their pre-e3periment
handling and care, when and where the study was carried out &only if location and time
are important factors,7 note that the term AsubjectA is used /.5! for human studies0
o %escribe how the e3periment or study was structured0
The control variables, treatments &independent variables,, dependent variable&s,
measured, how many samples were collected, etc0,
(ow the e3perimental procedures were carried out, and how the data were
analy)ed
o /rgani)e your presentation so your reader will understand the logical flow of the
e3periment&s,7 subheadings wor4 well for this purpose0
Style this section should read as if you were verbally describing how you conducted the
e3periment0
o 6void use of the first person in this section0
o @emember to use the past tense throughout - the wor4 being reported is done, and was
performed in the past, not the future0
o The Methods section is not a step(by(step, directive, protocol as you might see in your
lab manual0
o %escribe your e3perimental design clearly0 >e sure to include the hypotheses you
tested, controls, treatments, variables measured, how many replicates you had, what
you actually measured, what form the data ta4e, etc0
o %escribe the protocol for your study in sufficient detail that other scientists could repeat
your wor4 to verify your findings0
%escribe the A"uantitativeA aspects of your study - the masses, volumes, incubation times,
concentrations, etc0, that another scientist needs in order to duplicate your e3periment0
%escribe how the data were summari)ed and analy)ed0
o !"T%) *ou D" !"T need to say that you +ade graphs and tables,

The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Scientific Paper
R%&#LT&
Function objectively present your 4ey results, $ithout interpretation, in an orderly and logical
se"uence using both illustrative materials &Tables and Figures, and te3t0
$mportant negative results should be reported, too0
Style 8se the past tense0
Do not interpret the data here,
$f you are testing for differences among groups, and you find a significant difference, it is not
sufficient to simply report that Agroups 6 and > were significantly differentA0 (ow are they
different* (ow much are they different* For e3ample, ABroup 6 individuals were 9<C larger
than those in Broup >A, or, ABroup > pups gained weight at twice the rate of Broup 6 pups0A
@eport the direction of differences &greater, larger, smaller, etc, and the magnitude of
differences &C difference, how many times, etc0, whenever possible
/rgani)e the results section based on the se"uence of Table and Figures you1ll include0
o The first Table you refer to is Table -, the ne3t Table 9 and so forth0
o Similarly, the first Figure is Figure -, the ne3t Figure 9, etc0
o :ach Table or Figure must include a brief description of the results being presented and
other necessary information in a legend0
o Table legends go above the Table7 tables are read from top to bottom0
DI&C#&&I"!
Function interpret your results and to e3plain your new understanding of the problem after
ta4ing your results into consideration0
o Connect to the $ntroduction by way of the the research you cited, but it does not
simply repeat or rearrange the $ntroduction0 $nstead, it tells how your study has moved
us forward from the place you left us at the end of the $ntroduction0
o Fundamental "uestions to answer here include
-0 %id the e3periment support or reject the hypothesis* 2hy* (ow*
90 $f rejected, was there some sort of error or bias that affected the outcome*
<0 2hat analy)ed evidence produced that conclusion*
=0 2hat is the significance of those conclusions*
?0 (ow does this e3periment apply to the 'bigger picture*+
D0 2hat improvements could be made in the future*
E0 2hat other e3periments could be developed from these results*
F0 2hat is your opinion about the outcome of the e3periment and what are your
thoughts about the implications of the e3periment*
Biven your conclusions, what is our new understanding of the problem you investigated and
outlined in the $ntroduction*
6s4 what e3periments would you do ne3t*
Style 8se first person, but too much use of the first person may actually distract the reader
from the main points0
Ma4e references your research from your 5iterature Cited to support your interpretations0
Science Fair %isplay >oard
!our project should be displayed in a neat, clear, visible, well-organi)ed format0 8se your creativity to
design the display, with the following important guidelines
Display boards $ill be pro-ided for you by !C&, *ou do not need to purchase these,
The following information should be evident on your display board
The Title of the Project
The Purpose#;uestion
(ypothesis
Gariables H $ndependent, %ependent, Constants
Procedure and Materials
@esults with a Table and Braph
Photos#drawings#diagrams
Conclusions
6bstract
Ma4e sure you include your name and grade clearly somewhere with a mar4er on the reverse
of the display board0 6ll te3t should be clear and large enough to be seen from a distance
&appro3 9= font si)es, minimum,0 Charts, graphs, photos and drawings should be clearly
labeled and the person who too4 the photographs needs to be credited on the display board0
The area in front of your poster display should be used for your full written Science Fair Paper, your
journal, and forms0
This isn.t the only $ay but it.s a start/
LIT%RAT#R% CIT%D
Function gives an alphabetical listing &by first author1s last name, of the references that you
actually cited in the body of your paper0
$nstructions for writing full citations for various sources are given in on separate page0
o ./T: %o not label this section A>ibliographyA0 6 bibliography contains references that
you may have read but have not specifically cited in the te3t0 >ibliography sections are
found in boo4s and other literary writing, but not scientific journal-style papers0
Cites within the paper
6ny information that was gathered from a secondary source &a published article, a university lecture
class, the internet, etc0,, M#&T be cited both in the paper and at the end0 2hen a reference is
cited in the paper it is appropriate to list the primary authorIs last name and the publication year in
parenthesis after the S8MM6@$J:% referenced information0 Scientific writing does not favor "uoted
information0 The researcher must >/T( restate the referenced material in their /2. words and cite
the reference0
:30 The snow leopard is a difficult animal to study because of its camouflage coloring and
loner mentality0 $n an attempt to trac4, photograph, and research these elusive phantoms of
the animal 4ingdom, a team of wildlife biologists traveled to the (imalayas in Tibet, one of the
few remaining habitats of the snow leopard &Kac4son and (illard, -LFD,0
MM$f the reference only has one author &2e3ler, -LL=,
MM$f the reference has two authors &Kac4son and (illard, -LFD,
MM$f the reference has multiple authors &Kongmans et al0, -LLE,
Citations at the end of the paper
$n the end list, all information is given about the referenced material so that a reader can refer bac4 to
the secondary sources if they are interested in learning more about that topic0 Neep in mind that
every journal re"uires a different format0 6 good format that includes all the necessary information is
shown in the following e3amples
6rticles
/ne 6uthor &author format can be used for boo4, chapter or website as well,
2e3ler, M0 -LL=0 The art of growing giants0 National Wildlife0 Gol <9, .o0 D 9O-9D0
Two 6uthors &author format can be used for boo4, chapter or website as well,
Kac4son, @0 and (illard, %0 -LFD0 Trac4ing the elusive snow leopard0 National Geographic0
Gol -DL, .o0 D EL<-FOL0
Multiple 6uthors &author format can be used for boo4, chapter or website as well,
Kongmans, 60B0, van >reemen, .0, 5undstrom, 80, van (ees, P06020, Finlay, @0%0, Srinivasan,
M0, 8nestam, T0, Biesler, @0, Mel4erud, P-60, and /lsson, M0 -LLE0 @oc4-eating fungi0
Nature0 Gol <FL, .o0 DD?9 DF90
>oo4s
>ird, 20J0 -LLO0 Ecological aspects of fox reproduction0 >erlin Buttenberg Press0
>oo4 Chapters
Campbell, .06 and @eece, K0>0 9OO90 The darwinian revolution0 $n Biology 6
th
Ed, ed0 >0 2ilbur, pp0
=<9-===0 San Francisco >enjamin Cummings0
2ebsites
Council-Barcia, C050 9OO<0 >iology -99 5aboratory Syllabus, @oom -OL0 @etrieved Kune -9, 9OO<
from Phttp##www0unm0edu#Qccouncil#R0
MM$f you have found a reference on the web that is a journal article, newspaper article, boo4,
etc0, this C6. ./T be used as a website cite, because a published hardcopy e3ists0 !ou must
find all the information about the actual, hardcopy reference and then cite it as a boo4 or
journal article0MM
A00%!DIC%&
Function contains non-essential information but may present information that further clarifies a
point
(eadings :ach 6ppendi3 should be identified by a @oman numeral in se"uence, e0g0,
6ppendi3 $, 6ppendi3 $$, etc0
:ach appendi3 should contain different material0
Figures and Tables in 6ppendices
eneral &tyle Co++ents
-0 2hen ta4ing and recording measurements, ma4e sure to use the metric system and do not
forget to include the units0
90 Scientific writing is often written in third person7 avoid using the pronouns, $ and we0
<0 >e wary of switching verb tense in a paper from present to past0 Try to 4eep the entire paper
in the past tense7 after all you already conducted the e3periment0
=0 @emember, this is a F/@M65 paper0 %/ ./T include comments li4e '$ did not li4eS,
$ learned a lotS,+ etc0 They are inappropriate and irrelevant0
AB&TRACT
Function summari)es, in one paragraph &usually,, the major aspects of the entire paper in the
following prescribed se"uence
o The "uestion&s, you investigated &or purpose,
State the purpose very clearly in the first or second sentence0
o The e3perimental design and methods used
Clearly e3press the basic design of the study without going into e3cessive detail
o The major findings including 4ey numerical results, or trends
@eport those results which answer the "uestions you were as4ing
o 6 brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions
o Clearly state the implications of the answers your results gave you0
The 6bstract &'"#LD !"T contain
o 5engthy bac4ground information
o @eferences to other literature
o 6bbreviations or terms that may be confusing to readers
o 6ny sort of illustration, figure, or table, or references to them